Light Source Technology

Science and technology of light sources

State of the art
Future Challenges

David Wharmby
Technology Consultant – Ilkley, UK

david@wharmby.demon.co.uk

Toulouse COST 2002 page 1

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 Light Source Technology
Outline

Basic quantities related to light

Types of light sources
Incandescent sources
Discharges
HID
LP
Semiconductor sources
Lighting systems
Key areas for work

Developments depended on
advances in materials
computer modelling to aid research & design
integrated design of complete light system

Materials advances – System Design - Models

Toulouse COST 2002 page 2

Further reading

“Lamps and Lighting”, 4th edition, edited by J R Coaton and A M Marsden,

(London:Arnold), 1997
Up-to-date description of lamps types, major processes involved in producing light,
photometric and colour issues and circuits for lamp operation.

“Electric Discharge Lamps” J F Waymouth, (Cambridge:MIT Press), 1971.

The classic book. Despite its age, many of the explanations of lamp operation and
electrodes have never been bettered.

International Symposium on the Science and Technology of Light Sources

LS-8
8th International Symposium on Science Technology of Light Sources, Greifswald,
Germany, August 1998
LS-9 9th International Symposium on Science Technology of Light Source, Ithaca, NY
USA, August 2001
These volumes contain many papers of interest to researchers on light sources.

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 Light Source Technology
Light

- What are we selling?

illumination OR illuminance - both related to luminous flux
colour and constancy of colour
minimal flicker effects
stable operation with agreed electrical characteristics
760
- Eye sensitivity and luminous flux
Photopic eye sensitivity is standardised V(λ)
Φ v ( λ ) = 683 P (λ )V (λ )dλ ∫
380
Used to weight the spectrum P(λ) in (W/nm) 1
Subscript v implies eye-sensitivity weighting V (λ )
- Colour vision

relative output
Colour appearance has related weighting
functions 0.5

Good colour rendering is critical for most P(λ )

lighting applications
• can be achieved with narrow bands P (λ ) ⋅ V (λ )
Good colour uniformity and stability are 0
400 500 600 700
essential wavelength (nm)

Toulouse COST 2002 page 3

Vision
The photopic eye-sensitivity curve applies to vision at normal light levels. It is the
relative sensitivity for cone vision. The scotopic sensitivity curve applies to low light
level vision, which uses the rod cells in the retina. These are examples of Action
Curves. Every process - sun tanning, photosynthesis, curing of printing ink etc. - has
its own specific action curve.
The process is always the same - measure the spectrum of the source P(λ) in W/nm
as a function of the wavelength λ. Then weight the spectrum with the action curve
and integrate numerically over a sensible wavelength range to give the effect of the
source for that particular action curve. The result is in “action curve weighted watts”.
For historical reasons the “photopic-eye-sensitivity weighted-watts” are multiplied by a
683 and called lumens.
Colour
Colour vision is also expressed by weighting functions and we like to see lamps that
have “white” colours in the colour temperature range 2500 to 6500K. The spectrum
needs also to have good colour rendering (preferably the CRI > 80). The initial colour
uniformity between lamps must be largely imperceptible, as must the colour shift
through life.

See “Lamps and Lighting” chapters 1-3.

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 Light Source Technology
Illumination
In most lighting we need to perform a task on an illuminated area (reading, walking about etc.)
llluminance Ev is the key quantity
Ev = luminous flux per unit area (lm/sq.m or lux)
Analogous to irradiance E e (radiated power per unit area)

For an area dA illuminated with flux dΦ

Ev= dΦ/dA
For an extended source luminance of all elements of source contribute
point source extended source

A A

System design
Toulouse COST 2002 page 4

Illumination optics
For many lighting applications sources are used to produce illumination on a floor, wall
or work surface. Illuminance is the key quantity. For example, lighting designers will
generally specify the maximum and minimum levels of illuminance in an installation
such as an office. This can then be calculated from the luminous flux of the lamps, the
optical properties of the fittings, and the reflectance and shape of the room. In turn this
allows the designer to decide how many lamps and fittings are needed.

For definitions of radiometric and photometric quantities see, for example

“Optical radiation measurements, volume 1, Radiometry” Grum F and Becherer R J,
Academic Press, 1979 (see chapter 2).

For every radiometric quantity there is an analogous photometric quantity in which

power (W) is replaced by flux (lumen). The same symbols are used for each, but
subscript e means radiometric and subscript v means photometric.

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 Light Source Technology
Projection applications
Key quantity is radiance Le - related to brightness
- Radiance is conserved along a ray (or decreases in a lossy system)
Le= d2Φ/dAcosθdΩ (W m-2 sr-1)
- Lv is visible analogue (lm m -2 sr-1 or cd m-2)
- Flux in the beam is = G L τ (W or lumen)
- G is called called geometrical extent or etendue
geometric property of the beam that is conserved (or increases) along ray
etendue is conversion factor from radiance to flux
- G ∼ A Ω for small area and solid angles

source area A
Ω Φ optics
dA

In applications, etendue may fixed by LCD gate (or fibre-optic) requirements

If source etendue is greater than this, some light will be lost.

System design
Toulouse COST 2002 page 5

Projection optics
In projection applications the requirement is usually to maximise the utilization of the
light from the lamp. We know intuitively that we need a small source with very high
brightness. This applies to automobile headlamps, LCD projectors and projection TV.
Similar requirements apply to optical fibre illuminators.
This intuitive feel is actually based on the second law of thermodynamics which
ensures that the brightness (more strictly the radiance) of an image cannot exceed the
brightness of the object.
Radiance Le (and its photometric analogue Lv) is the fundamental quantity. It is
conserved along a ray (or decreases if the optical system has losses).
Le= d2Φ/cosθdAdΩ (W m-2 sr-1)
for a source of projected area dAcosθ passing light into a solid angle dΩ.
The geometric quantity G is known as the etendue or geometric extent.
∫∫
G = cosθdAdΩ (m2 sr)
G also conserved along a ray (or increases as a result of aberrations, scatter & other
optical imperfections).
In a lossless system Φe= G Le - so G is the geometric quantity that converts radiance
to flux.
Etendue can be calculated for the beam in a projector. A low etendue (small area
and/or small solid angle) means that that the beam can be coupled into a small area
light valve. Since sources generally emit into large solid angles, this means source
emitting area must be very small. To achieve the required projected flux the luminance
must also be very high.
See Stupp E H and Brennesholtz M S, “Projection Displays”, Wiley, 1999, chapter 11
For careful definition of geometric extent see Grum and Becherer (see previous slide).

5
 Light Source Technology
Essential properties of sources

Luminous flux (illumination)

Radiance / luminance (projection applications)
Uniformity (back lighting)
Efficacy (lumen/W)
Colour appearance
Colour rendering
Colour uniformity
Colour stability
Lack of flicker
Instant light
Small size and weight
Life

But there must be an acceptable cost/benefit ratio

Toulouse COST 2002 page 6

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 Light Source Technology
Light generation
Most artificial light is the result electronic transitions between the energy levels in materials
In incandescent and discharge lamps this is the result of accelerating electrons so they have
a distribution function in which velocities are nearly random
- fundamental radiation limit is Planck distribution at electron temperature T e
Planck radiance (W m-2 sr-1 nm-1)

80000

visible
60000
3000 K
radiance

40000 5000K
7000K
20000

0
200 600 1000 1400 1800
wavelength (nm)

High electron temperature needed for efficient generation in visible region

- incandescent < melting point (3650K for W)
- HID 4000 – 7000K (LTE discharges)
- LP 10000 – 20000K (non-LTE discharges)
Toulouse COST 2002 page 7

Radiating processes
Whatever the radiating process the radiance may not exceed the Planck radiance at
the electron temperature. In order to achieve high radiance high temperatures are
essential.
Incandescence
In incandescent lamps the electrons are accelerated by the applied field. Some
electrons gain enough energy to excite atoms, which then radiate. Because of the
extremely high density in the solid the atomic lines are highly broadened (forming
bands). Electrons make collisions with the lattice and excite phonons that cause IR
emission from the vibrational energy levels. The very great optical thickness means
that light is emitted from the surface layers. Therefore the band structure of the layers
near the surface is important in determining emittance. Predictions of emittance are
only just becoming possible (see LS9 paper (not included in Abstracts) by Novikov D et
al. (Arthur D Little Inc.), “Modelling of emissive properties of materials in search of
improved incandescent light bulb filaments”).
Discharges
In gas discharges electrons form a near-Maxwellian energy distribution. Atoms, ions
and molecules are excited by the fast electrons and radiate. The higher the electron
temperature, the greater the populations (see Lamps and Lighting chapter 5). At high
pressures the electron temperature and gas temperature converge, populations are
determined by Boltzmann factors, and other LTE conditions apply.
At high pressure line broadening becomes increasingly important in the light emission.
Molecular emission and radiation from colliding atoms (forming temporary molecules)
may also be very important. These processes dominate in tin halide, very high
pressure sodium and extremely high pressure mercury arcs.

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 Light Source Technology
Light generation devices
Incandescent lamps
- metal ions fixed, electrons mobile, neutral overall
- electrons excite lattice and ions, radiation emitted
- density is so high that spectrum is continuous - mostly IR – Planck limited
Discharge lamps
- light is generated in a plasma (equal numbers of + and -)
- electrons form near Maxwellian distribution
- fast electrons excite atoms & molecules, which radiate
- radiation is from atomic lines and molecular bands - Planck limited
LEDs
- drive electrons and holes into p-n junction
- e and h recombine and MAY emit light
- light is extracted through absorbing medium with high index
- carriers not randomised so not Planck limited
Phosphors
- conversion of UV to visible in ionic site in lattice; lattice is heated, ∼50% loss
- not Planck limited
- quantum splitting phosphors are possible

Toulouse COST 2002 page 8

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 Light Source Technology
Incandescent lamps
Emittance of tungsten at 2800K

Tungsten is most used filament material

0.5

0.45

- melting point MP ≈ 3650K 0.4

0.35

- selective emittance increases efficacy 0.3

emittance
0.25
Other filament materials 0.2

- attempts to find replacement 0.15

0.1

- higher temperature operation 0.05

0
- more selective emission 100 1000 10000
wavelength (nm)

- predictive calculations now possible (LS9)

- high emittance fibres are brittle and coatings evaporate
- look for high selectivity but operate at low temperature
Tungsten-Halogen cycle
- removes evaporated W from walls
- permits ∼ 100K increase in filament temperature for similar life
and wattage
- chemical cycles to return W to hot filament have not been
successful
Tungsten-halogen concept has spawned many innovations

Materials advances – System Design - Models

Toulouse COST 2002 page 9

Tungsten and other filament materials

Tungsten appears to be the supreme material for filaments. There is a huge base of
R&D that helps to keep it pre-eminent.
It can be operated at temperatures close to the melting point. Like all metals the
emittance falls in the IR and this gives an important efficacy advantage.
Many attempts have been made to find materials that can survive at higher
temperatures than the melting point of tungsten. They also need to be reasonably
selective in their emittance. No one has yet found a material that is (a) sufficiently
conducting (b) sufficiently robust and (c) does not degrade or evaporate (if a coating).
Other approaches have been to pattern the surface of tungsten in a matter that
enhances selectivity (Waymouth J F, J. Light Vis. Env., volume 13(2) pp 51-68, 1989.
Another approach that has not been tried was suggested to me Dr J R Coaton: if the
emittance is highly selective, then low temperature operation might still result in a
higher lamp efficacy. A coating on tungsten may be sufficiently stable if operated at
low enough temperature (see Bigio LS8 paper B08).
Tungsten-halogen lamps
Additions of halogens to tungsten lamps keep the walls clean. The bulb can be smaller
and stronger and this allows the inert gas pressure to be higher so that tungsten
evaporation is suppressed. This allows temperature to be increased by about 100K
for similar wattage and life, with an increase of about 20% in efficacy. Perhaps more
important is that a vast range of products has been generated because of the reduction
in envelope size. The design often involves integrated optics and electronics.
The option of returning the tungsten to the hot parts of filament using a halogen cycle
offers the possibility of a highly efficient lamp with long life. Only fluorine is capable of
doing this and no one has been able to make tungsten-fluorine cycles work properly.

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 Light Source Technology
Reducing IR losses fraction of radiated power

0.6 IR 750-2000nm
IR reflecting coatings
- Fraction of IR power <2000nm is about 60%
0.4
- Returning this to the filament reduces losses
Multilayer reflector coatings
0.2
- typically by CVD (e.g. 46 layer)
vis <750 nm
Effectiveness depends on filament and bulb geometry
0
- G is fraction of reflector area that returns IR to filament 2000 2500 3000 3500
(seals and other parts obstruct) tungsten temperature (K)

- K=0 when reflected image is perfectly aligned relative efficacy

2.0
G = 1, K=0

Useful improvements can be obtained if geometry is not best lab. lamp

perfect
commercial lamps
1.5
G = 0.8, K=0.2
Do coatings work on discharge? Limited benefit.

G = 0.6, K=0.2
1.0
Materials advances – Models 40 60 80 100
relative reflectance
Toulouse COST 2002 page 10

IR recovery
With all that IR going to waste it is natural to want to reflect it back to the filament so
that less power is needed from the supply to keep the filament at a fixed temperature.
After many attempts by many people, commercial tungsten-halogen lamps with
integral IR reflectors were finally produced commercially by GE in the 1990s. To
achieve gains somewhere near the maximum possible means that in the IR the
filament must be imaged on itself with high accuracy. Severe technical problems
related to bulb shape, coating reflectivity, filament position and filament stability had to
be solved to achieve this.

Another approach is to think of the bulb and the coating as a non-imaging system. As
long as the filament is comparatively large compared with the bulb dimensions, then
there is a good chance of the filament intercepting some rays. It turns out that gains in
the region of 10% can be achieved.
2-Quantum phosphors that convert IR to visible light but there are no signs that they
will reach useful conversion efficiencies.
See “Applications of thin film reflecting coating technology to tungsten filament lamp”
Bergman R S & Parham T G IEE Proc A140(6), 418, 1993
Non-imaging coatings R A Hume J A Stocks and DO Wharmby GB 2302208 dated
08.01.1997

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 Light Source Technology
Discharge lamps

discharge type cold cathode hot cathode electrodeless dielectric

inductive barrier
microwave
low pressure fluorescent fluorescent Genura Planon
high Te, low n e backlights all types QL, Endura
low brightness
high pressure metal halide metal halide
low T e, high ne - metal sulphur -
high brightness

Toulouse COST 2002 page 11

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 Light Source Technology
Structure of a HP discharges
All particles at the same temperature - LTE applies liquid NaI
Some lines reach Planck limit and are self-reversed
Lamp voltage depends on partial pressure of most
easily ionised vapour
NaI
Hg added to reduce thermal conduction losses and Na
adjust lamp voltage Na*
A small number of elements are sufficiently volatile, Na+
but many elements have volatile halides: examples
are the iodides of Tl, In, Sc, Dy, Al, Sn.
Hg at high
Temperature profile sets itself so that arc centre is hot pressure
enough to provide electrons so that current satisfies Te ~Tg
circuit equations ~ 5000K max.

Fundamental limitation
Inevitable temperature gradient ensures conduction loss
Radiation efficiency
ηrad = Prad/Pin ∼ 40% to 60%
Look for ways to increase Te – involve circuit?
-R 0 R
System design
Toulouse COST 2002 page 12

Principles of HP discharges
The surface of the sun is a hot gas and this is why it glows. High pressure discharges
generate volumes of hot gas and they also glow, with the characteristic spectrum of the
elements and molecules in the gas. The temperature in the centre is in the region of
4000-6000K and at the tube wall ~ 1000K. There is a substantial conduction loss
down this temperature gradient limiting the radiation efficiency of HP discharges less
than about 60%. Electrons gain energy from field and transfer it to other particles so
all particles have the same temperature. This condition, called Local Thermal
Equilibrium (LTE) greatly simplifies the treatment of these very complicated devices.
Very few metals have the vapour pressure, spectrum and chemical properties needed
to produce efficient light. Sodium (Na) at a pressure of 50-300 torr is the pre-eminent
example. The pressure depends on the cool spot temperature (CST), the temperature
at the coolest place in the lamp where the sodium condenses. CST and Na pressure
increase with power. As sodium is easily ionised, higher powers lead to higher plasma
conductivity. The lamp, fixture and ballast design must accommodate this
phenomenon. Under extreme conditions (White Light SON lamps) the ballast must
control the power within tight limits.
Metal halide
Metal halides can produce the same result. For example when sodium iodide (NaI)
evaporates into a Hg arc, the molecule dissociates Na and I. The Na* radiates its
characteristic orange radiation similar to that from a metal arc.
For most other metals the halides are usually much more volatile than the metal (Na
halides are exceptions). Such halide can be evaporated to produce white light of the
required CCT and Ra in a huge number of ways. Examples are indium, scandium,
dysprosium and many others.
See Lamps and Lighting chapter 5.

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 Light Source Technology
Recent types of HID lamps for illumination
3.00E+06
predicted spectra
CMH white-light metal halide 2.50E+06 58.8W
70.0W

intensity (W/cm)
2.00E+06 82.8W
- precision arc tube made from alumina 97.5W
1.50E+06
- Na, Tl and rare earth iodides + Hg
1.00E+06
- offers high efficacy and good colour properties as a
result of high vapour pressures, which give a very 20W CMH
5.00E+05
“full” spectrum
0.00E+00
- latest 20W, 1700 lumen 3000K version provides photo courtesy400 450
GE Lighting 500 550 600 650 700 750
strong competition for tungsten halogen lamps in wavelength (nm)
some markets
300
- designed to be operated from electronic control gear
60 W
70Wspectra
measured CMH
250 PH7B Philips CDM70/T
70 W

intensity (mW/nm)
200 80 W
90 W
150

100

50
photo courtesy GE Lighting
0
400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
wavelength (nm)

Materials advances – System Design - Models

Toulouse COST 2002 page 13

Lamps for illumination

Ceramic metal halide (CMH) lamps provide improved performance over conventional
metal halide lamps. This is the result of
(a) Higher operating temperatures than in silica lamps, giving higher vapour
pressures. The result is improved colour rendering index >80 with efficacy >80 lm/W.
(b) Precision arc tube volume giving very tight initial colour spread.
(c) Low reactivity of envelope means that colour appearance is closely controlled
through life.
(d) Operation on electronic control gear ensuring clean starting under all conditions,
rapid run up to full light output, no 50Hz flicker and good control of steady state
operation. The range of lamps is now extended to powers as low as 20W, whilst giving
4 times the efficiency of tungsten halogen lamps of comparable light output.
CMH lamps typically contain Na, Tl, rare earth iodides with a high pressure of Hg
which acts as a thermal insulator, controls the voltage drop and assists in rapid run-up.
The spectrum has many RE lines that appear to be a continuum when measured at
low resolution. This accounts for the good colour rendering.

These major advances in performance are the result of improved materials and a
system design approach.

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 Light Source Technology
Recent types of HID lamps for projection
HID projection lamps pioneered by Philips Fusion Lighting LCD projector unit
Short arc mercury (∼200 bar) arc tube – light Inductively coupled using single turn coil at 712MHz
produced by atomic lines and molecular bands.
Reflector unit below thermally non-imaging
conductive optic
ceramic outer
carrier
∼1cm

secondary aperture
spherical discharge
highly matches etendue of
bulb containing primary downstream optics
photo courtesy GE Lighting metal halide reflective aperture
alumina

courtesy Fusion Lighting

photo courtesy GE Lighting

24 mm
Materials advances – System Design - Models
Toulouse COST 2002 page 14

Projector lamps
High intensity arcs
Philips pioneered the use of super high pressure mercury lamps for projection
purposes – LCD projectors and projection TV.
The arc tube, containing ∼200 bar Hg when hot, has an arc gap of about 1mm. It is
mounted in a reflector to give a source of very low etendue, compatible with the LCD
light valves used for projection. The radiance the mercury discharge is very high
(maximum arc temperature in the region 6-7000K). At these temperatures and
pressures the deep UV lines of Hg are completely self-absorbed. Radiation comes
from the visible atomic lines and very strong continuum from atomic bremsstrahlung
and molecular emission from Hg2.
Development of this lamp has relied heavily on computer modeling, especially of
thermal properties, and also on innovative systems design.
Another approach
This Fusion Lighting projector lamp tackles the problem of etendue by using a very
high radiance electrodeless high-pressure metal halide discharge at 712MHz. Most of
the light escapes from an aperture in the reflecting surface around the 1cm diameter
bulb. This light is then concentrated in the forward direction using a non-imaging optic.
The lamp is shown built into an LCD projector.

For both these sources a major issue is what fraction of the input power enters the
downstream optics as this is what determines screen illumination.

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 Light Source Technology
Electrodeless – microwave
S2 discharge in
Sulphur discharge – Fusion Lighting ∼36 mm diameter
100 000 lumen source bulb
record is 170 lumen/microwave W
microwave efficiency is a critical issue

2.54 GHz reflector &

magnetron microwave
cavity
self-reversal S2 band radiation
minimum pressure is a few bar
High efficiency molecular visible radiation is possible
System design
Toulouse COST 2002 page 15

Microwave lamp
The Fusion Lighting lamp is so far the only commercial microwave lamp. Used where
large lumen packages (∼105 lumen) are needed.
The radiating silica capsule is excited in a mesh cavity by a 2.54GHz microwave
magnetron.
Light Generation
The light is generated by S2 molecules at pressures of ∼10 bar. S and S2 at low
pressures radiate mainly in the UV. As pressure is increased the molecular emission
increases until it becomes Planck limited and starts to self-reverse in the UV. By
analogy with sodium D lines, the peak we see in the visible is the peak of the self-
reversed red wing of the molecular band. In the dark region around 300nm there is
very high self-absorption.
Efficacy
Lamp efficacies of up to 170 lumen/microwave watt are the highest ever observed for a
white light source. This shows that direct generation of light from molecules is possible
without excessive vibrational losses.
The efficiency of light generation is offset by poor magnetron efficiency. Microwave
generation using magnetrons also limits the lamps to very high lumen packages that
are quite costly.
See Lamps and Lighting chapter 11. For explanation of operation see Johnston et al.
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 35, 32-351,2002. Picture from Lighting Equipment News May
1998.

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 Light Source Technology
Structure of a LP rare-gas discharge
On ac this reverses each half cycle phosphor converts UV
to visible ∼50% loss
negative glow

cathode sheath Faraday dark space anode sheath

rare gas Argon 2 torr

cathode
positive column anode +
Hg 6 mtorr

VT (volt) anode
ne ~ 1018m-3 E~1V/cm fall ~ 5 V
Te ~ 9000K ne~1016 m-3
~2V Te ~ 12000K

cathode
fall ~10 - 15 V any length
E~10 kV/cm
10µm distance 0.3 mm
Life limited by electrodes
Toulouse COST 2002 page 16

Operation
A fluorescent lamp discharge is a typical low pressure (LP) plasma. Most of the
radiation is produced in the positive column (PC) as UV at wavelengths 185 and 254
nm. This is converted, using a phosphor, to white light of the required CCT and CRI.
The conversion efficiency power into UV in the positive column can be as high as 80%.
In the PC there are equal numbers of electrons and positive ions; typically 1016 m3.
Electrons have Maxwellian distribution with temperature of about 12000K (1.1 eV),
whilst the gas temperature is about 40 celsius - this is a hot electron plasma. The
electrons gain their energy from the uniform field of about 1V/cm.
The anode fall is space charge region of about 0.3 mm width which adjusts
automatically to ensure that the correct number of electrons lands on the anode to
satisfy the requirements of current continuity.
At the cathode surface there is a narrow region of high field - the cathode fall (CF) -
which accelerates electrons toward the anode and accelerates the ions towards the
cathode. The cathode is designed to be heated by the ions so that it emits
thermionically. Under these conditions the CF is ~10-15V and the cathode emits the
required current with little loss. This process is aided by a low work function coating on
the surface. When the cathode is operating thermionically the lamp is in the “arc”
mode.
If the cathode is cold (for example, at start) the CF increases to ~100V to extract the
required electron current from the cathode; this is called a glow discharge. The high
energy ions sputter material from the cathode and cause damage and blackening. A
rapid transition from glow to arc is an essential requirement for long life.
See Lamps and Lighting chapter 5. Waymouth, chapters 2-4, de Groot and van Vliet,
chapter 6

16
 Light Source Technology
LP rare-gas discharges
Main type are fluorescent lamps Heliax CFL (GE)
LP Hg discharge radiating with efficiency of
∼75% at 254 +185 nm

Some mileage left here for innovation

Main challenges
How to avoid ∼50% phosphor conversion loss?

- quantum splitting phosphors – 2 visible photons for

each visible photon – some progress Self-ballasted MicroLynx (Sylvania)

- generate white light directly in visible region by

using high volatility molecules

Avoiding use of Hg
- Xe discharges are and option; not as efficient as
LP Hg, but give instant light

Materials advances – System Design

Toulouse COST 2002 page 17

Innovative developments of fluorescent technology

GE Heliax is very high efficiency compact source. The helical shape aids the escape
of visible radiation and leads to a very compact source. Unfortunately it proved too
expensive to make in mass production (photo GE literature)
Sylvania MicroLynx integrated miniature lamp and fixture (Lighting Equipment News
page 6, April 2001). This small self-ballasted lamp plugs into a standard twist and lock
type socket. The small depth makes it ideal for use in display lighting (photo and
drawing from Lighting Equipment News)
Avoiding the phosphor losses
A quantum splitting phosphors of quantum efficiency ~ 1.9 has recently been
discovered (see Physics World, pp 17-18, April 1999 and Wegh R T et al. Science
volume 283 pp 663-666, 29 Jan 1999). LiGdF4:Eu3+ produces ~ 2 red photons for
each 172nm UV photon from a LP Xe discharge. Fundamental theoretical and
materials research is needed to make establish that this is not a one-off accident. Will
be highly beneficial for LP Xe discharges.
Generating light in the visible region
Can a non-LTE source with high electron temperature be found that generates white
light in the visible region? There are no atoms that combine high volatility with multi-
line emission in the visible region. There are many molecules that have these
properties e.g. transition metal chlorides or oxychlorides. Electrodeless operation is
probably necessary with these highly reactive doses. What about the vibrational and
rotational losses? Work on S2 discharges shows that this is not a fundamental
limitation.

17
 Light Source Technology
Electrodeless – inductively coupled
exhaust tube

phosphor coating
bulb with Kr La
and amalgam
contains discharge Ra

re-entrant with
coil inside on plasma
coil support
housing circuit Rl +jω
ωLl

Transformer with single turn secondary

Circuit must drive Rll +jωLl at specified power.

In this lamp a half bridge circuit is used at
~2.65 MHz

System Design - Models

Toulouse COST 2002 page 18

Electrodeless lamps
Electrode failure is the usual reason for end of life. Electrodeless lamps eliminate it as
a cause.
Various types of electrodeless discharge are possible. The type shown here is an
induction lamp. The low pressure mercury plasma forms a single turn secondary
around the primary coil. The electrons are accelerated by the azimuthal electric field
which results from the changing magnetic field. The discharge produces UV which is
converted to visible light in the normal way. Life usually depends on the robustness of
the circuit.
The circuit must be able to drive an unloaded transformer, producing enough voltage
across the coil to cause breakdown of the gas. After starting the transformer primary is
loaded by the impedance of the plasma Ra +jLa in the plasma. The circuit must control
the power into the primary to the required level for a loaded impedance Rl +jLl.
At the high frequencies needed for efficient operation, very careful attention is needed
to keep electromagnetic emission within the internationally agreed limits.
The design of such a lamp requires close integration of the system comprising circuit,
coil, discharge, optics and electromagnetic emission control.
Lamps and Lighting chapter 11

18
 Light Source Technology
Dielectric barrier discharge (DBD)
Osram Planon lamp
main applications are high uniformity back lighting for
copiers, fax machines and computers

Xe discharge with UV radiation from Xe 2* excimer <60%

conversion – then converted to visible with phosphor
Osram Planon DBD and control gear
DBDs provide discharges far from LTE over range of pressures
– high Te favours efficient generation of radiation
Schematic diagram
dielectric
+ transient
microdischarge
-

1. Gap breaks down at some point on cathode

2. Avalanche travels to anode
3. Dielectric charges up and reduces field
4. Discharge extinguishes in ∼ ns
5. Breakdown occurs at another point on cathode
6. Repeated discharges appear uniform to the eye
Planon lamps form display
Materials advances – System Design - Models
Toulouse COST 2002 page 19

Dielectric barrier (layer) discharges

Dielectric barrier discharges have a long history. In operation they appear continuous,
but they consist of multiple streamer discharges that avalanche from cathode to anode.
Once electrons accumulate on the dielectric on the anode surface the charge reduces
the field available and the discharge stops. These conditions lead to the production of
electron energy distributions rich in high energy electrons that can excite atoms
efficiently. Multiple micro-discharges can provide large area sources of uniform
brightness. Major advances have been made by Osram in an electrode structure and
power supplies that have changed this type of discharge from a technological curiosity
to a viable light source.
Efficiency will be greatly enhanced if the 172nm Xe2* radiation can be converted to
visible radiation using quantum splitting phosphors.

“Dielectric barrier discharge” Volkommer F and Hitzschke L in LS8 Greifswald paper

IL07, 1998
“Product families based on dielectric barrier discharges” Hitzschke L & Volkommer F in
LS9 Ithaca paper 134:I, 2001
“From ozone generators to flat television screens: history and future potential of
dielectric-barrier discharges” Kogelschatz U et al., Pure Appl. Chem. volume 71 (10),
1819-1828, 1999

19
 Light Source Technology
Light emitting diodes (LED)

LED is a p-n junction forward biased to ∼ 2 V

- inject minority carriers into junction
- e and h may recombine to produce light
- light has to be extracted from high index material
- LEDs are operated in series or parallel with
approximately constant current
Major advances have been made in the last 5 years
- breakthrough was Nichia’s efficient blue LED
absorbing transparent large truncated
- improved light extraction substrate substrate junction pyramid
- white LEDs now possible 1991 1994 1994 2000

Claims for LED performance are confusing

“They generate no heat.”
No mention of circuit losses
Wild extrapolations flux improvement ∼3 x ∼5 x ∼1.5 x
“New LEDS promise 330 lumens a watt”

Nevertheless – progress is astonishing

Materials advances – System Design

Toulouse COST 2002 page 20

Semiconductor LEDs
These now come in colours throughout the visible range and also UV. By combining
colours or by using UV + phosphor, white light LEDs of impressive brightness can now
be made. LED manufacturers seem to be taking little notice of the requirements for
good colour rendering at yet. The pace of development is truly astonishing and there
seems little doubt that the takeover from conventional lamps will occur in certain
markets. LED life can be very long, but white light LEDs still suffer from serious
degradation of light output with life.
The possible efficiencies of LEDs can be very high – in some case nearly 100%
conversion of injected carriers is converted to light. However the light has to escape
from a very high index material. The multiple reflections involved ensure that even
small amounts of absorption causes substantial losses. The last of the 4 pictures
structure that allows the light to escape with fewer reflections.
It is very difficult to get a clear idea of the real efficiency of LED systems from
commercial literature, and in some cases figures are quoted that seem fanciful in the
extreme. Standardisation is urgently needed to bring some order. Extrapolations of
future performance LED efficiency also often seem over-optimistic. Whilst LEDs are
not subjected to the same thermodynamic limitations as discharges because the
electron motion is not randomised, they still have losses such as traps for carriers,
optical absorption and circuit losses. It remains to be seen whether high-flux, high
colour rendering index LEDs can outperform CMH discharges.
Organic LEDs
and light emitting polymers (OLEDs) are some way behind in development for light
sources, although the display market seems assured. They potentially offer low cost
route to solid state light generation. At the moment it difficult to see where the lumens
might come from. Watch this space.
Photo Lighting Equipment News

20
 Light Source Technology
LED applications
LEDs generate light of colour required
for signals
Traffic and vehicle lighting
- already a large market for efficient,
robust, long lived LEDs

photo courtesy Lumileds

But what about this?

Lumileds-Philips street lighting demo.
(LEDs on the left)
- Meets CIE illumination requirement
- LEDs allow better light control than LP
and HP sodium
- Energy consumed per km comparable to
sodium

photo courtesy Lumileds

System design
Toulouse COST 2002 page 21

Applications
The main challenge for LED systems if they are to displace conventional lamps is
achieve comparable lumen packages with comparable optical properties to the
sources they are displacing. In lighting terms LEDs are still very low flux devices.
A second challenge is cost. Currently the cost per white light lumen is currently about
100 times higher than from conventional lamps. Whether this will reduce to levels
where the cost/benefit ratio is acceptable remains to be seen.
Auto and signal applications
Traffic lights are the “killer” application for LEDs. Energy savings over filtered
incandescent are massive, so even without the reduced maintenance costs they look
good. It also seems that rear cluster and internal display lighting in automobiles will
inevitably go the LED route, since reliability and robustness are superior to
incandescent lamps.
It looks as if the whole of the miniature lamp business will be changed to solid state
lighting within very few years.
Illumination applications
As to real illumination look a the road scene. Although this is a only demonstration, the
very fact that it could be mounted at all says a great deal about the potential of LEDs
for illumination.
I have no details except that the sodium lighting on the left and the LED lights on the
right both meet the CIE road illumination requirements. One benefit of LEDs can be
seen – a greater fraction of the light produced illuminates the road. The lamp-fixture
system thus benefits from the greater optical control of the LED light. Thus the LED
flux does not have to be as high as the discharge lamp flux.

21
 Light Source Technology
A typical lighting system – every stage counts

control
λhigh
760
ηrad = ∫P rad (λ )dλ / Pcir ηvis = ∫ Prad (λ )dλ
380
ηdc = Pdc / P η cir = Pcir / Pdc λlow

AC/DC
P Pdc lamp driver Pcir lamp Prad Pvis
pf ∼ 1

760
ηeye = ∫ Pvis (λ )V (λ ) dλ ηeff = τ ⋅ Pvis
380
illuminated
optics with
surface
Peye effective Peff
transmittance τ

η sys = η dc ⋅ηcir ⋅η rad ⋅η vis ⋅ηeye ⋅ ηeff

Toulouse COST 2002 Materials advances – System Design - Models page 22

Lighting systems
This schematic diagram applies to any light source run from an electronic supply.
The integration of electronics with lighting is a rapidly growing an inevitable trend
because of the benefits it brings for the customer and manufacturer. The customer
benefits from better performance – in many different ways, and the ability to control the
lighting to suit needs. For the manufacturer, electronic control can overcome some of
the intrinsic problems associated with some lamps, whilst the use ballasts that can
adapt to the lamps reduces inventories.
Each step in this long train must be examined in future development because
accumulation of even small inefficiencies at each stage rapidly drags the overall
efficiency down.

For consistency I have not converted to lumens by multiplying the eye-sensitivity

weighted watts to lumens with the factor 683.

Some of the issues with each stage are examined in the next slides.

22
 Light Source Technology
System Issues - 1
light or person sensitivity
IR switches
bus control (DALI)
mains signalling
control lamp type sense
failed lamp check

AC/DC lamp driver lamp Prad Pvis

energy storage lamp type lamp type spectral dist. radiation

power factor excitation mechanism incandescent temperature mechanisms
stability operating frequency LED emissivity to enhance
ripple waveform HID energy visible
universality start-up fluorescent conservation
shut down electrical
temperature size
EM compatibility thermal
safety
overall – efficiency, size, cost, weight
Toulouse COST 2002 page 23

Some of the factors affecting the system efficiency

AC/DC conversion – energy storage is often controlling influence on cost & size,
greater stability could benefit some sources. Output independent of input voltage.
Lamp driver depends on lamp type and excitation. e.g. Incandescent may require soft
start. Discharge requires clean ignition & maybe controlled shut down for good life,
and waveforms control for stability. Discharge excitation can be via electrodes or
electrodeless or microwave.
Electronic control (internal or external) is becoming a major way to add value.
Lamp types determine many other factors such as electrical characteristics which
impact on size materials and safety issues
Prad is may be determined by the characteristic temperature with a black body limit.
Also by spectral emissivity of solid (incandescence) or vapour (discharge). Reflectors
can reduce IR losses in some cases. In may discharge lamps the radiation reaches
the black body limit and shows self-reversal as it escapes from the lamp.
Pvis determined by radiator type and density. High densities lead to continuous spectra
with large IR losses.

23
 Light Source Technology
System Issues - 2

optics with
illuminated
Peye effective Peff surface
transmittance τ

efficacy high τ - avoid

colour rendering obstruction
3, 4 line spectra filament supports
seals
complex shapes
scattering
light leakage
reduce absorption
fitting design to optimise
illumination
projected beam
Toulouse COST 2002 page 24

Some of the factors affecting the system efficiency

The radiator type determines how well the light is use by the eye. The constraint here
is on the simultaneous requirement on colour rendering. Excellent colour rendering
numbers can be achieved using light at 3 narrow bands at wavelengths ???
The next stage is to utilise the light from the lamp is the best way.
In compact fluorescent lamps the construction determine how much of the emitted
visible light escapes without being absorbed in the lamp structure.
In the electrodeless reflector lamp the optical design is critical in ensuring that light is
reflected forward and escapes from the front of the lamp.
In a tungsten-halogen lamp this may mean building into a suitable dichroic reflector.
For many lamps used for illumination this is the province of the fixture manufacturer.
The LED street light example shows that power can be saved whilst maintaining
illuminance if source and optics are carefully matched. Small sources make this
simpler.
For projector applications careful optical design with regard to etendue and reducing
reflection at optical surfaces is required. In projectors using incandescent lamps the
structure of the filament supports is very important. For projector applications optical
design needs to be based on actual data rather than crude lamp models as a lot of light
is comes from wires and seals and in the case of discharge lamps, the electrodes.

24
 Light Source Technology
Key areas for work
General
Future developments will rely heavily on materials advances, system design and models
Long term, high gain and speculative
- quantum splitting phosphors
improved theoretical basis
- LP high Te white light sources (molecular discharges)
fundamental understanding
- Incandescence highly selective emitters (not necessarily high temperature)
use theoretical knowledge as guide
Shorter term
- attack every conversion stage in system to gain small % gains
- better understanding of lamps/control gear interactions
- improve understanding of lamp/power supply interactions
- life prediction to shorten development cycles
It will happen anyway
- increase flux from LEDs & reduce cost by a factor ∼100

This will need interaction between circuit designers, lamp scientists,

materials scientists, optical designers and others

Toulouse COST 2002 page 25

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