STUDENT’S BOOK [ELECTRODYNAMICS]

Electric has been found around of this universe, even

Source: Sumarsono, 2009: 163
Try to observe the picture above. Great wires connect one place to another place with
when life on this planet is not exist yet. A very powerful flash of
lightning to illuminate the sky. Lightning is a natural
phenomenon that shows the existence of electrical energy. The
electricity phenomenon has been investigated since 600 BC by
Thales, philosopher of Miletus, Ancient Greece. Amber that is
rubbed with silk-rub able to pull the pieces of straw, so it is said
that amber is electrical charged.
In line with the development of life, electricity becomes
a very important part in human life. Almost all equipment used
by humans utilize electrical energy aid. Electricity is basically
divided into two types, namely electrostatic (related to electric
charge at rest) and electrodinamics (related to electric charge in
motion). At the time of the switch on in an electrical circuit, the
light will turn on, and when the switch off condition, the lights
turf high voltage.
off. Why that isHow does an electrician assemble wire don’t dangero
happend?

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 STUDENT’S BOOK [ELECTRODYNAMICS]
A. ELECTRIC CURRENT
Basically electrical circuit can be divided into two, which
are the open electrical circuit and closed electrical circuit. Open
electrical circuit is a circuit that has not connected with the
source voltage, whereas a closed electrical circuit is a circuit
that has been connected with the source voltage.
Look at Figure 1.0 Have you ever make a series like
that? There are batteries, lamps and conductor (cable). When
switch S turn on the circuit does not open anything happens. But
by the time the switch S is closed it turns out the lights to light
up. This is evidence that the lamps on the circuit that there is
electric current.
I_atteryyi
+
S
bbattery
Figure 1.0 Electrical circuit
Source: Nurachmandani, 2009: 179
In the closed electrical circuit, electric charges flows.
The flow of positive electric charge is identical with the flow of
water. Consider Figure 1.1!
Physics for Senior High School Grade X | SMA Negeri 1 Lamongan
+water
+A
B+++
++
+++++
+++++
Figure 1.1 The flow of positive electric charge from A to B is identical with
the flow of water from A to B is called electric current
Source: Nurachmandani, 2009: 180
Positive electric charge flows from higher potential point
to lower potential point. Furthermore, the flow of positive
electric charge is called electric current. Hence, electric current
is the flow of positive charge from a high potential to low
potential. An electric current occurs when there is a potential
difference. According to physics scientists JJ Thompson (1856-
1940), charge that flows in a conductor is not a positive
electrical charge, but a negative electrical charge called
electrons.
The direction of electron flows from low potential to
high potential (opposite with the direction of positive electric
charge). But this does not make a problem, because the number
of electrons flowing in a conductor equal to the number of
positive electric charge that flows only in the opposite direction.
Hence, the fixed electric current flow is defined by a positive
charge called conventional current.
2
STUDENT’S BOOK [ELECTRODYNAMICS]

1. Electric Current Strength units are often used is miliampere (1 mA = 10-3 A) or

The quantity that expresses electric current is called microampere (1 μA = 10-6 A). Powerful tool to measure the
electric current strength (usually just called electric current). electrical currents are called ammeters (abbreviated
In the case, the electric ammeter).
current strength is defined 2. Measuring the Electric Current
as the amount of electric Measurement tools that can be used to know electric
flowing through the current is ammeters. In a electric current measurement,
section of a conductor per ammeter in series electric circuits so electric currents that
unit of time. The electric flow through the ammeter is equal with electric current that
current strength flowing flow on conductor
through a section of ➢ How to set the ammeter in the Figure 1.3 Ammeter is set in series
conductor can be determined by the equation as follow. electric circuit as follow: Source: Nurachmandani, 2009: 183
a. Ammeter positive terminal
…………….………….……………. (1) connected to the positive pole voltage source
∆Q
I= (battery).
∆t
b. Ammeter negative terminal connected to the negative
(Giancoli, 2001: 65) pole voltage source (battery).
With ΔQ is the amount of electric charges which flow at time If the switch is connected to circuit, so the lamp turns
interval of Δt. on and the needle of ammeter will move away from zero.
Electric current is measured in The magnitudes of the needle pointer on ammeter show how
coulomb per second and given a special much electric current that flowing. If the switch is opened, so
name that is amperes taken from the the light bulb will turn off and the needle pointer on the
name the French physicist named ammeter back to zero position. This means there is no
Andre Marie Ampere (1775-1836). One electric current that flow in the circuit. Thus, it can be
ampere is defined as one coulomb per concluded that electric current flows only on closed circuit.
second (1 A = 1 C / s). The smallest

Physics for Senior High School Grade X | SMA Negeri 1 Lamongan 3

Figure 1.2 Andre Marie
Ampere
Source:
http://id.wikipedia.org
 STUDENT’S BOOK [ELECTRODYNAMICS]

Mathematically the potential difference can be written as

B. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Electric potential is the number of charges contained in
an object. An object is said to have a higher electric potential
than other objects, if they will have more positive charge than
positive charge other objects.
+ (a)
+++++
A B
(b) C
(c) D
(d)
_+ +_+_+_++_+ ++__ _
_ _ _ _ _ _
Figure 1.4 Electric charges in some objects
In Figure 1.4, shows that object A
has a positive charge at most so that the
object A has the highest electric potential,
followed by objects B, C, and then D.
Electrical potential difference (voltage) arises because
C. OHM’S LAW
the two objects that have different electrical potential are
connected to a conductor. This potential difference serves to
drain the charge from one point to another. Unit of potential
difference is the volt (V). The instrument that used to measure
the electrical potential difference called a voltmeter.
Physics for Senior High School Grade X | SMA Negeri 1 Lamongan
follows.
….………….………….…………. (2)
(Nurachmandani, 2009: 185)
Note:
V : potential difference (Volt)
W : work/energy (Joule)
q : electric charge (Coulomb)
When measuring the electrical potential difference, the
voltmeter shall be installed in parallel with the object measured
potential difference. To set the voltmeter, without cuting the
circuit, but simply connect the tip of a higher potential to the
positive pole and the other end has a lower potential to the
negative pole. Based on the above equation can be seen that
when the source voltage plus (adding battery), then the amount
of charge that is delivered more large that the current is
increased. This makes the lamp become brighter.
Figure 1.5 Voltmeter be set parallel
Source: Nurachmandani, 2009:
A German physicist named George 186
Simon Ohm (1789-1854) discovered
relationship between the magnitudes of
potential difference with the amount of current flowing. He
concluded these findings into a law known as Ohm's Law.
4

V=Wq
 STUDENT’S BOOK [ELECTRODYNAMICS]

Ohm’s Law tells that: "Electric currents that flowing in a factors fixed to a certain conductor and at a certain temperature
conductor is proportional to the potential difference between the as well.
ends of Conductor on condition the
temperature constant/fixed".
The formulation of this law can be written
as follows:
V ∼ I (V is proportional to I)
=R
V Figure 1.6 The graph showing the relationship between the electric current
Figure 1.6 George Simon Ohm ….………….…………. (3) with potential difference
Source: http://id.wikipedia.org I
D. ELECTRIC RESISTANCE
(Nurachmandani, 2009: 190) Based on the equation of Ohm's law, electrical resistance
Note: can be defined as the quotient of the potential difference
V : potential difference or voltage (Volt) between the ends of conductor with strong currents flowing on
I : electric current (Ampere) the conductor. To commemorate the service Georg Simon Ohm,
R : resistance (Ohm/Ω) his name is used as the unit of electrical resistance, the ohm Ω.
IV(ampere)
R(volt) One conductor is said to have a one ohm resistance when it
flows in a conductive electrical current of one ampere is due to
the potential difference between the ends of the conductor of one
volt
1. Type of Resistor
There is familiar type of resistor that often we find in
daily life. These types of resistance (resistor) are fixed resistors
In this equation, R represents
and variable resistors.
is comparison of the magnitude of
a. Fixed Resistors

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STUDENT’S BOOK [ELECTRODYNAMICS]

In the fixed resistor that usually made from carbon or Brown 1 1 10 1%

nichrom in thin wire, the resistance value is symbolized by
the colors of the circle on the outer skin. Colors symbol has Red 2 2 100 2%
the meaning according to its location. Consider Table Orange 3 3 1.000 -
1.0.
Yellow 4 4 10.000 -

Green 5 5 100.000 -
or
R
Figure 1.7 Fixed Resistors
Blue 6 6 1.000.000 -
Source: http://teknisidjockam.blogspot.com
Purple 7 7 10.000.000 -

Grey 8 8 - -

White 9 9 - -

Gold - - 0,1 5%
Figure 1.8 Symbols fixed resistors Silver - - 0,01 10 %
Table 1.0 Resistor Color Code None - - - 20 %
First Second
Fourth Source: Istiyono, 2004: 151
Strip Strip Third Strip
Color Strip Color in the first strip shows the first digit of resistor
Figures Figures Multipliers value, the second strip shows second digit, third strip shows
Tolerance
to-1 to-2 the number of zeros is called the multiplier factor, and the
fourth strip shows the tolerance level. Fixed resistors are set
Black 0 0 1 -
on the electrical circuit such as radio, television, and

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STUDENT’S BOOK [ELECTRODYNAMICS]

computer functions to regulate the electrical current strength

and potential difference on certain values so that the
Figure 1.9 Various kinds of variable resistors and variable resistor
electrical components on the circuit can be use well. symbol
b. Variable Resistors In the market, variable resistor that we know there
are two, namely variable resistor type rotating and shifting
(rheostat). Principally, the workings of the two resistors is
same, which rotate or move the sliding contacts to increase
or decrease the resistance value as needed. This variable
resistor can be found in the system volume on radios, tape
recorders, and other electronic devices.
1. Measuring the Resistance
To measure the electrical Figure 1.10 Using a
resistances there are two ways, Multimeter
Source: Nurachmandani, 2009:
directly and indirectly. 194
a. Measuring Resistance Directly
Measuring tools that
can be used to measure electric current, potential difference,
(a) Type of shift (b) Type of spin
and resistance is multimeter. To measure resistance using a
Source: Nurachmandani, 2009: 193
multimeter, we first selected on the multimeter rotary switch
Ror in the direction marked R. Thus, the multimeter has
functioned as an ohmmeter (resistance meter). Connect the
terminal ends of the multimeter with the ends of the object to
be measured resistance, and then pay attention to the scale
that indicated in multimeter.
b. Measuring Resistance Indirectly

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 STUDENT’S BOOK [ELECTRODYNAMICS]

Be sides using a multimeter, you can also combine wire is affected by length of wire (l), resistivity of wire (ρ), and
voltmeters and ammeters together in electrical circuit that cross-sectional area of wire (A).
measured resistance. Voltmeter placed in parallel, while l A
ammeter placed in series with the object to be measured
resistance.

Figure 1.12 Resistance of Conductor Wire

Figure 1.11 Installation of ammeter and voltmeter in cercuit
Source: Nurachmandani, 2009: 194
After a circuit is set as shown in Figure 1.11, read the scale
of the voltmeter and ammeter shown, then calculate the
value of resistance R with ohm’s law equation.
R=VI or R=write scale in the voltmeterwrite scale in the
ammeter
E. RESISTANCE OF CONDUCTOR WIRE
Conductor wire is used in electrical circuit must have a
resistance, although the value is small. Resistance of a conductor
Mathematically, the relationship among these three factors can
be written as follows.
R=ρlA ………….………….…………. (4)
(Sumarno, 2009: 167)
Note:
R : resistance of wire ( Ω )
l : length of wire (m)
A : cross-sectional area of wire (m2)
ρ : resistivity of wire ( Ω.m)
Equation above shows that if the conductor wire getting longer
and the resistivity is bigger, resistance will bigger. But if the
cross-sectional area of wire conductor is greater, the value of
resistance will smaller. For resistance value of a conductor type

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STUDENT’S BOOK [ELECTRODYNAMICS]

size has been determined by scientists. Consider Table 1.1 Temperature,

Material Resistivity, ρ (Ω.m)
below! Coefficient α (Co)-1
Conductor

 Silver 1,59 x 10-8 0,0061

 Copper 1,68 x 10-8 0,0068

 Gold 2,44 x 10-8 0,0034

 Alumi 2,65 x 10-8 0,00429

num
5,6 x 10-8 0,0045
 Tungst
en 9,71 x 10-8 0,00651

 Iron 10,6 x 10-8 0,003927

 Platinu 98 x 10-8 0,0009

m 100 x 10-8 0,0004
 Mercur
y

 Nichro
m
(Ni,Fe,
Cr)
Semiconductor
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Table 1.1 Resistivity and Temperature Coefficient (at 20o as a branched road.
C)

Source: Giancoli, 2001: 70

F. KIRCHHOFF’S FIRST LAW

Kirchhoff’s First Law reads as follows. Figure 1.13 Total flows of each point on the branched circuit
“ Sum of electric current entering a branch Source: Nurachmandani, 2009: 200
point is equal to sum electric current
leaving that branch point”.
Kirchhoff's First Law of the fact it's called
I4321 a
the law of conservation electric charge.
Kirchhoff's first law can be expressed
mathematically as:
Figure 1.12 Gustav Robert
Kirchhoff ∑Iinput=∑Ioutput …………. (5)
Source: http://id.wikipedia.org

To get more understand about electric currents in

electrical circuits branching, you can suppose that Figure 1.14 The First Law of Kirchhoff Illustration of the branching
point

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In the figure 1.14 above, the currents I1 flowing through Figure 1.20 Series Circuits
point a equal to the amount of I2 + I3 + I4 flowing out of the Source: Nurachmandani, 2009: 207
point a. or can be expressed I1 = I2 + I3 + I4.
In Figure 1.20, there are two lamps (as resistance) set in
series. Electric currents flowing through both lamps are the same
G. ELECTRIC RESISTANCE CIRCUIT
size, while a different voltage (VAB ≠ VBC). By using Ohm's law
In electrical circuits, you may often come find some
can be written mathematically as follows:
resistance that set together. Resistance in question here is not
If VAB = I × R1, VBC = I × R2, VAC = VAB + VBC; then:
only a resistor, but all equipment that use electricity, such as
VAC = VAB + VBC
lights, radios, televisions, and electric irons. Electrical resistance
VAC = I × R1 + I × R2
circuit can be classifying into two kinds, namely series and
VAC = I (R1 + R2)
parallel.
If we replace the two resistances set in series with a
1. Series Circuit
resistance replacement (Rs) see Figure 1.20 (c), then VAC = I × Rs,
Series circuit is a circuit that set in a row (line). In the
so that we get the equation as follows:
series circuit connected with a voltage source, magnitude electric
VAC = I(R1 + R2)
current in every point in the circuit is same. So, all the barriers
I × Rs = I(R1 + R2)
installed on the circuit electrified the same magnitude.
Rs = R1 + R2
If one resistance is broken, then the electric current in the
So, general equation of equivalent resistance with set in series as
circuit is also broken/not flowing.
follows:
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... + Rn (n = number of resistance)

Equivalent resistance in both this circuit is always greater

because the number of resistance installed.
2. Parallel Circuit
Parallel circuit is a circuit that set side by side/in a row. If
(a) Lamp in series (b) Circuit symbol (c) Resistance equivalent resistance is set in parallel connected to a voltage source, the

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STUDENT’S BOOK [ELECTRODYNAMICS]

voltage at the ends of each barrier is same. According to the

Kirchhoff’s First Law, the number of electric current that flow at
each resistance equal with electric current that flow in the main
conductor.
If we replace the two parallel coupled with a equivalent
resistance (Req), see Figure 1:21 (c), then:
I=VRp
So we get the equation as follows

I=V1R1+1R2 ↔ VRp=V1R1+1R2

(a) Lamp in parallel (b) Circuit symbol (c) Equivalent

resistance
Figure 1.21 Parallel circuit
Source: Nurachmandani, 2009: 209

In Figure 1.21, two lamps (as resistance) set in parallel.

Electric current flow in the lamp 1 (I1) and the lamp 2 (I2) the
magnitude is depends on the value of resistance, while the
voltage across the two lamps are equal. Thus, a common form of obstacles arranged in parallel
By using the law I Kirchhoff and Ohm's law, it can be is:
written mathematically as follows.
1Rp=1R1+1R2+1R3+…+1Rn, (n=number resistance)
If I1=VR1, I2= VR2, and I= I1+ I2;so:
Rp=MultiplySum
I= I1+ I2=VR1+VR2=V1R1+1R2
Physics for Senior High School Grade X | SMA Negeri
Rp=R1x 1 Lamongan
R2xR3x…xRn(R1x 12
R2)+(R1x R3)+(R2x R3)+…
(Rn-1x Rn)
 STUDENT’S BOOK [ELECTRODYNAMICS]

Equivalent resistance in the parallel circuit is always less

because it is the sum of the inverse resistance of each
component.

REFERENCE

Giancoli, Douglas C. 2001. Fisika Jilid 2 (terjemahan Yuhilyah Hanum). Jakarta: Erlangga.
accessed on 29 November 2010.
accessed on 29 November 2010.
accessed on 29 November 2010. Physics for Senior High School Grade X | SMA Negeri 1 Lamongan 13
accessed on 12 Desember 2010.
Istiono, Edi. 2004. Sains FISIKA untuk Kelas X. Klaten: PT Intan Pariwara.
Nurachmandani, Setya. 2009. BSE Fisika 1 untuk SMA/MA Kelas X. Jakarta: Grahadi.
Sumarsono, Joko. 2009. BSE Fisika untuk SMA/MA Kelas X. Jakarta: CV Teguh Karya.