BIO 3 HANDOUT

ANIMAL TISSUES

A. Epithelial tissues
-lining of the surfaces
-selectively permeable
-regenerates (in liver and
stomach the tissues are replaced
every 2-3 days)
-simple epithelial cells
(squamous, cuboidal, columnar) Intestinal columnar cells

B. Vascular tissues

BLOOD
-circulates throughout the body
-carries nutrients and oxygen or
wastes
-made up of different
components:

Cheek squamous epithelial cells

 Plasma-water-containing
fluid
 Platelets (thrombocytes)-
function for blood clotting
 White blood cells
Collecting ducts in the medulla
(leukocytes)- has
of a mammalian kidney lined
different types
with simple cuboidal cells
(neutrophil, basophil and
eosinophil) ; function for
immune response

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 Neutrophil- against bacteria; T cell (blue)- attack foreign
inflammatory reactions bodies as a principal mean of
defense

Basophil- responsible for allergic

B cell (arrow)- responsible for
reactions
the production of antibodies

CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER

-with abundant matrix
(extracellular materials)
-Adipose cells/ fat cells/
adipocytes
Eosinophil- responsible for immune  important for nutrient
response against parasites storage
 found under the skin,
 Red Blood Cells bone marrow, around the
(erythrocytes)- with kidneys, hips and breasts
hemoglobin; carrier of  within the cells are fat
oxygen droplets (triglycerides)
 incapable of dividing
(increase in body weight-
cells swell)
-Tendon (muscle to bone) and
Ligament (bone to bone)

Enucleated human RBC’s

 Lymph (lymphocytes: T
cells and B cells) – for the
immune system

Adipose cells

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CARTILAGE
-cells: chondrocytes within the Skeletal Muscle
lacuna -location: voluntary muscles
-composed of glycoproteins: -function: powers walking, lifting,
chondroitin and collagen fibers dancing…
-high tensile strength
-found at (joints) surfaces of
bones
-tip of nose, pinna (ear), larynx
or voice box

Cardiac Muscle
-location:walls of the heart
-highly interconnected cells
promote rapid spread of signal
Chondrocytes initiating contraction
BONE
-calcified cartilage (calcium
phosphate)
-cells: osteocytes

NERVE TISSUE
Neurons
-capable of electrochemical
Haversian system (bracket); events: IMPULSES
Canaliculi (arrow) -parts:

MUSCLE TISSUE
Smooth Muscle
-location: walls of blood vessels,
stomach, intestines
-function: powers rhythmic
involuntary contractions

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 -RADIAL symmetry- exhibited by
marine animals: Cnidarians
(jellyfishes, sea anemones and corals)
and Ctenophorans (combjellies).

Cross section of a nerve

Jellyfish sea anemone

THE GENERAL BODY PLAN OF

ANIMALS

-Kingdom animalia is the most diverse

group of organisms. One of the
Corals
reasons is the differences in the
general body plan. Throughout the
-BILATERAL symmetry- right and
evolution of animals, their body plans
left mirror images; concept of
have undergone many changes:
dorsal/ventral, anterior end/
posterior end; allowed animals to:
Evolution of Tissues
-move more efficiently
-simplest animals like Parazoas
-have different organs
(sponges) exist as simply aggregates
located in different parts
of cells with minimal intercellular
of the body
coordination.
-produce 3 germ layers:
ectoderm-outer coverings,
mesoderm-skeleton and
muscles, and endoderm-
digestive organs
-cephalization

-eumetazoa (all higher animals),

have distinct tissues with highly
specialized cells.

Evolution of Bilateral Symmetry

-sponges lack symmetry Evolution of Body Cavity

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-evolved for supporting organs, and
distributing materials
- 3 kinds of body plans:
Acoelomates
-no body cavity
-flatworms: tapeworms, flukes
and planarians
and in locomotion, each segment
can move independently.
- Segmentation—METAMERISM: each
segment is similar to the other
(somites/metameres).
TAGMATIZATION:
segments fused into functional
groups (tagmata)

Tapeworm Liver Fluke

clitellum
Pheretima (earthworm)

Planarian

Pseudocoelomates
-with a body cavity- pseudocoel
-between mesoderm and
endoderm
-nematodes: Ascaris

Linkia (starfish)

Evolution of Segmentation
- subdivision of the body into
segments
- advantages: (annelids) damage in
one segment is not fatal Penaeus (shrimp)
(duplication of segment functions)

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 shape and produces movement
(peristaltic movement - squeezing
other segments while allowing others
to relax)

Periplaneta Americana

Exoskeleton
-skeletons which encases the
organisms body
-exhibited by insects,
Bufo marinus crustaceans and spiders
-composed of CHITIN (light,
strong for protection and reduction of
ORGAN SYSTEMS water loss);
-can be calcified for further
strengthening
THE PROTECTIVE AND
SUPPORT SYSTEMS OF
ANIMALS

Main functions: to provide support,

protection and enable movement of
different skeletal forms:

Hydrostatic Skeleton
-exhibited by mollusks and
nematodes/ worms
-pressurized fluid in
compartments and by using the
muscles surrounding these
compartments, the animal changes

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 Euplectella (Venus’ basket) – the skeleton is made up of silica

Endoskeleton
-found within the body of the animal
-vertebrates (bones) and echinoderms (ossicles) – calcium rich
-2 sections: axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

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Types of Digestive Tracts (Guts)

Incomplete Gut
-single opening: mouth
-Planarian, Cnidarian,
Nematodes
-gastrovascular cavity: mouth,
pharynx, intestine
-extracellular digestion:
circulation of food by diffusion
-no specialization of parts

Complete Gut
-two openings: mouth and anus
-with specialization of parts:
 pharynx-draws in food with a
sucking action
 gizzard- thick muscular walls for
churning and grinding of food
 cloaca- storage of undigested
materials, urine, and products of
the reproductive system
 cecum- with bacteria; aids the
digestion of cellulose; located at
the beginning of the large
intestine; more prominent in
ruminants/ herbivores
 accessory organs:
-liver—produces bile (green
solution that emulsifies fats)
-gall bladder—stores and
concentrates bile
-pancreas— release digestive
enzymes and bicarbonate buffers
to aid digestion

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 EXCRETORY SYSTEM Uric acid- from reptiles, birds and
insects; slightly soluble in water; in
Planaria/ Flat worms solid form, excreted with little water
-PROTONEPHRIDIA (tubules) (helps in reduction of water loss)
which branchout into bulb-like FLAME
CELLS In most mammals, there is an enzyme:
-cilia within the flame cells draw URICASE which convert uric acid to
in fluids from the body allantoin, a less toxic substance, but
-the wastes are expelled through humans, apes, and Dalmatian dogs do
excretory pores that open outside the not have it. The excessive deposits of
body uric acid can cause: Gout.

Annelida/ Round worms

-NEPHRIDIA (tubules) obtain fluid CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
from body cavity by filtration of
NEPHROSTOMES- pore for urine 3 principal functions of C.S.:
excretion (urine is diluted; NaCl is Transportation – nutrients and oxygen
reabsorbed) Regulation – transport of regulatory
-in Mollusks (kidney) and hormones
Crustaceans (antennal glands)- urine Protection – blood clotting and immune
produced from filtration; ions are defense
reclaimed by reabsorption
Types of Circulatory Systems
Insects
-MALPHIGIAN TUBULES which For Cnidarians, Flatworms/ Planarians
branch off anterior to the hindgut which have two layers of body wall,
-waste products and potassium have direct contact with the external
ions are secreted into tubules by active environment that transport can occur
transport by diffusion.
-most water and K+ are
reabsorbed; dry waste product Open Circulatory System
excreted from the rectum -exhibited by mollusks and
arthropods
Vertebrates -no distinction between the
-kidney—NEPHRONS circulating fluid (blood) and
extracellular fluid (interstitial
NITROGENOUS WASTES: fluid/lymph): HEMOLYMPH
Ammonia- can be toxic to cells; -heart is a muscular tube which
released in a diluted form by bony pumps hemolymph through a network
fishes and tadpoles of channels and cavities in the body
Urea- excreted by adult amphibians, -fluid drains back to the central
mammals; soluble in water and can be cavity
excreted in large amounts; from
bloodstream to liver, then kidneys and
excreted as urine

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Closed Circulatory System
-exhibited by annelids
(invertebrates) and all vertebrates
-circulating fluid (blood) is
enclosed in blood vessels
a-artery(away from the heart); b-capillary; c-
vein (back to the heart)
Earthworm
-dorsal vessel contracts to
function as pump
-blood is pumped through 5 small
connecting arteries which function as
pumps to a ventral vessel (transport
posteriorly until it re-enters dorsal
vessel
Fishes-have true chamber-pump heart: sinus
venosus and atrium (collection chambers);
ventricle and conus arteriosus(pumping
chambers)
Toad heart has three chambers: right
and left atria, and a ventricle.
Amphibian and Reptile Circulation
2 types:
Pulmonary Circulation
- heart to lungs, then back to heart
- pulmonary artery-lungs-pulmonary
vein-heart
Systemic Circulation
- heart to body organs, then back to
heart
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 Mammalian and bird hearts are four-chambered.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Fishes have gills wherein water passes from the gill arch and over the filaments.
Water always passes the lamellae in an opposite direction of blood flow. The success
of the gill’s operation is dependent on the countercurrent flow of blood and water.

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In amphibian lungs, each lung is an outpouching of the gut. It is filled with air by the
creation of a positive pressure inside the buccal cavity. Their lungs are not as
efficient as the lungs of other terrestrial vertebrates because they lack structures
that would increase the surface area of the lungs for gas exchange.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

Evolution of the Nervous System. Animals exhibit a progressive elaboration of organized nerve cords
and the centralization of complete responses in the front end of the nerve cord. This evolutionary
process is known as CEPHALIZATION.

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 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Evolution of Vertebrate Brain. In sharks

and other fishes, the hindbrain is predominant, An adult insect emerging from an old cuticle
which primarily is used to process sensory
information. For amphibians and reptiles, the
forebrain is more dominant as the cerebrum
becomes bigger. It is devoted to associative
activity. In birds and mammals, especially
humans, the largest portion of the brain is the
cerebrum.

Insects’ exoskeleton cannot expand as the

organism grows, this is the reason they undergo
molting. This process is initiated to occur
because of hormones released by endocrine
glands.

Reflex Action References:

Raven et. al. 2005. BIOLOGY. 7th ed.
McGraw Hill Company. Boston.
Mader S.S. 1998. BIOLOGY. 6th ed.
McGraw Hill Company. Boston. Pp
716-912.

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 -exhibited by:
Anatomy of Planarians  Flatworms—TRANSVERSE
FISSION
 Cnidarians—BUDDING from
parent
 Echinoderms—cut to form new
individuals
 Insects—PARTHENOGENESIS
(females produce offsprings
from unfertilized eggs
 Some fishes—SEQUENTIAL
HERMAPHRODISM (protogyny-
female at first, then change to
a male; protoandry- male then
becomes a female)
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
-fusion of two gametes
-variation is achieved: exchange
of genetic content

2 types of Fertilization
EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION
-many gametes released in water
-animal sperm must swim to eggs
INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
-for animals that lay shelled
eggs/ have a period of internal
embryonic development
-for terrestrial animals which
can enable their sperm to swim without
drying out
-males have special organs used
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION for transferring sperm: process:
COPULATION
-all animals have a DIPLONTIC life cycle, -gametes are produced in
the only haploid cells are the SEX CELLS GONADS by the process called
or GAMETES GAMETOGENESIS which occurs when the
-reproduction is very essential for the organism is sexually matured
survival of species and the creation of -sperm cell / spermatozoa
diversity (variation). production —SPERMATOGENESIS
-egg cell/ ova production—
2 types: OOGENESIS
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION -FERTILIZATION: activation of
-involves 1 parent (same the egg (entry of sperm) + AMPHIMIXIS
genotype: no variation) (fusion of egg and sperm nuclei)

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