6 Chassis Development

6.5.2 Finite Element Method (FEM)

FEM is a numerical procedure which provides esti-
mated solutions to general field problems by discre-
tizing the continuum into a finite number of small
elements. The main goal of FEM strength and defor-
mation analyses is to evaluate the mechanical proper-
ties of a component or assembly when it is subjected
to real or assumed loads and/or pressures. This is
done at an intermediate stage of the design process,
before expensive and time-consuming test rig expe-
riments are initiated. A linear or nonlinear static FE
analysis considers time-independent (i.e. non-
dynamic) pressures and stresses together with nonli-
near parameters such as contact points and elastic-
plastic material behavior [6]. FEM can also be used to
analyze dynamic oscillations or vibrations and con-
duct strength and durability analyses.
Required Input Parameters
Regardless of what type of FE analysis is to be per-
formed, an FE mesh or a CAD model suitable for
meshing must be provided of the component or as-
sembly to be analyzed. This model must contain all of
the relevant bodies and geometries, including kine-
matic points, fastener and connection points, and
spring/damper orientations. In the case of a CAD
model, a documented design with a valid and binding
development release level must be used.
For linear simulations, the material data consists of
Young s modulus, Poisson s ratio, the material densi-
ty and yield strength (Rp02). For nonlinear simulations,
additional data, e.g. a complete yield curve (for room
temperature or the intended simulation temperature)
must also be provided. Other properties or data may
be required depending on which aspects of the ma-
terial s behavior are to be simulated.
In order to evaluate the stiffnesses of components or
assemblies, the corresponding desired or limit stiff-
nesses must be known. For durability calculations,
cyclical material parameter values are also required.
In addition to material parameters, boundary condi-
tions (and initial conditions for dynamic analyses)
must also be specified. Boundary conditions consist
of the known forces, moments, displacements, and
velocities at the mounting points. Contact surfaces
between the various components in an FEM model
must also be determined (e.g. between the shaft and
bore of a cylindrical connection).
Commercial FEM Software Modules
There are a number of standard FEM software pack-
ages including ABAQUS, ANSYS, NASTRAN, and
MARC-Mentant. Meshing and simulation control can
be performed using secondary or auxiliary programs
such as PATRAN or HYPERMESH. A number of
different specific program types exist, including [18]:
? meshing programs
? linear computation programs
? nonlinear computation programs
? oscillatory or vibration analysis programs
? crash simulation programs
? programs which simulate manufacturing processes
? topography (shape) optimization programs
? topology optimization programs
? durability analysis programs.
For the design of wheel carriers and suspension links
manufactured from steel or aluminum using perma-
nent mold casting, die casting, cold forging, or drop
forging, a standard component optimization proce-
dure is recommended using the FEM applications
listed above (see Section 6.6.1).
6.5.2.1 Classification of Analyses
Static FE calculations can be divided into two main
categories: linear and nonlinear analyses. Linear
analyses are (without considering the meshing of the
component) quicker and easier to perform. These
analyses, however, are not capable of considering
nonlinear aspects such as large deformations, elastic-
plastic material behavior, or contact areas. They can
therefore only be used effectively when either the
stresses or pressures are sufficiently low, linear ma-
terial behavior is prevalent, or departures from the
linear range are recognized and considered. Questions
which can be answered using linear analyses include:
1. Is the yield strength of the metal exceeded, i.e. are
stresses present above Rp02? (A linear relationship
between stress and strain is assumed for stresses
below Rp02)
2. How large are the elastic (reversible) deformations
of the component or assembly below a given stress
level? (stiffness analysis). Point 1 (stress less than
Rp02) is a prerequisite for this type of analysis.
3. Which regions of the component are potentially
critical, e.g., are local stress peaks present? (It is of
primary importance to identify those areas which
feature relatively high stress levels. The intensity
of these stress peaks is of secondary importance.)
Both the numerical effort (computation time) and
modeling complexity associated with nonlinear ana-
lyses are considerably greater than those required for
linear analyses. Nonlinear models are capable of
simulating a larger number of real-world features,
including contact regions, elastic-plastic material
behavior, and large deformations. Nonlinear analyses
provide more detailed evaluations of complex prob-
lems than linear analyses. Questions which can be
answered using nonlinear analyses include:
1. How large is the maximum compression force that
can be transferred by a two-point link or a toe link?
6.5 Computer-Aided Engineering
463
(This is a buckling problem characterized by ex-
tremely large deformations and strains which ex-
tend well into the plastic range.)
2. What stresses and pressures occur on the press-fit
surface of a ball stud? (Contact points and surfaces
represent nonlinear boundary conditions.)
3. How do elastomeric components react to forces or
displacements? (Elastomeric components are cha-
racterized by nonlinear material behavior.)
The decision about which type of analysis to use must
be made based on the goal of the analysis, an estima-
tion of the effort required, and the development stage
of the component or assembly. This decision must be
made on a case-by-case basis. In general, however,
the level of detail of an FE analysis should correlate
to the level of detail and release level of the assembly
or component to be analyzed. The following sections
describe the differences between analyses of strength
and stiffness within the linear and nonlinear ranges.
6.5.2.2 Strength Analyses
Strength is the most important factor for the design of
load-bearing components. When conducting a
strength analysis, the most important considerations
are the loads and pressures applied to the component
or material as the result of a particular loading scena-
rio. An FE analysis is capable of providing values for
stress, strain, and surface pressure. By comparing the
calculated local or absolute maximum values of these
parameters with known material parameter values,
statements can be made about the possibility of fail-
ure, use of material, or optimization potential of the
part or assembly (Figure 6-21). The accuracy of the
results depends on the model quality, its level of
discretization, and the accuracy of the loads data.
6.5.2.3 Stiffness Analyses
An increasing number of chassis components are
designed based on stiffness requirements. Stiffness
analyses are mainly concerned with the displacements
which occur at the force application points under
defined loading conditions.
A finite-element stiffness analysis can be used to
provide force-displacement curves for various points
on the component or assembly. The slopes of these
curves correspond to the stiffness and compliance of
these points (e.g. kinematic points). The precision of
these values is within the range of measurement
precision. The quality of the predictions based on
these values is high enough that component stiff-
nesses can be determined without requiring experi-
mental verification.
Component stiffnesses are particularly important for
the elastokinematics of an assembly. Dynamic stiff-
nesses can also be determined. Due to the static na-
ture of the model, however, dynamic effects such as
oscillations and resonance effects cannot be deter-
mined using stiffness analyses.
6.5.2.4 Natural Frequency Analyses
FEM software can also be used to determine the
natural modes of components when subjected to
operating loads. The first natural mode is especially
important for the NVH behavior of the component
and is often specified in the requirements given by
the OEM. The goal is to keep the component s natu-
ral frequency below the specified oscillation velocity.
This helps avoid possible body-borne noise problems
and natural frequency excitations (resonance).

Fig. 6-21:
Control arm stress calcula-
tion using FEM
464
6 Chassis Development
6.5.2.5 Service Life and Durability Analyses
In addition to stresses and stiffnesses, the service life
and durability of a component can also be calculated
in the early stages of development using FEM soft-
ware. These calculations are based on the simulation
of the component s fatigue behavior using mathemat-
ical models. These models are based on the behavior
of the component under cyclic loading. Component
breakage or cracking are defined as failure criteria.
Service life and durability models are described based
on experimental observations (Figure 6-22).

Fig. 6-22: Durability analysis flow diagram

The model used is identical to the FEM model. In
addition to the standard input parameters, the time
dependency and progression of the loads must also be
given, as well as the cyclic material properties (e.g.
Wöhler curves). The program then calculates the total
damage resulting from the time-load curve and eva-
luates this damage using defined failure criteria [19].
The nominal stress method is easy to use but re-
quires component Wöhler curves which must be
determined experimentally. It is best suited for ana-
lyzing similar or derivative components.

The local stress method uses standard component-

independent material Wöhler curves. The results of
this method are not perfectly accurate. This analysis
type is best suited for use with complex load cases.
The structural stress method is capable of consider-
ing the special boundary conditions found in welded
beads and seams. This method is based on a reverse-
calculated Wöhler curve. For each load-time cycle,
the complete load-strain response is calculated for the
region between the peaks. This response data can
then be used together with the Wöhler curve to de-
termine the corresponding number of cycles to failure
[19]. An initial crack (1 mm in length) occurs when
the sum of all of the partial damage components is
equal to 1. The points on the model where these
cracks occur are depicted as colored spots, with red
representing the region with the greatest amount of
damage (Figure 6-23). This method can accurately
predict the location of a component s weakest points
(initial cracking). The service life predictions pro-
vided by this method are considerably less accurate.
Fig. 6-23: Calculated and actual location of fatigue crack-
ing on a control arm
6.5.2.6 Crash Simulations
It is also important to investigate the crash behavior
of the structural components in the chassis (control
arms, subframes, etc.). Unlike the FE methods de-
scribed above, which function using implicit numeri-
cal processes, the simulation of crash events is per-
formed using explicit FE methods. This requires the
creation of a dynamic balance at every location on the
FE model for every time step. In order to solve highly
nonlinear problems while maintaining acceptable
computation times, the stiffness matrix equations
typical of the implicit method are solved using certain
assumptions. The required material parameters must
reflect their high-speed values, which are not always
readily available from the literature. The method used
combines the advantages of both FEM and MBS
processes. Pedestrians and vehicle occupants can also
be included in crash simulations in order to determine
the level of injury likely to occur. The evaluation of
crash simulations is performed by analyzing accelera-
tion curves, energy absorption levels, and local de-
formations. The results of crash simulations allow a
reduction in the number of expensive and time-
consuming crash tests.
6.5.2.7 Topology and Shape Optimization
FEM software is not only useful for calculating com-
ponents which have already been designed; it can also
be used to determine the optimal shape and form of
6.5 Computer-Aided Engineering
465
these components. FEM topology optimization soft-
ware can be used to produce shapes that satisfy vari-
ous design requirements and help determine the ideal
locations of ribs, beads and stamped shapes, even
before the first design is created. The input parame-
ters required by these programs include applied loads,
boundary conditions, and design goals (maximum
stiffness, high natural frequency, minimal mass,
maximum allowable stresses). This not only helps
designers to avoid time-consuming component mod-
eling processes, but also automatically provides a
design that is optimized for weight and stress.
Topology Optimization is a process by which the
optimal material distribution is determined for a
given design space. The results can be used either to
add optimal geometries, frame structures, and ribs, or
to remove understressed regions of the component.
The ideal geometry provided by topology optimiza-
tion may not be manufacturable. In this case, the ideal
model is loaded back into CAD and revised to satisfy
the detailed requirements of the intended manufactur-
ing process. The stresses and stiffnesses in the revised
component must then be calculated using standard
FEM software (Figure 6-24, Figure 6-25).
Topography Optimization is a process which helps
determine optimal stamped shape patterns for thin-
walled components. This process can be used, for
example, when designing rib shapes to satisfy certain
component requirements (Figure 6-24).

Fig. 6-24: Examples of FEM-based topology and topography optimization

Fig. 6-25: Example evolution showing the optimization, adaptation, and re-calcul
ation of a chassis component [20]
466
6 Chassis Development
Parameter Optimization is a process which helps
determine optimal component parameters such as
wall thicknesses, spring properties, beam sizes, or
cross-sectional dimensions. This process can also
consider manufacturing restrictions and limitations.
These include considerations such as the maximum
overall dimensions, mold-removal directions, bead
shapes, and symmetry requirements.

6.5.2.8 Simulations of Manufacturing Processes

It is also possible to simulate component manufactur-
ing processes using FEM. Simulation software exists
for casting, forging, stamping, cold extrusion, etc.
These simulation programs provide information about
the compatibility of the intended component geome-
try with the chosen manufacturing process. This
allows designers to optimize component geometry in
advance without requiring machines or tooling. This
optimization helps to minimize the problems which
occur later during manufacturing. It is common for
every component in a modern vehicle to be tested for
manufacturability using simulation programs prior to
the creation of prototype tooling.
6.5.3 Whole-Vehicle Simulations
MBS software can be used not only to simulate com-
ponents and systems, but also to create whole-vehicle
models. A whole-vehicle simulation model can be
used to virtually drive the vehicle over a simulated
road surface and carry out various simulated driving
maneuvers. This not only allows the dynamic beha-
vior and handling of the vehicle to be evaluated, but
also provides a breakdown of the individual forces
which occur during each maneuver. This allows the
forces at the interfaces between the individual com-
ponents to be determined. These values can be used
as a starting point for the design of the components.
In order to provide this level of detail, a very complex
and detailed whole-vehicle model must be used.
Depending on the focus of the simulation, however,
components that are not of interest can be estimated
as simple masses concentrated at the component s
actual center of mass.
The development of the vehicle as a whole is the
responsibility of the OEM. As a result, the OEM is
responsible for the construction, validation, and main-
tenance of any full-vehicle simulation models. This is
also due to the fact that the OEM is the only party in
possession of all of the data required for simulation
(chassis, suspension, powertrain, tire models, etc.).
The construction of a whole-vehicle model by a
supplier only makes sense if the OEM provides that
supplier with the required data. If this is the case, the
supplier can provide the OEM with an engineering
work package consisting of the following:
? construction and maintenance of the whole-vehicle
model
? validation of the model using standard driving
maneuvers
? determining the effects that changes to the suspen-
sion s elastokinematics have on the vehicle s han-
dling and dynamic behavior
? the calculation of dynamic cross-sectional forces
for component design.
The relevant handling parameters (e.g. self-steering
gradient, response behavior, stability, body natural
frequencies, etc.) and their target values should be
determined by the OEM.
6.5.3.1 Vehicle Handling and
Dynamic Simulations
The simulation of a vehicle s dynamic and self-
steering behavior requires not only a whole-vehicle
model, but also a road surface model, a tire model
and a definition of the maneuver to be performed. A
list of the standard driving maneuvers (used by all
OEMs) can be found in Table 6-1.
The vehicle s ride and handling properties are deter-
mined in large part by the transfer of forces between
the road and the tires. As a result, the tire properties
must be exactly measured and accurately modeled.
6.5.3.2 Kinematics and Elastokinematics
The elastokinematic behavior of each axle has a
major influence on the vehicle s overall handling and
dynamic behavior. The main elastokinematic parame-
ters include toe, camber, caster, wheel center dis-
placements, etc.
Elastokinematic properties are measured using a
kinematics and compliance test rig (K&C rig). This
type of test rig allows kinematic and elastokinematic
parameters to be differentiated from one another (see
Figure 6-49).
Kinematic Testing
To investigate kinematic behavior, the axle is rigidly
attached to a test rig and the wheels are moved
through compression and rebound travel both togeth-
er (parallel wheel travel) and separately (opposite
wheel travel). The resulting toe, camber and wheel
center displacements are recorded.
Elastokinematic Testing
To investigate elastokinematic behavior, the axle is
rigidly attached to a test rig and subjected to longitu-
dinal and lateral forces applied at the tire contact
patches. The resulting toe, camber, and wheel center
displacements are recorded. The MBS simulation
models used must be constructed using flexible com-
ponents (FEM models) (Figures 6-26 and 6-17).
6.5 Computer-Aided Engineering
467
Table 6-1: Standard driving maneuvers and evaluation parameters

Fig. 6-26: ADAMS/Flex model (for K&C testing)

Target values for the axle s elastokinematic proper-
ties are determined at the start of the project. Some
example curves can be seen in Figure 6-27. Values
for parameters such as the toe or camber compliance
can be determined by calculating the slope of the
curve at a specific point (for example at the design or
neutral position).
6.5.3.3 Standard Load Cases
In the early stages of chassis and suspension design,
wheel loads are often unavailable or are measured
using prototypes. As a result, instead of real load
cases, standard load cases are used which are based
on standard driving maneuvers. These maneuvers are
assumed to be quasistatic, i.e. time-independent. The
resulting standard load cases are used in ADAMS
simulations to determine cross-sectional loads for
quasistatic FE calculations (structural stiffness, dura-
bility).
Similar standard load cases are used by a large num-
ber of vehicle manufacturers.
The wheel loads are given either as wheel accelera-
tions or as numerical force or moment values. Acce-
leration is a more general value since it is indepen-
dent of the axle load. Load-independent parameter
values can be reused, even if the vehicle s weight is
changed. Table 6-2 shows standard load cases for
strength analyses (load cases 1 to 10) and load case
pairs for durability analyses (11 & 12), (13 & 14),
(15 & 16).