NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY

Document By
SANTOSH BHARADWAJ REDDY
Email: help@matlabcodes.com
Engineeringpapers.blogspot.com
More Papers and Presentations available on above site
Abstract
Our paper is on FUEL CELLS. Fuel Cells being one of the most popular non. Conventional sources of
energy that are into use these days. Fuel Cells may turn up into the most preferred source of energy as the
fact that they are very efficient causing less or almost zero level pollution. And our paper is all about how
Fuel Cells work, its benefits and its varieties invented so far.

Introduction

The Industrial Revolution of the 19th century ushered in new technologies. The spurt in inventions in that
century was unprecedented in many ways. Some of these inventions involved use of natural resources like
coal and oil. The thought of exhaustible nature of these resources and the environmental damage from the
use of these resources never occurred either to the inventors or the subsequent generations. In the quest to
sustain galloping economic activity, the dependence on coal and oil has soared at a phenomenal rate over
the years. The burnt fuels result in the release of carbon dioxide and other gases into the atmosphere
causing environmental damage. It has become imperative to look at energy technology with a new
perspective. There are abundant renewable sources of energy such as wind, sun, water, sea, biomass apart
from even daily wastes. These sources are pollution free and hence clean energy apart from being
unlimited/ inexhaustible.

Power generation in India has grown in size to around 1 lakh MW and in TamilNadu it has increased to
7924 MW which is distributed through a vast network of transmission, sub-transmission and distribution
lines that reach all villages even in remote areas. The demand for power is growing rapidly. The problem
will be compounded due to fast depletion of fossil fuel deposits, quality of fuels, heavy price to be paid for
basic materials plus their transportation cost and above all the environmental degradation caused by the use
of conventional energy sources. Under such conditions, environment-friendly and pollution-free, non-
conventional and renewable energy sources known as 'clean and green energy' have emerged as an
important alternative to conventional energy sources. The renewable energy sources are clean and
inexhaustible as they rely on sun, wind, biomass, etc., as primary sources of energy. It is estimated that,
about 2000 MW can be generated from wind potential available in TamilNadu. As against this potential,
19 MW of power in the State Sector mostly through demonstration wind farms and 838 MW in the private
sector have been harnessed as on 31.3.02, Under Biomass, the estimated potential is about 500 MW and
154MW capacity has been expected using biomass/bagasse.The country is endowed with large amount of
sustainable resource base and non-conventional energy technologies which are well-suited for grid
connected power generation, energy supplies in remote areas which are not/could not be connected to the
grid and for captive consumption. Non-conventional energy sources like wind energy, solar energy
through thermal as well as photovoltaic system, biomass and hybrid sources will help to a great extent in
enhancing power generation capacity. Hence appropriate policies and programmes that optimise the use
of available energy resourceswith new technologies have to be propagated, promoted and adopted, if
necessary, by budgetary support.
Non - Conventional or Renewable Energy Sources

1. Wind Energy
The evolution of windmills into wind turbines did not happen overnight and attempts to produce electricity
with windmills date back to the beginning of the century. It was Denmark which erected the first batch of
steel windmills specially built for generation of electricity. After World War II, the development of wind
turbines was totally hampered due to the installation of massive conventional power stations using fossil
fuels available at low cost. But the oil crisis of 1973 heralded a definite break through in harnessing wind
energy. Many European countries started pursuing the development of wind turbine technology seriously
and their development efforts are continuing even today. The technology involves generation of electricity
using turbines, which converts mechanical energy created by the rotation of blades into electrical energy,
some times the mechanical energy from the mills is directly used for pumping water from well also. The
wind power programme in India was started during 1983-84 with the efforts of the Ministry of Non-
Conventional Energy Sources. In India the total installed capacity from wind mills is 1612 MW, of which,
Tamilnadu has an installed capacity of 858 MW as on 31.03.2002.

2. Bio Energy
Biomass is yet another important source of energy with potential to generate power to the extent of more
than 50% of the country’s requirements. India is predominantly an agricultural economy, with huge
quantity of biomass available in the form of husk, straw, shells of coconuts wild bushes etc. With an
estimated production of 350 million tons of agricultural waste every year, biomass is capable of
supplementing coal to the tune of about 200 million tonnes producing 17,000 MW of power and resulting
in a saving of about Rs.20,000 crores every year. Biomass available in India comprises of rice husk, rice
straw, bagasse, coconut shell, jute, cotton, husk etc. Biomass can be obtained by raising energy farms or
may be obtained from organic waste. The biomass resources including large quantities of cattle dung can
be used in bio-energy technologies viz., biogas, gasifier, biomass combustion, co-generation etc., to
produce energy-thermal or electricity. Biomass can be used in three ways – one in the form of gas through
gasifiers for thermal applications, second in the form of methane gas to run gas engines and produce power
and the third through combustion to produce steam and thereby power.

3. Solar Energy
Solar Power was once considered, like nuclear power, ‘too cheap to meter’ but this proved illusory because
of the high cost of photovoltaic cells and due to limited demand. Experts however believe that with mass
production and improvement in technology, the unit price would drop and this would make it attractive for
the consumers in relation to thermal or hydel power. The Solar Photo Voltaic (SPV) technology which
enables the direct conversion of sun light into electricity can be used to run pumps, lights, refrigerators, TV
sets, etc., and it has several distinct advantages, since it does not have moving parts, produces no noise or
pollution, requires very littlemaintenance and can be installed anywhere. These advantages make them an
ideal power source for use especially in remote and isolated areas which are not served by conventional
electricity making use of ample sunshine available in India, for nearly 300 days in a year.
A Solar Thermal Device, on the other hand captures and transfers the heat energy available in solar
radiation. The energy generated can be used for thermal applications in different temperature ranges. The
heat can be used directly or further converted into mechanical or electrical energy.

4. Other Sources
The other sources of renewable energy are geothermal, ocean, hydrogen and fuel cells. These have
immense energy potential, though tapping this potential for power generation and other applications calls
for development of suitable technologies.

(i) Geo-Thermal Energy

Geo-Thermal energy is a renewable heat energy from underneath the earth. Heat is brought to near surface
by thermal conduction and by intrusion into the earth’s crust. It can be utilised for power generation and

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direct heat applications. Potential sites for geo-thermal power generation have been identified mainly in
central and northern regions of the country. Suitable technologies are under development to make its
exploitation viable.

(ii) Ocean thermal and Tidal energy

The vast potential of energy of the seas and oceans which cover about three fourth of our planet, can make
a significant contribution to meet the energy needs. Ocean contains energy in the form of temperature
gradients, waves and tides and ocean current, which can be used to generate electricity in an environment-
friendly manner. Technologies to harness tidal power, wave power and ocean thermal energy are being
developed, to make it commercially viable.

(iii) Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

In both Hydrogen and Fuel Cells electricity is produced through an electro-chemical reaction between
hydrogen and oxygen gases. The fuel cells are efficient, compact and reliable for automotive applications.
Hydrogengas is the primary fuel for fuel cells also. Hydrogen can be produced from the electrolysis of
water using solar energy. It can also be extracted from sewage gas, natural gas, naptha or biogas. Fuel
cells can be very widely used once they become commercially viable.

(iv) Bio fuels

In view of worldwide demand for energy and concern for environmental safety there is need to search for
alternatives to petrol and diesel for use in automobiles. The Government of India has now permitted the
use of 5% ethanol blended petrol. Tamilnadu is one of the nine States in the country where this programme
will commence from January 2003. Ethanol produced from molasses/ cane juice, when used as fuel will
reduce the dependence on crude oil and help contain pollution. Further, technology is also being
developed to convert different vegetable oils especially non-edible oils as bio-diesel for use in the transport
sector. They are however, in R & D stage only.

FUEL CELLS
You may have heard a lot recently about fuel cells. According to many news reports, we may soon be
using the new energy-saving technology to generate electrical power for our homes and cars. The
technology is extremely interesting to people in all walks of life because it offers a means of making
power more efficiently and with less pollution.

What is a fuel cell?

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, with
water and heat as its by-product. As long as fuel is supplied, the fuel cell will continue to generate
power. Since the conversion of the fuel to energy takes place via an electrochemical process, not
combustion, the process is clean, quiet and highly efficient – two to three times more efficient than fuel
burning.
No other energy generation technology offers the combination of benefits that fuel cells do. In addition
to low or zero emissions, benefits include high efficiency and reliability, multi-fuel capability, siting
flexibility, durability, sand ease of maintenance. Fuel cells are also scalable and can be stacked until
the desired power output is reached. Since fuel cells operate silently, they reduce noise pollution as
well as air pollution and the waste heat from a fuel cell can be used to provide hot water or space
heating for a home or office.

Working of a Fuel Cell

In principle, a fuel cell operates like a battery. Unlike a battery, a fuel cell does not run down or require
recharging. It will produce energy in the form of electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied.

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A fuel cell consists of two electrodes sandwiched around an electrolyte. Oxygen passes over one electrode
and hydrogen over the other, generating electricity, water and heat. the pressurized hydrogen gas (H 2)
entering the fuel cell on the anode side. This gas is forced through the catalyst by the pressure. When an H 2
molecule comes in contact with the platinum on the catalyst, it splits into two H+ ions and two electrons
(e-). The electrons are conducted through the anode, where they make their way through the external circuit
(doing useful work such as turning a motor) and return to the cathode side of the fuel cell.
Meanwhile, on the cathode side of the fuel cell, oxygen gas (O2) is being forced through the catalyst, where
it forms two oxygen atoms. Each of these atoms has a strong negative charge. This negative charge attracts
the two H+ ions through the membrane, where they combine with an oxygen atom and two of the electrons
from the external circuit to form a water molecule (H2O).

This reaction in a single fuel cell produces only about 0.7 volts. To get this voltage up to a reasonable level,
many separate fuel cells must be combined to form a fuel-cell stack.
A fuel cell system which includes a "fuel reformer" can utilize the hydrogen from any hydrocarbon fuel
- from natural gas to methanol, and even gasoline. Since the fuel cell relies on chemistry and not
combustion, emissions from this type of a system would still be much smaller than emissions from the
cleanest fuel combustion processes.
Chemistry
of a Fuel Cell

Anode side:
2H2 => 4H+ + 4e-
Cathode side:
O2 + 4H+ + 4e- => 2H2O
Net reaction:
2H2 + O2 => 2H2O

Different types of fuel cells.

Phosphoric Acid (PAFC).
Phosphoric acid fuel cells are commercially available today. Hundreds of fuel cell systems have been
installed in 19 nations - in hospitals, nursing homes, hotels, office buildings, schools, utility power
plants, landfills and waste water treatment plants. PAFCs generate electricity at more than 40%
efficiency - and nearly 85% of the steam this fuel cell produces is used for cogeneration - this compares
to about 35% for the utility power grid in the United States. Phosphoric acid fuel cells use liquid
phosphoric acid as the electrolyte and operate at about 450°F. One of the main advantages to this type
of fuel cell, besides the nearly 85% cogeneration efficiency, is that it can use impure hydrogen as fuel.
PAFCs can tolerate a CO concentration of about 1.5 percent, which broadens the choice of fuels they
can use. If gasoline is used, the sulfur must be removed.

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Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM).
These fuel cells operate at relatively low temperatures (about 175°F), have high power density, can
vary their output quickly to meet shifts in power demand, and are suited for applications, such as in
automobiles, where quick startup is required. According to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE),
"they are the primary candidates for light-duty vehicles, for buildings, and potentially for much smaller
applications such as replacements for rechargeable batteries." This type of fuel cell is sensitive to fuel
impurities. Cell outputs generally range from 50 watts to 75 kW.

Molten Carbonate (MCFC).

Molten carbonate fuel cells use an electrolyte composed of a molten carbonate salt mixture suspended
in a porous, chemically inert matrix, and operate at high temperatures - approximatelly 1,200ºF. They
require carbon dioxide and oxygen to be delivered to the cathode. To date, MCFCs have been operated
on hydrogen, carbon monoxide, natural gas, propane, landfill gas, marine diesel, and simulated coal
gasification products. 10 kW to 2 MW MCFCs have been tested on a variety of fuels and are primarily
targeted to electric utility applications.

Solid Oxide (SOFC).

Solid oxide fuel cells use a hard, non-porous ceramic compound as the electrolyte, and operate at very
high temperatures - around 1800°F. One type of SOFC uses an array of meter-long tubes, and other
variations include a compressed disc that resembles the top of a soup can. Tubular SOFC designs are
closer to commercialization and are being produced by several companies around the world. SOFCs are
suitable for stationary applications as well as for auxiliary power units (APUs) used in vehicles to
power electronics.

Alkaline.
Long used by NASA on space missions, these cells can achieve power generating efficiencies of up to
70 percent. They were used on the Apollo spacecraft to provide both electricity and drinking water.
Alkaline fuel cells use potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte and operate at 160°F. However, they are
very susceptible to carbon contamination, so require pure hydrogen and oxygen.

Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC).

These cells are similar to the PEM cells in that they both use a polymer membrane as the electrolyte.
However, in the DMFC, the anode catalyst itself draws the hydrogen from the liquid methanol,
eliminating the need for a fuel reformer. Efficiencies of about 40% are expected with this type of fuel
cell, which would typically operate at a temperature between 120-190°F. This is a relatively low range,
making this fuel cell attractive for tiny to mid-sized applications, to power cellular phones and laptops.
Higher efficiencies are achieved at higher temperatures. Companies are also working on DMFC
prototypes to be used by the military for powering electronic equipment in the field.

Regenerative Fuel Cells.

Regenerative fuel cells would be attractive as a closed-loop form of power generation. Water is
separated into hydrogen and oxygen by a solar-powered electrolyser. The hydrogen and oxygen are fed
into the fuel cell which generates electricity, heat and water. The water is then recirculated back to the
solar-powered electrolyser and the process begins again. These types of fuel cells are currently being
researched by NASA and others worldwide.

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 Plug Power Gen Core

Smart Fuel Cell A-50

Voller VE 100

Ballard AirGen

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Motorola Fuel Cell Phone

Hitachi DMFC

Fuel Cell Car by HONDA

Ida Tech

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 Fuel Cell Power Plant

Applications Of Fuel Cells

There are many uses for fuel cells — right now, all of the major automakers are working to
commercialize a fuel cell car. Fuel cells are powering buses, boats, trains, planes, scooters, even
bicycles. There are fuel cell-powered vending machines, vacuum cleaners and highway road signs.
Miniature fuel cells for cellular phones, laptop computers and portable electronics are on their way to
market. Hospitals, credit card centers, police stations, and banks are all using fuel cells to provide
power to their facilities. Wastewater treatment plants and landfills are using fuel cells to convert the
methane gas they produce into electricity. The possibilities are endless.

Stationary.
More than 2500 fuel cell systems have been installed all over the world — in hospitals, nursing homes,
hotels, office buildings, schools, utility power plants, and an airport terminal, providing primary power
or backup. In large-scale building systems, fuel cells can reduce facility energy service costs by 20% to
40% over conventional energy service.

Residential.
Fuel cells are ideal for power generation, either connected to the electric grid to provide supplemental
power and backup assurance for critical areas, or installed as a grid-independent generator for on-site
service in areas that are inaccessible by power lines. Since fuel cells operate silently, they reduce noise
pollution as well as air pollution and the waste heat from a fuel cell can be used to provide hot water or
space heating for a home. Many of the prototypes being tested and demonstrated for residential use
extract hydrogen from propane or natural gas.

Transportation.
All the major automotive manufacturers have a fuel cell vehicle either in development or in testing right
now, and Honda and Toyota have already begun leasing vehicles in California and Japan. Automakers
and experts speculate that the fuel cell vehicle will not be commercialized until at least 2010. Fuel cells
are also being incorporated into buses, locomotives, airplanes, scooters and golf carts. For more
information on fuel cells in transportation, check out our

Portable Power.
Miniature fuel cells, once available to the commercial market, will help consumers talk for up to a
month on a cellular phone without recharging. Fuel cells will change the telecommuting world,
powering laptops and palm pilots hours longer than batteries. Other applications for micro fuel cells
include pagers, video recorders, portable power tools, and low power remote devices such as hearing

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aids, smoke detectors, burglar alarms, hotel locks and meter readers. These miniature fuel cells
generally run on methanol, an inexpensive wood alcohol also used in windshield wiper fluid.

Landfill/Wastewater Treatment.
Fuel cells currently operate at landfills and wastewater treatment plants across the country, proving
themselves as a valid technology for reducing emissions and generating power from the methane gas
they produce.

Energy Security.
U.S. energy dependence is higher today than it was during the "oil shock" of the 1970s, and oil imports
are projected to increase. Passenger vehicles alone consume 6 million barrels of oil every single day,
equivalent to 85 percent of oil imports. If just 20 percent of cars used fuel cells, we could cut oil
imports by 1.5 million barrels every day.

High Reliability/High Quality Power.

The National Power Laboratory estimates that the typical computer location experiences 289 power
disturbances a year that are outside the voltage limits of the computer equipment. U.S. businesses lose
$29 billion annually from computer failures due to power outages and are quickly realizing that fuel
cells may help prevent not only loss of power, but also loss of dollars. Fuel cells offer clean, high
quality power, crucial to an economy that depends on increasingly sensitive computers, medical
equipment and machines.
Fuel cells can be configured to provide backup power to a grid-connected customer, should the grid
fail. They can be configured to provide completely grid-independent power or can use the grid as the
backup system. Modular installation (the installation of several identical units to provide a desired
quantity of electricity) provides extremely high reliability in specialized applications. Properly
configured fuel cells can achieve up to 99.9999% reliability, less than one minute of down time in a six
year period.

Fuel Flexibility.
As long as fuel is supplied, the fuel cell will continue to generate power. A fuel cell system that
includes a "fuel reformer" can utilize the hydrogen from a hydrocarbon or alcohol fuel. Hydrogen can
also be produced from electricity from conventional, nuclear or renewable sources.
Hydrogen can be extracted from novel feed stocks such as landfill gas or anaerobic digester gas from
wastewater treatment plants, from biomass technologies, or from hydrogen compounds containing no
carbon, such as ammonia or borohydride.
Electrolysis uses an electric current to extract hydrogen from water. Fuel cells, in combination with
solar or wind power, or any renewable source of electricity offer the promise of a totally zero-emission
energy system that requires no fossil fuel and is not limited by variations in sunlight or wind flow. This
hydrogen can supply energy for power needs and for transportation.

High Efficiency.
Because they make energy electrochemically, and do not burn fuel, fuel cells are fundamentally more
efficient than combustion systems. When the fuel cell is sited near the point of use, its waste heat can be
captured for beneficial purposes (cogeneration). In large-scale building systems, these fuel cell
cogeneration systems can reduce facility energy service costs by 20% to 40% compared to conventional
energy service.
Fuel cell power generation systems in operation today achieve 40% to 50% fuel-to-electricity
efficiency utilizing hydrocarbon fuels. Systems fueled by hydrogen can consistently provide more than
50 percent efficiency. Even more efficient systems are under development. In combination with a
turbine, electrical efficiencies can exceed 60 percent. When waste heat is put to use for heating and
cooling, fuel utilization can exceed 85 percent. Fuel cell passenger vehicles are expected to be up to
three times more efficient than internal combustion engines, which now operate at 10 to 16 percent
efficiency.

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Environmental Benefits. Air pollution continues to be a primary health concern in America.
Exposure to ozone, particulate, or airborne toxic chemicals has substantial health consequences.
Scientists are now directly linking air pollution to heart disease, asthma and cancer. Recent health
studies suggest polluted urban air is a comparable health threat to passive smoking. Fuel cells can
reduce pollution today and offer the promise of eliminating pollution tomorrow.

Power Generation.
Fuel cells offer excellent environmental performance compared to power generation technologies that
rely on combustion. Based on measured data, a fuel cell power plant may create less than one ounce of
pollution per 1,000 kilowatt-hours of electricity produced - compared to the 25 pounds of pollutants for
conventional combustion generating systems. Fuel cell power plants are so low in emissions that some
areas of the United States have exempted them from air permit requirements. As we move toward use
of renewable fuels in fuel cells, producing electricity will become a zero emission process.

Motor Vehicles.
Fuel cell vehicles are the least polluting of all vehicles that consume fuel directly. Fuel cell vehicles
operating on hydrogen stored on-board the vehicles produce zero pollution in the conventional sense.
Neither conventional pollutants nor green house gases are emitted. The only byproducts are water and
heat. Systems that rely on a reformer on board to convert a liquid fuel to hydrogen produce small
amounts of emissions, but would still reduce smog-forming pollution by up to 90 percent compared to
traditional combustion engines, depending on the choice of fuel. The simple reaction that takes place
inside the fuel cell is highly efficient. Even if the hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels, fuel-cell
vehicles can reduce emissions of carbon dioxide, a global warming concern, by more than half. Tests
performed on a fuel cell bus, fueled by methanol, showed zero emissions of particulate matter and
hydrocarbons, and near-zero emissions of carbon monoxide and nitrous oxides - levels far below the
1998 emission standard for buses.
Fuel cells used as auxiliary power units (APUs) to power air conditioners and accessories in over-the-
road trucks could reduce emissions by up to 45% from long haul vehicles, and deliver economic
benefits to the truck owner in lower fuel use and less wear and tear. According to DOE, fuel cell APUs
in Class 8 trucks can save 670 million gallons of diesel fuel per year and 4.64 million tons of CO2 per
year.
International Benefits. Fuel cells are entering the market at a time when countries face growing
pressure to adopt alternative energy technologies on a large scale. The challenge for the fuel cell
industry is to ensure that it is ready with competitively priced performance-proven products as demand
grows. More nations are focused on sustainable energy strategies. Fuel cells offer an opportunity for
countries to move toward greater sustainability in resource consumption. Fuel cell efficiencies yield
substantial reductions in emissions of climate change gases and promise an end to the exclusive reliance
on carbon fuels for energy.

Battery replacement/alternative.
Fuel cell power sources are also being developed for portable electronic devices. In these applications,
the fuel cell would provide a much longer operating life than a battery would, in a package of lighter or
equal weight per unit of power output. The fuel cell would not require "recharging;" a liquid, solid, or
gaseous fuel canister could be replaced in a moment. Fuel cells also have an environmental advantage
over batteries, since certain kinds of batteries require special disposal treatment. Fuel cells provide a
much higher power density, packing more power in a smaller space.

Military Applications.
Fuel cells help the military reduce the cost of battlefield logistics, provide a source of energy for the
modern soldier, save money and reduce pollution at military installations and on board ships and
terrestrial vehicles, and most importantly, save lives and materiel by reducing telltale heat and noise. A
recent Defense Science Board report entitled "More Capable Warfighting Through Reduced Fuel
Burden" concluded, "over 70 percent of the tonnage required to position today's US Army into battle is
fuel." The report also found that significant war-fighting, logistics and cost benefits occur when

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weapons systems are made more fuel-efficient. Many organizations are working on miniature fuel cells
for portable applications since soldiers are starting to carry a range of enabling electronic technologies,
computers, personal radios, displays and thermal imaging, all intended to increase his effectiveness,
lethality and survivability. Right now, these devices are limited by their power source. Miniature fuel
cells can operate 10 times longer than conventional batteries used to power hand-held battlefield
computers, and are much more cost-effective.
Stationary fuel cells are helping the military to address their peak electric power needs while complying
with the presidential directive to reduce energy use at Federal facilities by 20%. Stationary fuel cells for
military applications can provide back up or standby power for special operations and activities and can
provide power in remote areas.
No other energy generating technology holds the combination of benefits that fuel cells offer.

Conclusion

Seeing the current statistics of the sources of energy that are under use we cannot unsee our dependence
on conventional sources for energy. At the same time we cannot overlook the falling availability of
conventional sources and hazardous affects of their uses i.e many kinds of pollutions. With the nature’s
grace and human mind, today we stand at such position that we can make efficient use of non-
conventional sources. Bringing non-conventional sources into use will be beneficial in many ways. That
is why the current technology is working on such sources. Technology behind Fuel Cells is an example.
With its merits it definitely stand to the standards of many conventional sources and is quite capable of
marking its place in the Power Generation Processes world wide.

References

[1] www.fuelcells .org

[2] www.howstuffworks.com

Document By
SANTOSH BHARADWAJ REDDY
Email: help@matlabcodes.com
Engineeringpapers.blogspot.com
More Papers and Presentations available on above site

11