LCR

Major Project Report
On
Line Chaser Robot
In the partial fulfillment for B.E. (Electrical Engineering),

Degree scheme under MDU, Rohtak.
Submitted By- Project Guide-

Varun Katoria Miss Rakhi Kamra
Electrical 8th sem.
04/EE/2135
Department of Electrical Engineering

Hindu College Of Engineering
Sonepat
Line Chaser Robot
2
Certificate
This is to certify that Mr. Varun Katoria of Hindu College of

Engineering has created a project, Line Chaser Robot under the
guidance of Miss Rakhi Kamra.
The project is graded
Excellent
Good
Satisfactory
Poor
By Miss Rakhi Kamra
Project Guide
(Miss Rakhi Kamra)
3
Acknowledgement
It is my pleasure to acknowledge the assistance of Miss Rakhi Kamra,

without whose help this project would not have been possible.
I would like to express my gratitude to her for providing invaluable

encourage, guidance and assistance.
After doing this project I can confidently say that this experience has not
only enriched me with technical knowledge but also has unparsed the
maturity of thought and vision, the attributes required of being a successful
professional.
Varun Katoria
Project Guide
(Miss Rakhi Kamra)
4
Dedicated to my Beloved Parents
For
Giving me Precious Gift of
Education
5
Contents
1. Introduction to Microcontroller - 8
2. Introduction to Robotics - 10
3. History of Robot - 12
4. Brief Description of Major Components Used - 13
i. Microcontroller 8951 - 14
ii. Motor Driver IC ULN2003 - 33
iii. Op-Amp LM358 - 36
iv. IR L.E.D. - 42
v. Photo Diode - 44
vi. Lithium Ion Battery - 46
vii. Voltage Regulator - 48
viii. DC Motor - 51
5. Working of Line Chaser Robot - 53
6. Programming of Microcontroller - 56
7. Circuit Diagram of Line Chaser Robot - 58
8. PCB art work used - 59
9. Top View and Bottom View of Line Chaser Robot - 60
10. Minor Components employed in circuit
i. Resistors - 63
6
ii. Variable Resistors - 67
iii. Capacitors - 68
iv. Heat Sink - 71
v. Crystal Oscillator - 73
vi. L.E.D. - 75
11. PCB Manufacturing - 78
12. Solder and Soldering Proficiency - 81
13. Applications - 92
14. Future Scope - 93
15. References - 94
7
Introduction - Microcontroller
Introduction to 8051 Microprocessor:
The Intel 8051 is Harvard architecture, single chip microcontroller (µC) which was
developed by Intel in 1980 for use in embedded systems. It was popular in the 1980s and
early 1990s, but today it has largely been superseded by a vast range of enhanced devices
with 8051-compatible processor cores that are manufactured by more than 20
independent manufacturers including Atmel, Infineon Technologies, Maxim Integrated
Products (via its Dallas Semiconductor subsidiary), NXP (formerly Philips
Semiconductor), Winbond, ST Microelectronics, Silicon Laboratories (formerly Cygnal),
Texas Instruments and Cypress Semiconductor. Intel's official designation for the 8051
family of µCs is MCS 51.
Intel's original 8051 family was developed using NMOS technology, but later versions,
identified by a letter "C" in their name, e.g. 80C51, used CMOS technology and were less
power-hungry than their NMOS predecessors - this made them eminently more suitable
for battery-powered devices.
Important features and applications:
It provides many functions (CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O, interrupt logic, timer, etc.) in
a single package
8-bit data bus - It can access 8 bits of data in one operation (hence it is an 8-bit
microcontroller)
16-bit address bus - It can access 216 memory locations - 64 kB each of RAM and
ROM
On-chip RAM - 128 bytes ("Data Memory")
On-chip ROM - 4 kB ("Program Memory")
Four byte bi-directional input/output port
UART (serial port)
Two 16-bit timers
8
Two-level interrupt priority
Power saving mode
A particularly useful feature of the 8051 core is the inclusion of a boolean processing
engine which allows bit-level boolean logic operations to be carried out directly and
efficiently on internal registers and RAM. This feature helped to cement the 8051's
popularity in industrial control applications. Another valued feature is that it has four
separate register sets, which can be used to greatly reduce interrupt latency compared to
the more common method of storing interrupt context on a stack.
8051 based microcontrollers typically include one or two UARTs, two or three timers,
128 or 256 bytes of internal data RAM (16 bytes of which are bit-addressable), up to 128
bytes of I/O, 512 bytes to 64 kB of internal program memory, and sometimes a quantity
of extended data RAM (ERAM) located in the external data space. The original 8051
core ran at 12 clock cycles per machine cycle, with most instructions executing in one or
two machine cycles. With a 12 MHz clock frequency, the 8051 could thus execute 1
million one-cycle instructions per second or 500,000 two-cycle instructions per second.
Enhanced 8051 cores are now commonly used which run at six, four, two, or even one
clock per machine cycle, and have clock frequencies of up to 100 MHz, and are thus
capable of an even greater number of instructions per second. All SILabs, some Dallas
and a few Atmel devices have single cycle cores.
Common features included in modern 8051 based microcontrollers include built-in reset
timers with brown-out detection, on-chip oscillators, self-programmable Flash ROM
program memory, bootloader code in ROM, EEPROM non-volatile data storage, I²C,
SPI, and USB host interfaces, PWM generators, analog comparators, A/D and D/A
converters, RTCs, extra counters and timers, in-circuit debugging facilities, more
interrupt sources, and extra power saving modes.
Programming:
Several C compilers are available for the 8051, most of which feature extensions that
allow the programmer to specify where each variable should be stored in its six types of
memory, and provide access to 8051 specific hardware features such as the multiple
register banks and bit manipulation instructions. Other high level languages such as
Forth, BASIC, Pascal, PL/M and Modula 2 are available for the 8051, but they are less
widely used than C and assembly.
9
Introduction to Robotics
A robot is a mechanical or virtual, artificial agent. It is usually an electromechanical

system, which, by its appearance or movements, conveys a sense that it has intent or
agency of its own. The word robot can refer to both physical robots and virtual software
agents, but the latter are usually referred to as bots to differentiate.
While there is still discussion about which machines qualify as robots, a typical robot will
have several, though not necessarily all of the following properties:
-is not 'natural' i.e. artificially created
-can sense its environment, and manipulate or interact with things in it
-has some ability to make choices based on the environment, often using
automatic control or a preprogrammed sequence
-is programmable
-moves with one or more axes of rotation or translation
-makes dexterous coordinated movements
-appears to have intent or agency .
Defining characteristics:
The last property, the appearance of agency, is important when people are considering
whether to call a machine a robot, or just a machine. In general, the more a machine has
the appearance of agency, the more it is considered a robot.
Mental Agency:
For robotic engineers, the physical appearance of a machine is less important than the
way its actions are controlled. The more the control system seems to have agency of its
own, the more likely the machine is to be called a robot. An important feature of agency
is the ability to make choices. So the more a machine could feasibly choose to do
something different, the more agency it has. For example:
-a clockwork car is never considered a robot
10
-a remotely operated vehicle is sometimes considered a robot (or telerobot)
-a car with an onboard computer, like Bigtrak, which could drive in a

programmable sequence, might be called a robot.
-a self-controlled car, like the 1990s driverless cars of Ernst Dickmanns, or the
entries to the DARPA Grand Challenge, which could sense its environment, and
make driving decisions based on this information would quite likely be called
robot.
-a sentient car, like the fictional KITT, which can make decisions, navigate freely
and converse fluently with a human, is usually considered a robot.
Physical Agency:
However, for many laymen, if a machine looks anthropomorphic or zoomorphic (e.g.

ASIMO or Aibo), especially if it is limb-like (e.g. a simple robot arm), or has limbs, or
can move around, it would be called a robot.
For example, even if the following examples used the same control architecture:
-a player piano is rarely characterized as a robot
-a CNC milling machine is very occasionally characterized as a robot.
-a factory automation arm is almost always characterized as a robot or an

industrial robot.
-an autonomous wheeled or tracked device, such as a self-guided rover or self-

guided vehicle, is almost always characterized as a robot, a mobile robot or a
service robot
-a zoomorphic mechanical toy, like Roboraptor, is usually characterized as a

robot.
-a humanoid, like ASIMO, is almost always characterized as a robot or a service

robot.
Interestingly, while a 3-axis CNC milling machine may have a very similar or identical
control system to a robot arm, it is the arm which is almost always called a robot, while
the CNC machine is usually just a machine. Having a limb can make all the difference.
Having eyes too gives people a sense that a machine is aware ("the eyes are the windows
of the soul"). However, simply being anthropomorphic is not sufficient for something to
be called a robot. A robot must do something, whether it is useful work or not. So, for
example, a rubber dog chew, shaped like ASIMO, would not be considered a robot.
11
History of Robot
The idea of artificial people dates at least as far back as the ancient legends of Cadmus,
who sowed dragon teeth that turned into soldiers, and the myth of Pygmalion, whose
statue of Galatea came to life. In Greek mythology, the deformed god of metalwork
(Vulcan or Hephaestus) created mechanical servants, ranging from intelligent, golden
handmaidens to more utilitarian three-legged tables that could move about under their
own power, and the robot Talos defended Crete. Medieval Persian alchemist Jabir ibn
Hayyan included recipes for creating artificial snakes, scorpions, and humans in his
coded Book of Stones. Jewish legend tells of the Golem, a clay creature animated by
Kabbalistic magic. Similarly, in the Younger Edda, Norse mythology tells of a clay giant,
Mökkurkálfi or Mistcalf, constructed to aid the troll Hrungnir in a duel with Thor, the
God of Thunder.
In ancient China, a curious account on automata is found in the Lie Zi text, written in the
3rd century BC. Within it there is a description of a much earlier encounter between King
Mu of Zhou (1023 BC-957 BC) and a mechanical engineer known as Yan Shi, an
'artificer'. The latter proudly presented the king with a life-size, human-shaped figure of
his mechanical handiwork.
The king stared at the figure in astonishment. It walked with rapid strides, moving its
head up and down, so that anyone would have taken it for a live human being. The
artificer touched its chin, and it began singing, perfectly in tune. He touched its hand, and
it began posturing, keeping perfect time...As the performance was drawing to an end, the
robot winked its eye and made advances to the ladies in attendance, whereupon the king
became incensed and would have had Yen Shih [Yan Shi] executed on the spot had not
the latter, in mortal fear, instantly taken the robot to pieces to let him see what it really
was. And, indeed, it turned out to be only a construction of leather, wood, glue and
lacquer, variously coloured white, black, red and blue. Examining it closely, the king
found all the internal organs complete—liver, gall, heart, lungs, spleen, kidneys, stomach
and intestines; and over these again, muscles, bones and limbs with their joints, skin,
teeth and hair, all of them artificial...The king tried the effect of taking away the heart,
and found that the mouth could no longer speak; he took away the liver and the eyes
could no longer see; he took away the kidneys and the legs lost their power of
locomotion. The king was delighted.
Concepts akin to a robot can be found as long ago as the 4th century BC, when the Greek
mathematician Archytas of Tarentum postulated a mechanical bird he called "The
Pigeon" which was propelled by steam. Yet another early automaton was the clepsydra,
made in 250 BC by Ctesibius of Alexandria, a physicist and inventor from Ptolemaic
Egypt.Hero of Alexandria (10-70 AD) made numerous innovations in the field of
automata, including one that allegedly could speak.
12
Brief Description of Major Components Used
In Line Chaser Robot
13
Brief Description of 8051 Microcontroller
The Intel 8051 is an 8-bit microcontroller which means that most available operations are
limited to 8 bits. There are 3 basic "sizes" of the 8051: Short, Standard, and Extended.
The Short and Standard chips are often available in DIP form, but the Extended 8051
models often have a different form factor, and are not "drop-in compatable". All these
things are called 8051 because they can all be programmed using 8051 assembly
language, and they all share certain features (although the different models all have their
own special features).
Some of the features that have made the 8051 popular are:
-8-bit data bus
-16-bit address bus
-34 general purpose registers each of 8 bits
-16 bit timers (usually 2, but may have more, or less).
-3 internal and 2 external interrupts.
-Bit as well as byte addressable RAM area of 16 bytes.
-4 8-bit ports, (short models have 2 8-bit ports).
-16-bit program counter and data pointer
Basic Pins:
PIN 9: PIN 9 is the reset pin which is used reset the microcontroller’s internal registers
and ports upon starting up.
PINS 18 & 19: The 8051 has a built-in oscillator amplifier hence we need to only
connect a crystal at these pins to provide clock pulses to the circuit.
PIN 40 and 20: Pins 40 and 20 are VCC and ground respectively. The 8051 chip
needs +5V 500mA to function properly, although there are lower
powered versions like the Atmel 2051 which is a scaled down
version of the 8051 which runs on +3V.
14
PINS 29, 30 & 31: As described in the features of the 8051, this chip contains a built-
in flash memory. In order to program this we need to supply a
voltage of +12V at pin 31. If external memory is connected then
PIN 31, also called EA/VPP, should be connected to ground to
indicate the presence of external memory. PIN 30 is called ALE
(address latch enable), which is used when multiple memory chips
are connected to the controller and only one of them needs to be
selected. We will deal with this in depth in the later chapters. PIN
29 is called PSEN. This is "program select enable". In order to use
the external memory it is required to provide the low voltage (0) on
both PSEN and EA pins.
Fig.1.1
Ports:
There are 4 8-bit ports: P0, P1, P2 and P3.
PORT P1 (Pins 1 to 8): The port P1 is a general purpose input/output port which
can be used for a variety of interfacing tasks. The other
ports P0, P2 and P3 have dual roles or additional functions
associated with them based upon the context of their usage.
PORT P3 (Pins 10 to 17): PORT P3 acts as a normal IO port, but Port P3 has
additional functions such as, serial transmit and receive
15
pins, 2 external interrupt pins, 2 external counter inputs,
read and write pins for memory access.
PORT P2 (pins 21 to 28): PORT P2 can also be used as a general purpose 8 bit port
when no external memory is present, but if external
memory access is required then PORT P2 will act as an
address bus in conjunction with PORT P0 to access
external memory. PORT P2 acts as A8-A15, as can be seen
from fig 1.1
PORT P0 (pins 32 to 39) PORT P0 can be used as a general purpose 8 bit port when
no external memory is present, but if external memory
access is required then PORT P0 acts as a multiplexed
address and data bus that can be used to access external
memory in conjunction with PORT P2. P0 acts as AD0-
AD7, as can be seen from fig 1.1
Oscillator Circuits:
The 8051 requires the existance of an external oscillator circuit.The oscillator circuit
usually runs around 12MHz, although the 8051 (depending on which specific model) is
capable of running at a maximum of 40MHz. Each machine cycle in the 8051 is 12 clock
cycles, giving an effective cycle rate at 1MHz (for a 12KHz clock) to 3.33MHz (for the
maximum 40MHz clock).
Data and Program Memory
The 8051 Microprocessor can be programmed in 8051 Assembly, C and a number of

other high-level languages. Many compilers even have support for compiling C++ for an
8051.
Program memory in the 8051 is read-only, while the data memory is considered to be
read/write accessible. When stored on EEPROM or Flash, the program memory can be
rewritten when the microcontroller is in the special programmer circuit.
Program Start Address
The 8051 starts executing program instructions from address 0x00 in the program
memory.
Direct Memory
16
The 8051 has 256 bytes of internal addressable RAM, although only the first 128 bytes
are available for general use by the programmer. The first 128 bytes of RAM (from 0x00
to 0x7F) are called the Direct Memory, and can be used to store data.
Figure 1.2 shows a functional block of the internal operation of an 8051 microcomputer.
The internal components of the chip are shown within the broken line box.
A D D R E S S B U S ( E x te r n a l) 1 6 b it
In te rn a l M e m o ry
M em ory A ddress
R e g is t e r I- R A M
(U s e s P 0 a n d P 2 )
G e n e r a l R e g is te r s
STAC K
B it- a d d r e s s a b le
DPTR
S F R s e tc .
P.C.
In te r n a l d a ta b u s
In s tr u c t io n Acc
R e g is te r B A c c u m u la t o r
DATA BUS (External) 8 bit

I n s t r u c t io n T e m p o ra ry T e m p o rary
d e c o d er/ r e g i s te r r e g i s te r
c o n t r o l lo g ic
PSW
fl a g s
C
AC
F0
R S1
R S2 ALU
O V 8 - b it
P
Control Lines
P o rt 1 T i m e r/ T i m e r/C o u te r
etc... C o u n te r 0 1
UART
R D /W R /PSEN /
A L E / e tc .
Figure 1.1 8051 functional block diagram.
17
MEMORY AND REGISTER ORGANISATION
The 8051 has a separate memory space for code (programs) and data. We will refer here
to on-chip memory and external memory as shown in figure 1.5. In an actual
implementation the external memory may, in fact, be contained within the
microcomputer chip. However, we will use the definitions of internal and external
memory to be consistent with 8051 instructions which operate on memory.
Note, the separation of the code and data memory in the 8051 architecture is a little
unusual. The separated memory architecture is referred to as Harvard architecture
whereas Von Neumann architecture defines a system where code and data can share
common memory.
FFFFh
External
DATA
8051 chip
Memory
0000h (up to 64KB)
Internal
Memory
FFFFh External
Internal CODE
SFRs
Memory
Internal
RAM (up to 64KB)
0000h
Figure 1.5 8051 Memory representation
External Code Memory
The executable program code is stored in this code memory. The code memory size is
limited to 64KBytes (in a standard 8051). The code memory is read-only in normal
operation and is programmed under special conditions e.g. it is a PROM or a Flash RAM
type of memory.
Internal Memory
The 8051’s on-chip memory consists of 256 memory bytes organized as follows:
18
First 128 bytes: 00h to 1Fh Register Banks
20h to 2Fh Bit Addressable RAM
30 to 7Fh General Purpose RAM
Next 128 bytes: 80h to FFh Special Function Registers
The first 128 bytes of internal memory is organised as shown in figure 1.6, and is referred
to as Internal RAM, or IRAM.
Byte
Address Bit address

b7 b6 b5 b4 b3 b2 b1 b0
7Fh
General purpose
RAM area.
80 bytes
30h
2Fh 7F 78 Figure 1.6 Organisation of Internal RAM (IRAM)
2Eh 77 70 memory
2Dh 6F 68
2Ch 67 60 Internal Memory
2Bh 5F 58 FFh
2Ah 57 50 External RAM Data Memory
29h 4F 48 SFRs
28h 47 40 This is read-write memory and is available for storage
27h 3F 38 of data. Up to 64KBytes of external RAM data memory
26h 37 30 is supported (in a standard 8051).
25h 2F 28
24h 27 20 Internal
23h 1F 18
22h 17 10 Register Banks: 00h to 1Fh RAM 80h
21h 0F 08
20h 07 00 The 8051 uses 8 general-purpose registers R07Fh
through
1Fh Regs 0 ..7 (Bank 1) R7 (R0, R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, and R7). These
18h
registers are used in instructions such as:
17h Regs 0 ..7 (Bank 1)
10h
0Fh Regs 0 ..7 (Bank 1) ADD A, R2 ; adds the valueRegister
contained in R2 to
08h the accumulator 07h
Bank 0
Reg. 7
07h Regs 0 ..7 (Bank 0)
00h 06h
Note since R2 happens to be memory location
Reg. 6 02h in the
Internal RAM the following instruction has the same effect as the
05habove instruction.
Reg. 5
ADD A, 02h
There are four banks of these general-purpose registers defined 04h
within the
Reg.Internal
4 RAM.
For the moment we will consider register bank 0 only. Register banks 1 to 3 can be
ignored when writing introductory level assembly language programs.
19
Bit Addressable RAM: 20h to 2Fh
The 8051 supports a special feature which allows access to bit variables. This is where
individual memory bits in Internal RAM can be set or cleared. In all there are 128 bits
numbered 00h to 7Fh. Being bit variables any one variable can have a value 0 or 1. A bit
variable can be set with a command such as SETB and cleared with a command such as
CLR. Example instructions are:
SETB 25h ; sets the bit 25h (becomes 1)
CLR 25h ; clears bit 25h (becomes 0)
Note, bit 25h is actually bit b5 of Internal RAM location 24h.
The Bit Addressable area of the RAM is just 16 bytes of Internal RAM located between
20h and 2Fh. So if a program writes a byte to location 20h, for example, it writes 8 bit
variables, bits 00h to 07h at once.
Note bit addressing can also be performed on some of the SFR registers, which will be
discussed later on.
Byte Bit address

address b7 b6 b5 b4 b3 b2 b1 b0
FFh
F0h B *
E0h A (accumulator) *
D0h PSW *
B8h IP *
B0h Port 3 (P3) * Internal Memory

FFh
A8h IE *
SFRs
A0h Port 2 (P2) *
99h SBUF
98h SCON *
Internal
RAM 80h
20
7Fh
90h Port 1 (P1) *
8Dh TH1
8Ch TH0
8Bh TL1
8Ah TL0
89h TMOD
88h TCON *
87h PCON
83h DPH
82h DPL
81h SP
80h Port 0 (P0) *
*indicates the SFR registers which are bit addressable
Figure 1.7 SFR register layout
General Purpose RAM: 30h to 7Fh
These 80 bytes of Internal RAM memory are available for general-purpose data storage.
Access to this area of memory is fast compared to access to the main memory and special
instructions with single byte operands are used. However, these 80 bytes are used by the
system stack and in practice little space is left for general storage. The general purpose
RAM can be accessed using direct or indirect addressing modes. Examples of direct
addressing:
MOV A, 6Ah ; reads contents of address 6Ah to accumulator
Examples for indirect addressing (use registers R0 or R1):

MOV R1, #6Ah ; move immediate 6Ah to R1
MOV A, @R1 ; move indirect: R1 contains address of Internal RAM which
contains data that is moved to A.
These two instructions have the same effect as the direct instruction above.
SFR Registers
The SFR registers are located within the Internal Memory in the address range 80h to
FFh, as shown in figure 1.7. Not all locations within this range are defined. Each SFR
has a very specific function. Each SFR has an address (within the range 80h to FFh) and a
name which reflects the purpose of the SFR. Although 128 byes of the SFR address space
is defined only 21 SFR registers are defined in the standard 8051. Undefined SFR
addresses should not be accessed as this might lead to some unpredictable results.
21
Port Registers SFR
The standard 8051 has four 8 bit I/O ports: P0, P1, P2 and P3.
For example Port 0 is a physical 8 bit I/O port on the 8051. Read (input) and write
(output) access to this port is done in software by accessing the SFR P0 register which is
located at address 80h. SFR P0 is also bit addressable. Each bit corresponds to a physical
I/O pin on the 8051. Example access to port 0:
SETB P0.7 ; sets the MSB bit of Port 0

CLR P0.7 ; clears the MSB bit of Port 0
The operand P0.7 uses the dot operator and refers to bit 7 of SFR P0. The same bit could
be addressed by accessing bit location 87h. Thus the following two instructions have the
same meaning:
CLR P0.7
CLR 87h
PSW Program Status Word
PSW, the Program Status Word is at address D0h and is a bit-addressable register. The
status bits are listed in table 1.1.
Table 1.1. Program status word (PSW) flags
Symbol Bit Address Description

C (or CY) PSW.7 D7h Carry flag
AC PSW.6 D6h Auxiliary carry flag
F0 PSW.5 D5h Flag 0
RS1 PSW.4 D4h Register bank select 1
RS0 PSW.3 D3h Register bank select 0
0V PSW.2 D2h Overflow flag
PSW.1 D1h Reserved
P PSW.0 D0h Even Parity flag
Carry flag. C
This is a conventional carry, or borrow, flag used in arithmetic operations. The carry flag
is also used as the ‘Boolean accumulator’ for Boolean instruction operating at the bit
level. This flag is sometimes referenced as the CY flag.
22
Auxiliary carry flag. AC
This is a conventional auxiliary carry (half carry) for use in BCD arithmetic.
Flag 0. F0
This is a general-purpose flag for user programming.
Register bank select 0 and register bank select 1. RS0 and RS1
These bits define the active register bank (bank 0 is the default register bank).
Overflow flag. OV
This is a conventional overflow bit for signed arithmetic to determine if the result of a
signed arithmetic operation is out of range.
Even Parity flag. P
The parity flag is the accumulator parity flag, set to a value, 1 or 0, such that the number
of ‘1’ bits in the accumulator plus the parity bit add up to an even number.
Stack Pointer
The Stack Pointer, SP, is an 8-bit SFR register at address 81h. The small address field (8
bits) and the limited space available in the Internal RAM confines the stack size and this
is sometimes a limitation for 8051 programmes. The SP contains the address of the data
byte currently on the top of the stack. The SP pointer in initialised to a defined address. A
new data item is ‘pushed’ on to the stack using a PUSH instruction which will cause the
data item to be written to address SP + 1. Typical instructions, which cause modification
to the stack are: PUSH, POP, LCALL, RET, RETI etc.. The SP SFR, on start-up, is
initialised to 07h so this means the stack will start at 08h and expand upwards in Internal
RAM. If register banks 1 to 3 are to be used the SP SFR should be initialised to start
higher up in Internal RAM. The following instruction is often used to initialise the stack:
MOV SP, #2Fh
Data Pointer
23
The Data Pointer, DPTR, is a special 16-bit register used to address the external code or
external data memory. Since the SFR registers are just 8-bits wide the DPTR is stored in
two SFR registers, where DPL (82h) holds the low byte of the DPTR and DPH (83h)
holds the high byte of the DPTR. For example, if you wanted to write the value 46h to
external data memory location 2500h, you might use the following instructions:
MOV A, #46h ; Move immediate 8 bit data 46h to A (accumulator)
MOV DPTR, #2504h ; Move immediate 16 bit address value 2504h to A.

; Now DPL holds 04h and DPH holds25h.
MOVX @DPTR, A ; Move the value in A to external RAM location 2500h.

Uses indirect addressing.
Note the MOVX (Move X) instruction is used to access external memory.
Accumulator
This is the conventional accumulator that one expects to find in any computer, which is
used to the hold result of various arithmetic and logic operations. Since the 8051
microcontroller is just an 8-bit device, the accumulator is, as expected, an 8 bit register.
The accumulator, referred to as ACC or A, is usually accessed explicitly using

instructions such as:
INC A ; Increment the accumulator
However, the accumulator is defined as an SFR register at address E0h. So the following
two instructions have the same effect:
MOV A, #52h ; Move immediate the value 52h to the accumulator
MOV E0h, #52h ; Move immediate the value 52h to Internal RAM location E0h,
which is, in fact, the accumulator SFR register.
Usually the first method, MOV A, #52h, is used as this is the most conventional (and
happens to use less space, 2 bytes as oppose to 3 bytes!)
B Register
The B register is an SFR register at addresses F0h which is bit-addressable. The B

register is used in two instructions only: i.e. MUL (multiply) and DIV (divide). The B
register can also be used as a general-purpose register.
24
Program Counter
The PC (Program Counter) is a 2 byte (16 bit) register which always contains the
memory address of the next instruction to be executed. When the 8051 is reset the PC is
always initialised to 0000h. If a 2 byte instruction is executed the PC is incremented by 2
and if a 3 byte instruction is executed the PC is incremented by three so as to correctly
point to the next instruction to be executed. A jump instruction (e.g. LJMP) has the effect
of causing the program to branch to a newly specified location, so the jump instruction
causes the PC contents to change to the new address value. Jump instructions cause the
program to flow in a non-sequential fashion, as will be described later.
SFR Registers for the Internal Timer
The set up and operation of the on-chip hardware timers will be described later, but the
associated registers are briefly described here:
TCON, the Timer Control register is an SFR at address 88h, which is bit-addressable.
TCON is used to configure and monitor the 8051 timers. The TCON SFR also contains
some interrupt control bits, described later.
TMOD, the Timer Mode register is an SFR at address 89h and is used to define the
operational modes for the timers, as will be described later.
TL0 (Timer 0 Low) and TH0 (Timer 0 High) are two SFR registers addressed at 8Ah and
8Bh respectively. The two registers are associated with Timer 0.
TL1 (Timer 1 Low) and TH1 (Timer 1 High) are two SFR registers addressed at 8Ch and
8Dh respectively. These two registers are associated with Timer 1.
Power Control Register
PCON (Power Control) register is an SFR at address 87h. It contains various control bits
including a control bit, which allows the 8051 to go to ‘sleep’ so as to save power when
not in immediate use.
Serial Port Registers
Programming of the on-chip serial communications port will be described later in the
text. The associated SFR registers, SBUF and SCON, are briefly introduced here, as
follows:
25
The SCON (Serial Control) is an SFR register located at addresses 98h, and it is bit-
addressable. SCON configures the behaviour of the on-chip serial port, setting up
parameters such as the baud rate of the serial port, activating send and/or receive data,
and setting up some specific control flags.
The SBUF (Serial Buffer) is an SFR register located at address 99h. SBUF is just a
single byte deep buffer used for sending and receiving data via the on-chip serial port
Interrupt Registers
Interrupts will be discussed in more detail later. The associated SFR registers are:
IE (Interrupt Enable) is an SFR register at addresses A8h and is used to enable and
disable specific interrupts. The MSB bit (bit 7) is used to disable all interrupts.
IP (Interrupt Priority) is an SFR register at addresses B8h and it is bit addressable. The IP
register specifies the relative priority (high or low priority) of each interrupt. On the
8051, an interrupt may either be of low (0) priority or high (1) priority.
ADDRESSING MODES
There are a number of addressing modes available to the 8051 instruction set, as follows:
Immediate Addressing Register Addressing Direct Addressing

Indirect Addressing Relative Addressing Absolute addressing
Long Addressing Indexed Addressing
Immediate Addressing
Immediate addressing simply means that the operand (which immediately follows the
instruction op. code) is the data value to be used. For example the instruction:
MOV A, #99d
Moves the value 99 into the accumulator (note this is 99 decimal since we used 99d). The
# symbol tells the assembler that the immediate addressing mode is to be used.
Register Addressing
One of the eight general-registers, R0 to R7, can be specified as the instruction operand.
The assembly language documentation refers to a register generically as Rn. An example
instruction using register addressing is :
26
ADD A, R5 ; Adds register R5 to A (accumulator)
Here the contents of R5 is added to the accumulator. One advantage of register ddressing
is that the instructions tend to be short, single byte instructions.
Direct Addressing
Direct addressing means that the data value is obtained directly from the memory
location specified in the operand. For example consider the instruction:
MOV A, 47h
Internal RAM
Accumulator
48h
47h
46h
The instruction reads the data from Internal RAM address 47h and stores this in the
accumulator. Direct addressing can be used to access Internal RAM , including the SFR
registers.
Indirect Addressing
Indirect addressing provides a powerful addressing capability, which needs to be

appreciated. An example instruction, which uses indirect addressing, is as follows:
MOV A, @R0
Internal RAM
Accumulator R0
55h
54h
54h
53h
Note the @ symbol indicated that the indirect addressing mode is used. R0 contains a
value, for example 54h, which is to be used as the address of the internal RAM.
Location, which contains the operand data. Indirect addressing refers to Internal RAM
only and cannot be used to refer to SFR registers.
Note, only R0 or R1 can be used as register data pointers for indirect addressing when
using MOV instructions.
27
The 8052 (as opposed to the 8051) has an additional 128 bytes of internal RAM. These
128 bytes of RAM can be accessed only using indirect addressing.
Relative Addressing
This is a special addressing mode used with certain jump instructions. The relative
address, often referred to as an offset, is an 8-bit signed number, which is automatically
added to the PC to make the address of the next instruction. The 8-bit signed offset value
gives an address range of + 127 to –128 locations. Consider the following example:
SJMP LABEL_X
Code
Memory
PC is set to next
instruction address:
2006h 2002h when SJMP
2005h begins execution. The
target address is then
2004h the sum of the PC +
relative offset needed
04 SJMP
2003h to reach LABEL_X.
80 LABEL_X
Offset is 4 in this case.
2002h
2001h
An advantage of relative addressing is that the program code is easy to relocate in

memory in that the addressing is relative to the position in memory.
Absolute addressing
Absolute addressing within the 8051 is used only by the AJMP (Absolute Jump) and
ACALL (Absolute Call) instructions, which will be discussed later
Long Addressing
The long addressing mode within the 8051 is used with the instructions LJMP and
LCALL. The address specifies a full 16 bit destination address so that a jump or a call
can be made to a location within a 64KByte code memory space (216 = 64K). An
example instruction is:
LJMP 5000h ; full 16 bit address is specified in operand
28
Indexed Addressing
With indexed addressing a separate register, either the program counter, PC, or the data
pointer DTPR, is used as a base address and the accumulator is used as an offset address.
The effective address is formed by adding the value from the base address to the value
from the offset address. Indexed addressing in the 8051 is used with the JMP or MOVC
instructions. Look up tables are easy to implemented with the help of index addressing.
Consider the example instruction:
MOVC A, @A+DPTR
MOVC is a move instruction, which moves data from the external code memory space.
The address operand in this example is formed by adding the content of the DPTR
register to the accumulator value. Here the DPTR value is referred to as the base address
and the accumulator value us referred to as the index address. An example program using
the indexed addressing mode will be shown later
Programming the Flash
The AT89C51 is normally shipped with the on-chip Flash memory array in the erased
state (that is, contents = FFH) and ready to be programmed. The programming interface
accepts either a high-voltage (12-volt) or a low-voltage (VCC) program enable signal.
The low-voltage programming mode provides a convenient way to program the
AT89C51 inside the user’s system, while the high-voltage programming mode is
compatible with conventional third party Flash or EPROM programmers. The AT89C51
is shipped with either the high-voltage or low-voltage programming mode enabled. The
respective top-side marking and device signature codes are listed in the following table.
The AT89C51 code memory array is programmed byte-by byte in either programming
mode. To program any nonblank byte in the on-chip Flash Memory, the entire memory
must be erased using the Chip Erase Mode.
29
Programming Algorithm:
Before programming the AT89C51, the address, data and control signals should be set up
according to the Flash programming mode table and Figure 3 and Figure 4. To program
the AT89C51, take the following steps.
1. Input the desired memory location on the address lines.
2. Input the appropriate data byte on the data lines.
3. Activate the correct combination of control signals.
4. Raise EA/VPP to 12V for the high-voltage programming mode.
5. Pulse ALE/PROG once to program a byte in the Flash array or the lock bits. The
byte-write cycle is self-timed and typically takes no more than 1.5 ms.
Repeat steps 1 through 5, changing the address and data for the entire array or until the
end of the object file is reached.
Data Polling:
The AT89C51 features Data Polling to indicate the end of a write cycle. During a write
cycle, an attempted read of the last byte written will result in the complement of the
written datum on PO.7. Once the write cycle has been completed, true data are valid on
all outputs, and the next cycle may begin. Data Polling may begin any time after a write
cycle has been initiated.
Ready/Busy:
The progress of byte programming can also be monitored by the RDY/BSY output signal.
P3.4 is pulled low after ALE goes high during programming to indicate BUSY. P3.4 is
pulled high again when programming is done to indicate READY.
Program Verify:
If lock bits LB1 and LB2 have not been programmed, the programmed code data can be
read back via the address and data lines for verification. The lock bits cannot be verified
directly. Verification of the lock bits is achieved by observing that their features are
enabled.
30
Chip Erase:
The entire Flash array is erased electrically by using the proper combination of control
signals and by holding ALE/PROG low for 10 ms. The code array is written with all
“1”s. The chip erase operation must be executed before the code memory can be re-
programmed.
Reading the Signature Bytes:
The signature bytes are read by the same procedure as a normal verification of locations
030H, 031H, and 032H, except that P3.6 and P3.7 must be pulled to a logic low. The
values returned are as follows.
(030H) = 1EH indicates manufactured by Atmel
(031H) = 51H indicates 89C51
(032H) = FFH indicates 12V programming

(032H) = 05H indicates 5V programming
31
Brief Description of Motor Driver IC - ULN2003
Features
■ Seven Darlington per package
■ Output current 500 mA per driver (600 mA peak)
■ Output voltage 50 V
■ Integrated suppression diodes for inductive loads
■ Outputs can be paralleled for higher current
■ TTL/CMOS/PMOS/DTL Compatible inputs
32
■ Inputs pinned
Description
The ULN2001, ULN2002, ULN2003 and ULN 2004 are high voltage, high current
Darlington arrays each containing seven open collector Darlington pairs with common
emitters. Each channel rated at 500 mA and can withstand peak currents of 600 mA.
Suppression diodes are included for inductive load driving and the inputs are pinned
opposite the outputs to simplify board layout.
These versatile devices are useful for driving a wide range of loads including solenoids,
relays DC motors, LED displays filament lamps, thermal printheads and high power
buffers. The 2003A and 2004A are supplied in 16 pin plastic DIP packages with a copper
leadframe to reduce thermal resistance.
Schematic
diagram
Pin configuration
Maximum ratings
33
34
Brief Description of LM358 – Op-Amp
An operational amplifier, often called an op-amp, is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic

voltage amplifier with differential inputs and, usually, a single output. Typically the
output of the op-amp is controlled either by negative feedback, which largely determines
the magnitude of its output voltage gain, or by positive feedback, which facilitates
regenerative gain and oscillation. High input impedance at the input terminals and low
output impedance are important typical characteristics.
Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast
array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC op-amps cost only
a few cents in moderate production volume.
Modern designs are electronically more rugged than earlier implementations and some
can sustain direct short-circuits on their outputs without damage.
35
Basic Operation:
The amplifier's differential inputs consist of an inverting input and a non-inverting input,
and ideally the op-amp amplifies only the difference in voltage between the two. This is
called the "differential input voltage". In its most common use, the op-amp's output
voltage is controlled by feeding a fraction of the output signal back to the inverting input.
This is known as negative feedback. If that fraction is zero, i.e., there is no negative
feedback, the amplifier is said to be running "open loop" and its output is the differential
input voltage multiplied by the total gain of the amplifier, as shown by the following
equation:
Where V+ is the voltage at the non-inverting terminal, V− is the voltage at the inverting
terminal and G is the total open-loop gain of the amplifier.
Because the magnitude of the open-loop gain is typically very large and not well
controlled by the manufacturing process, op-amps are not usually used without negative
feedback. Unless the differential input voltage is extremely small, open-loop operation
results in op-amp saturation (see below in nonlinear imperfections). An example of how
the output voltage is calculated when negative feedback exists is shown below in Basic
non-inverting amplifier circuit.
Another typical configuration of op-amps is the positive feedback, which takes a fraction
of the output signal back to the non-inverting input. An important application of it is the
comparator with hysteresis.
The ideal op-amp
For any input voltages the ideal op-amp has
• infinite open-loop gain,
• infinite bandwidth,
• infinite input impedances (resulting in zero input currents),
• zero offset voltage,
• infinite slew rate,
• zero output impedance, and
• zero noise.
36
Thus the inputs of an ideal op-amp under negative feedback can be modeled using a
nullator, the output with a norator and the combination (complete ideal op-amp) by a
nullor.
Real op-amps can only approach this ideal: in addition to the practical limitations on slew
rate, bandwidth, offset and so forth mentioned above, real op-amp parameters are subject
to drift over time and with changes in temperature, input conditions, etc. Modern
integrated FET or MOSFET op-amps approximate more closely the ideal op-amp than
bipolar ICs where large signals must be handled at room temperature over a limited
bandwidth; input impedance, in particular, is much higher, although the bipolar op-amps
usually exhibit superior (i.e., lower) input offset drift and noise characteristics.
Where the limitations of real devices can be ignored, an op-amp can be viewed as a black
box with gain; circuit function and parameters are determined by feedback, usually
negative. IC op-amps as implemented in practice are moderately complex integrated
circuits; see the internal circuitry for the relatively simple 741 op-amp below, for
example.
Notation
The circuit symbol for an op-amp is:
where:
• V+: non-inverting input
• V−: inverting input
• Vout: output
• VS+: positive power supply
• VS−: negative power supply
The power supply pins (VS+ and VS−) can be labeled in different ways (See IC power
supply pins). Despite different labeling, the function remains the same. Often these pins
are left out of the diagram for clarity, and the power configuration is described or
assumed from the circuit. The positions of the inverting and non-inverting inputs may be
reversed in diagrams where appropriate; the power supply pins are not commonly
reversed.
37
Use in electronics system design
The use of op-amps as circuit blocks is much easier and clearer than specifying all their
individual circuit elements (transistors, resistors, etc.), whether the amplifiers used are
integrated or discrete. In the first approximation op-amps can be used as if they were
ideal differential gain blocks; at a later stage limits can be placed on the acceptable range
of parameters for each op-amp.
Circuit design follows the same lines for all electronic circuits. A specification is drawn
up governing what the circuit is required to do, with allowable limits. For example, the
gain may be required to be 100 times, with a tolerance of 5% but drift of less than 1% in
a specified temperature range; the input impedance not less than 1 megohm; etc.
A basic circuit is designed, often with the help of circuit modeling (on a computer).
Specific commercially available op-amps and other components are then chosen that
meet the design criteria within the specified tolerances at acceptable cost. If not all
criteria can be met, the specification may need to be modified.
A prototype is then built and tested; changes to meet or improve the specification, alter
functionality, or reduce the cost, may be made
Op-Amp implementation of voltage comparator:
A standard op-amp operating without negative feedback can be used as a comparator.

When the non-inverting input (V+) is at a higher voltage than the inverting input (V-), the
high gain of the op-amp causes it to output the most positive voltage it can. When the
non-inverting input (V+) drops below the inverting input (V-), the op-amp outputs the
most negative voltage it can. Since the output voltage is limited by the supply voltage, for
an op-amp that uses a balanced, split supply, (powered by ± VS) this action can be
written:
Where sgn(x) is the sign function. Generally, the positive and negative supplies VS will
not match absolute value:
Equality of input values is very difficult to achieve in practice. The speed at which the
change in output results from a change in input (often called the slew rate in operational
amplifiers) is typically in the order of 10ns to 100ns, but can be as slow as a few tens of
μs.
38
Description of LM358:
The 532/358/LM2904 consists of two independent, high gain, internally frequency-

compensated operational amplifiers internally frequency-compensated operational
amplifiers designed specifically to operate from a single power supply over a wide range
of voltages. Operation from dual power supplies is also possible, and the low power
supply current drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage.
FEATURES
• Internally frequency-compensated for unity gain
• Large DC voltage gain—100dB
• Wide bandwidth (unity gain)—1MHz (temperature-compensated)
• Wide power supply range single supply—3VDC to 30VDC or dual supplies—±1.5VDC

to ±15VDC
• Very low supply current drain (400mA)—essentially independent of supply voltage

(1mW/op amp at +5VDC)
• Low input biasing current—45nADC temperature-compensated
• Low input offset voltage—2mVDC and offset current—5nADC
• Differential input voltage range equal to the power supply voltage
• Large output voltage—0VDC to V+ 1.5VDC swing
39
Equivalent Circuit
40
Brief Description of Infrared L.E.D.
Infrared (IR) radiation is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength longer than that of

visible light, but shorter than that of microwaves. The name means "below red" (from the
Latin infra, "below"), red being the color of visible light with the longest wavelength.
Infrared radiation has wavelengths between about 750 nm and 1 mm, spanning five
orders of magnitude. Humans at normal body temperature can radiate at a wavelength of
10 microns.
At the atomic level, infrared energy elicits vibrational modes in a molecule through a
change in the dipole moment, making it a useful frequency range for study of these
energy states. Infrared spectroscopy examines absorption and transmission of photons in
the infrared energy range, based on their frequency and intensity.
41
DESCRIPTION
The QED233 / QED234 is a 940 nm GaAs / AlGaAs LED encapsulated in a clear
untinted, plastic T-1 3/4 package.
FEATURES Of IR L.E.D.
• Wavelength= 940 nm
• Chip material =GaAs with AlGaAs window
• Package type: T-1 3/4 (5mm lens diameter)
• Matched Photosensor: QSD122/123/124
• Medium Emission Angle, 40°
• High Output Power
• Package material and color: Clear, untinted, plastic
42
Brief Description of Photo Diode
A photodiode is a type of photo detector capable of converting light into either current or
voltage, depending upon the mode of operation.
Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either
exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiber
connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed
for use specifically as a photodiode will also use a PIN junction rather than the typical PN
junction.
Principle of operation:
43
A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy
strikes the diode, it excites an electron thereby creating a mobile electron and a positively
charged electron hole. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one
diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in
field of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the
cathode, and a photocurrent is produced.
Photoconductive mode:
In this mode the diode is often (but not always) reverse biased. This increases the width
of the depletion layer, which decreases the junction's capacitance resulting in faster
response times. The reverse bias induces only a small amount of current (known as
saturation or back current) along its direction while the photocurrent remains virtually the
same.
Absolute Maximum Ratings
(TA= 25°C unless otherwise specified)

Stresses exceeding the absolute maximum ratings may damage the device. The device
may not function or be operable above the recommended operating conditions and
stressing the parts to these levels is not recommended. In addition, extended exposure to
stresses above the recommended operating conditions may affect device reliability.
The absolute maximum ratings are stress ratings only.
44
Typical Performance Characteristics
Brief Description of Lithium-ion Battery
Lithium-ion batteries (sometimes abbreviated Li-ion batteries) are a type of rechargeable

battery in which a lithium ion moves between the anode and cathode. The lithium ion
moves from the anode to the cathode during discharge and from the cathode to the anode
when charging.
They are currently one of the most popular types of battery for portable electronics, with
one of the best energy-to-weight ratios, no memory effect, and a slow loss of charge
when not in use. Certain kinds of mistreatment may cause Li-ion batteries to explode. In
addition to uses for consumer electronics, lithium-ion batteries are growing in popularity
for defense, automotive, and aerospace applications due to their high energy density.
45
The three primary functional components of a lithium ion battery are the anode, cathode,
and electrolyte, for which a variety of materials may be used. Commercially, the most
popular material for the anode is graphite, although materials such as TiS2 were
originally used.[3] However, the cathode is generally one of three materials: a layered
oxide, such as cobalt oxide, a polyanion, such as lithium iron phosphate, or a spinel, such
as manganese oxide. Depending on the choice of material for the anode, cathode, and
electrolyte, the voltage, capacity, life, and safety of a lithium ion battery can change
dramatically. Lithium ion batteries are not to be confused with lithium batteries, the key
difference being that lithium batteries have a metallic lithium anode and lithium ion
batteries have an anode material into which lithium inserts.
Electrochemistry:
The three participants in the electrochemical reactions in a lithium ion battery are the
anode, cathode, and electrolyte.
Both the anode and cathode are materials into which lithium inserts and extracts. The
process of lithium moving into the anode or cathode is referred to as insertion, and the
reverse process, in which lithium moves out of the anode or cathode is referred to as
extraction. When discharging of the cell, the lithium is extracted from the anode and
inserted into the cathode. When charging the cell, the exact reverse process occurs:
lithium is extracted from the cathode and inserted into the anode.
The anode of a conventional Li-ion cell is made from carbon, the cathode is a metal
oxide, and the electrolyte is a lithium salt in an organic solvent.
The underlying chemical reaction that allows Li-ion cells to provide electricity is:
It is important to note that lithium ions themselves are not being oxidized; rather, in a
lithium-ion battery the lithium ions are transported to and from the cathode or anode,
with the transition metal, Co, in LixCoO2 being oxidized from Co3+ to Co4+ during
charging, and reduced from Co4+ to Co3+ during discharge.
Electrolytes:
Liquid electrolytes in Li-ion batteries consist of solid lithium-salt electrolytes, such as

LiPF6, LiBF4, or LiClO4, and organic solvents, such as ether. A liquid electrolyte
conducts Li ions, which act as a carrier between the cathode and the anode when a battery
passes an electric current through an external circuit. However, solid electrolytes and
organic solvents are easily decomposed on anodes during charging, thus preventing
battery activation. Nevertheless, when appropriate organic solvents are used for
electrolytes, the electrolytes are decomposed and form a solid electrolyte interface at first
46
charge that is electrically insulating and high Li-ion conducting. The interface prevents
decomposition of the electrolyte after the second charge. For example, ethylene carbonate
is decomposed at a relatively high voltage, 0.7 V vs. Li, and forms a dense and stable
interface.
See uranium trioxide for some details of how the cathode works. While uranium oxides
are not used in commercially made batteries, the way in which uranium oxides can
reversibly insert cations is the same as the way in which the cathode in many lithium-ion
cells work.
Specifications and design:
-Specific energy density: 150 to 200 Wh/kg (540 to 720 kJ/kg)
-Volumetric energy density: 250 to 530 Wh/l (900 to 1900 J/cm³)
-Specific power density: 300 to 1500 W/kg (@ 20 seconds and 285 Wh/l)
Because lithium-ion batteries can have a variety of cathode and anode materials, cell
specifications, such as the energy density and voltage vary from chemistry to chemistry.
Lithium ion batteries with a lithium iron phosphate cathode and graphite anode have a
nominal open-circuit voltage of 3.6 V and a typical charging voltage of 4.2 V. The
charging procedure is done at constant voltage with current limiting circuitry. This means
charging with constant current until a voltage of 4.2 V is reached by the cell and
continuing with a constant voltage applied until the current drops close to zero. Typically
the charge is terminated at 7% of the initial charge current. In the past, lithium-ion
batteries could not be fast-charged and typically needed at least two hours to fully charge.
Current generation cells can be fully charged in 45 minutes or less; some Lithium-Ion
variants can reach 90% in as little as 10 minutes.
Brief Description of Voltage Regulator
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a

constant voltage level.
It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active electronic components.

Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.
With the exception of shunt regulators, all modern electronic voltage regulators operate
by comparing the actual output voltage to some internal fixed reference voltage. Any
difference is amplified and used to control the regulation element. This forms a negative
feedback servo control loop. If the output voltage is too low, the regulation element is
commanded to produce a higher voltage. For some regulators if the output voltage is too
47
high, the regulation element is commanded to produce a lower voltage; however, many
just stop sourcing current and depend on the current draw of whatever it is driving to pull
the voltage back down. In this way, the output voltage is held roughly constant. The
control loop must be carefully designed to produce the desired tradeoff between stability
and speed of response.
Features:
• Output Current up to 1A
• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V
• Thermal Overload Protection
• Short Circuit Protection
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection
Description:
The 78XX series of three-terminal positive regulator are available in the TO-220/D-PAK
package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a wide range of
applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shut down and safe
operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is
provided, they can deliver over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed
voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain
adjustable voltages and currents.
48
Electrical Characteristics of 7805
49
Electrical Characteristics of 7812
Typical Applications
50
Brief Description of DC Motor
An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy. The reverse
process that of using mechanical energy to produce electrical energy is accomplished by
a generator or dynamo. Traction motors used on locomotives often perform both tasks if
the locomotive is equipped with dynamic brakes. Electric motors are found in household
appliances such as fans, refrigerators, washing machines, pool pumps, floor vacuums, and
fan-forced ovens.
DC motors:
A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples of pure DC designs
are Michael Faraday's homopolar motor (which is uncommon), and the ball bearing
motor, which is (so far) a novelty. By far the most common DC motor types are the
brushed and brushless types, which use internal and external commutation respectively to
create an oscillating AC current from the DC source -- so they are not purely DC
machines in a strict sense.
Operation:
If an Electric current flows through two copper wires that are between the poles of a
magnet, an upward force will move one wire up and a downward force will move the
other wire down.
51
The loop can be made to spin by fixing a half circle of copper which is known as
commutator, to each end of the loop. Current is passed into and out of the loop by
brushes that press onto the strips. The brushes do not go round so the wire does not get
twisted. This arrangement also makes sure that the current always passes down on the
right and back on the left so that the rotation continues. This is how a simple Electric
motor is made.
Working,
Schematic Diagram,
Programming
And
PCB art work of Line Chaser Robot
52
Working of Line Chaser Robot
Features:
The line chaser robot constructed, have the characteristics of moving over a continuous
white line marked over black surface or continuous black line marked over white surface,
the robot is able to move over that line continuously, apart it is also having feature of auto
shut down, if the line is not found for a assigned period of time, the robot will stop
moving automatically.
Note: The line used (either of black or white colors) must be at least one cm wide and
should not be uneven or should not bend at an angle greater that 70’.
Working:
The line following characteristics is provided to the robot with the use of infrared light, a
IR LED emits infrared light and a photodiode placed next to it receives infrared light
which is reflected back from the surface, thus can differentiate in black and white colours
(white will reflect all the infrared light while black surface will absorb the complete
infrared light). The output from photo diode is fed to the op-amp LM358 (used as a
comparator), which compares this voltage to a fixed voltage and amplifies the differential
voltage to the give output in digital form, this output from op-amp is fed to the pins P1.0
53
and P1.1 of Port1 of the microcontroller 8051, which performs the programmed actions
on the basis of these inputs.
The output from the microcontroller is taken from P2.6 and P2.7 pins of Port2 of
microcontroller, these outputs are fed to 1 and 2 pins of motor driver IC ULN2003, which
amplifies this voltage and gives the output to DC motors running under its control.
Microcontroller:
The microcontroller used in the circuit is of Atmel Corporation named AT89C51,

operating frequency range 3- 24 MHz, in circuit it is made to run at 24 MHz for faster
response time.
Programming of Microcontroller:
Microcontroller is programmed in “C”, using software Keil C.
Voltage Regulators:
Voltage regulator 7805 is used to fed appropriate voltage to the microcontroller i.e. 5
volts. Another Voltage regulator 7812 is used to feed motor driver IC and DC motors,
supplying 12 volts.
DC Motor:
The DC motors used are fixed with a gear box to increase torque/speed ratio for
appropriate movement of robot.
Battery:
Eight rechargeable Lithium Ion batteries of LG Corporation rated 3.7 volts are used to
power the robot, connected in pairs of four serially to increase voltage rating and 2- four
units are connected in parallel to increase current rating.
Visual Indications:
Three status LEDs are also provided to inform the user virtually of the operation of robot.
54
1. White LED: Indicates Power i.e. the circuit is getting sufficient power from the
batteries or any other power source.
2. Red LED: Indicated circuit is in hold position i.e. motors will not move or
will not respond to any of the signals from sensors.
3. Green LED: Indicated circuit is running properly and completely i.e. motors
will now be moving under the influence of signals from sensors.
4. Red LED on sensor chip: Indicates the output from photo diode i.e. glows when the
photodiode receives reflected light from IR
LED(encountered with white surface) and remains off
when photodiode doesn’t receives any light from IR LED
(encountered with black surface).
Operation:
The circuit is programmed in such way that the operation of microcontroller starts when a
high pulse is provided to the pin P1.7 of Port1, for this purpose a micro switch is
provided, thus circuit operation starts when the switch is pressed.
A Reset switch is also provided, which when pressed resets the circuits i.e. the
microcontroller starts or resets its execution from first memory location (0h).
It is also having a feature of auto shut down i.e. if the sensors get same input for 20 sec
the robot shuts down or stops moving automatically. (This feature is helpful when the
robot gets dislocated from line and moves over the surface without any path).
55
void blackline()
{
char j;
j=1;
if(P1_0==0 && P1_1==0)

whiteline();
delay(j);
Programming of Microcontroller blackline();
#include<at89x51.h>
void delay(char j)
void whiteline(); {
void blackline();
void delay(char j); int i,k;
unsigned int m=0;
void main()
{ for(k=1;k<=3125;k++)
{
P2_6=0; for(i=0;i<=49;i++)
P2_7=0; {
P2_1=1; if(P1_0= =P1_1)
P2_2=0; {
if((i+4)%14= =0)
while(P1_7= =1); {
if(j= =1)
P2_1=0; {
P2_2=1; P2_7=P1_0;
P2_6=P1_1;
if(P1_0= =0 && P1_1= =0) }
if(j= =0)
{
P2_7=~P1_0;
P2_6=~P1_1;
56
}
}
whiteline();
blackline();
void whiteline()
{
char j;
j=0; TR0=0;
if(TF0==0 &&(P1_0==P1_1))
if(P1_0= =1 && P1_1= =1) break;
blackline(); }
if(TF0==0 && (P1_0==P1_1))
delay(j); break;
whiteline(); }
} if(TF0==1)
main();
}
if(i%14==0)
{
P2_6=0;
P2_7=0;
}
m=0;
}
if(P1_0!=P1_1)
{
k=0;
if(m==0)
i=0;
if((i+6)%16==0)
{
if(j==1)
{
P2_7=P1_0;
P2_6=P1_1;
}
if(j==0)
{
P2_7=~P1_0;
P2_6=~P1_1;
}
}
57
if(i%16==0)
{
P2_6=0;
P2_7=0;
}
m++;
}
TF0=0;
TMOD=1;
TH0=0xFF;
TL0=0x7F;
TR0=1;
while(TF0= =0 && (P1_0= =1 || P1_1= =0)

&& (P1_0= =0 || P1_1= =1) &&
(P1_0= =j || P1_1= =j));
Circuit Diagram of Line Chaser Robot
58
Actual PCB Art Work Used
59
Bottom Layer
Top Layer
Line Chaser Robot
60
Top View
Bottom view
Components Employed In Circuit
61
Serial Quantity
No. Component Character Used
1 Atmel AT89C51 1
2 ULN2003 1
3 LM358 2
4 IR LED 2
5 Photo Diode 2
6 Crystal (24MHz) 1
7 White LED 1
8 Red LED 3
9 Green LED 1
10 Variable Resistor (0-20K) 2
11 Geared DC Motor (100 R.P.M.) 2
12 Ceramic Capacitor (33pF) 2
13 Micro Switch 2
14 Electrolytic Capacitor (10 uF) 1
15 Resistors (8.2K ohms) 5
16 Resistors (100 ohms) 5
1
16 Voltage Regulator – 7805
62
17 Voltage Regulator – 7812 1
18 Heat Sink 2
19 Castor Wheel 1
Brief Action of Minor Elements
63
Resistors
The resistor's function is to reduce the flow of electric current. This symbol is used
to indicate a resistor in a circuit diagram, known as a schematic.
Resistance value is designated in units called the "Ohm." A 1000 Ohm resistor is
typically shown as 1K-Ohm (kilo Ohm), and 1000 K-Ohms is written as 1M-Ohm (mega
ohm).
There are two classes of resistors; fixed resistors and the variable resistors. They are also
classified according to the material from which they are made. The typical resistor is
made of either carbon film or metal film. There are other types as well, but these are the
most common.
The resistance value of the resistor is not the only thing to consider when selecting a
resistor for use in a circuit. The "tolerance" and the electric power ratings of the resistor
are also important.
The tolerance of a resistor denotes how close it is to the actual rated resistance value. For
example, a ±5% tolerance would indicate a resistor that is within ±5% of the specified
resistance value.
The maximum rated power of the resistor is specified in Watts. Power is calculated using
the square of the current (I2) x the resistance value (R) of the resistor. If the maximum
rating of the resistor is exceeded, it will become extremely hot and even burn.
Resistors in electronic circuits are typically rated 1/8W, 1/4W, and 1/2W. 1/8W is almost
always used in signal circuit applications.
Carbon Film Resistors
This is the most general purpose, cheap resistor. Usually the tolerance of the resistance
value is ±5%. Power ratings of 1/8W, 1/4W and 1/2W are frequently used.
Carbon film resistors have a disadvantage; they tend to be electrically noisy. Metal film
resistors are recommended for use in analog circuits. However, I have never experienced
any problems with this noise.
The physical size of the different resistors is as follows.
64
This resistor is called a Single-In-Line (SIL) resistor network. It is made with many
resistors of the same value, all in one package. One side of each resistor is connected with
one side of all the other resistors inside. One example of its use would be to control the
current in a circuit powering many light emitting diodes (LEDs). In the photograph on the
left, 8 resistors are housed in the package. Each of the leads on the package is one
resistor. The ninth lead on the left side is the common lead. The face value of the
resistance is printed. (It depends on the supplier). Some resistor networks have a "4S"
printed on the top of the resistor network. The 4S indicates that the package contains 4
independent resistors that are not wired together inside. The housing has eight leads
instead of nine. The internal wiring of these typical resistor networks has been illustrated
below. The size (black part) of the resistor network which I have is as follows: For the
type with 9 leads, the thickness is 1.8 mm, the height 5mm, and the width 23 mm. For the
types with 8 component leads, the thickness is 1.8 mm, the height 5 mm, and the width
20 mm.
The most common type for electronics use is the carbon resistor. They are made in
different physical sizes with power dissipation limits commonly from 1 watt down to 1/8
watt. The resistance value and tolerance can be determined from the standard resistor
color code.
65
Resistor Color Code
1% F
0 Black
2% G
1 Brown
5% J
2 Red
10% K
Resistance value, 3 Orange
20% M
first three bands. 4 Yellow
1st band - 1st digit
2nd band - 2nd digit 5 Green
3rd band - number 6 Blue
of zeros.
7 Violet
8 Gray
9 White
A variation on the color code is used for

precision resistors which may have five
5% Gold colored bands. In that case the first three
bands indicate the first three digits of the
4th band, 10% Silver
resistance value and the fourth band
tolerance 20% No band indicates the number of zeros. In the five
band code the fifth band is gold for 1%
resistors and silver for 2%.
66
Metal Film Resistors
Metal film resistors are used when a higher tolerance (more accurate value) is needed.
They are much more accurate in value than carbon film resistors. They have about
±0.05% tolerance. They have about ±0.05% tolerance. I don't use any high tolerance
resistors in my circuits. Resistors that are about ±1% are more than sufficient. Ni-Cr
(Nichrome) seems to be used for the material of resistor. The metal film resistor is used
for bridge circuits, filter circuits, and low-noise analog signal circuits.
67
Variable Resistors
There are two general ways in which variable resistors are used. One is the variable
resistor which value is easily changed, like the volume adjustment of Radio. The other is
semi-fixed resistor that is not meant to be adjusted by anyone but a technician. It is used
to adjust the operating condition of the circuit by the technician. Semi-fixed resistors are
used to compensate for the inaccuracies of the resistors, and to fine-tune a circuit. The
rotation angle of the variable resistor is usually about 300 degrees. Some variable
resistors must be turned many times to use the whole range of resistance they offer. This
allows for very precise adjustments of their value. These are called "Potentiometers" or
"Trimmer Potentiometers."
In the photograph to the left, the

variable resistor typically used for
volume controls can be seen on the
far right. Its value is very easy to
adjust.
The four resistors at the center of the photograph are the semi-fixed type. These ones are
mounted on the printed circuit board.
The two resistors on the left are the trimmer potentiometers.
This symbol is used to indicate a variable resistor in a circuit diagram.
68
Capacitors
The capacitor's function is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The capacitor also
functions as a filter, passing alternating current (AC), and blocking direct current (DC).
This symbol is used to indicate a capacitor in a circuit diagram.
The capacitor is constructed with two electrode plates facing each other, but separated by
an insulator.
When DC voltage is applied to the capacitor, an electric charge is stored on each

electrode. While the capacitor is charging up, current flows. The current will stop flowing
when the capacitor has fully charged.
When a circuit tester, such as an analog meter set to measure resistance, is connected to a
10 microfarad (µF) electrolytic capacitor, a current will flow, but only for a moment. It
can confirm that the meter's needle moves off of zero, but returns to zero right away.
When connected across the meter's probes to the capacitor in reverse, you will note that
current once again flows for a moment. Once again, when the capacitor has fully charged,
the current stops flowing. So the capacitor can be used as a filter that blocks DC current.
(A "DC cut" filter.)
However, in the case of alternating current, the current will be allowed to pass.
Alternating current is similar to repeatedly switching the test meter's probes back and
forth on the capacitor. Current flows every time the probes are switched.
The value of a capacitor (the capacitance), is designated in units called the Farad (F).
The capacitance of a capacitor is generally very small, so units such as the microfarad
(10-6F), nanofarad ( 10-9F ), and picofarad (10-12F ) are used. Recently, a new capacitor
with very high capacitance has been developed. The Electric Double Layer capacitor has
capacitance designated in Farad units. These are known as "Super Capacitors."
Sometimes, a three-digit code is used to indicate the value of a capacitor. There are two
ways in which the capacitance can be written. One uses letters and numbers, the other
uses only numbers. In either case, there are only three characters used. [10n] and [103]
denote the same value of capacitance. The method used differs depending on the
capacitor supplier. In the case that the value is displayed with the three-digit code, the 1st
and 2nd digits from the left show the 1st figure and the 2nd figure, and the 3rd digit is a
multiplier which determines how many zeros are to be added to the capacitance.
Picofarad ( pF ) units are written this way.
69
The capacitor has an insulator (the dielectric) between 2 sheets of electrodes. Different
kinds of capacitors use different materials for the dielectric.
Breakdown voltage
When using a capacitor, you must pay attention to the maximum voltage which can be
used. This is the "breakdown voltage." The breakdown voltage depends on the kind of
capacitor being used. You must be especially careful with electrolytic capacitors because
the breakdown voltage is comparatively low. The breakdown voltage of electrolytic
capacitors is displayed as Working Voltage.
The breakdown voltage is the voltage that when exceeded will cause the dielectric
(insulator) inside the capacitor to break down and conduct. When this happens, the failure
can be catastrophic.
Electrolytic Capacitors (Electrochemical type capacitors)
Aluminum is used for the electrodes by using a thin oxidization membrane.

Large values of capacitance can be obtained in comparison with the size of the capacitor,
because the dielectric used is very thin. The most important characteristic of electrolytic
capacitors is that they have polarity. They have a positive and a negative electrode.
[Polarised] This means that it is very important which way round they are connected. If
the capacitor is subjected to voltage exceeding its working voltage, or if it is connected
with incorrect polarity, it may burst. It is extremely dangerous, because it can quite
literally explode. Make absolutely no mistakes.
Generally, in the circuit diagram, the positive side is indicated by a "+" (plus) symbol.
Electrolytic capacitors range in value from about 1µF to thousands of µF. Mainly this
type of capacitor is used as a ripple filter in a power supply circuit, or as a filter to bypass
low frequency signals, etc. Because this type of capacitor is comparatively similar to the
nature of a coil in construction, it isn't possible to use for high-frequency circuits. (It is
said that the frequency characteristic is bad.)
The photograph on the left is an example of the

different values of electrolytic capacitors in
which the capacitance and voltage differ.
From the left to right:
1µF (50V) [diameter 5 mm, high 12 mm]
70
Ceramic Capacitors
Ceramic capacitors are constructed with materials such as titanium acid barium used as
the dielectric. Internally, these capacitors are not constructed as a coil, so they can be
used in high frequency applications. Typically, they are used in circuits which bypass
high frequency signals to ground.
These capacitors have the shape of a disk. Their capacitance is comparatively small.
The capacitor on the left is a 100pF capacitor with a

diameter of about 3 mm.
The capacitor on the right side is printed with 103, so 10 x
103pF becomes 0.01 µF. The diameter of the disk is about
6 mm.
Ceramic capacitors have no polarity.
71
Heat Sink
A heat sink (or heat sink) is an environment or object that absorbs and dissipates heat
from another object using thermal contact (either direct or radiant). Heat sinks are used in
a wide range of applications wherever efficient heat dissipation is required; major
examples include refrigeration, heat engines and cooling electronic devices.
Principle
Heat sinks function by efficiently transferring thermal energy ("heat") from an object at
high temperature to a second object at a lower temperature with a much greater heat
capacity. This rapid transfer of thermal energy quickly brings the first object into thermal
equilibrium with the second, lowering the temperature of the first object, fulfilling the
heat sink's role as a cooling device. Efficient function of a heat sink relies on rapid
transfer of thermal energy from the first object to the heat sink, and the heat sink to the
second object.
The most common design of a heat sink is a metal device with many fins. The high
thermal conductivity of the metal combined with its large surface area result in the rapid
transfer of thermal energy to the surrounding, cooler, air. This cools the heat sink and
whatever it is in direct thermal contact with. Use of fluids (for example coolants in
refrigeration) and thermal interface material (in cooling electronic devices) ensures good
transfer of thermal energy to the heat sink. Similarly a fan may improve the transfer of
thermal energy from the heat sink to the air.
Performance
Heat sink performance (including free convection, forced convection, liquid cooled, and
any combination thereof) is a function of material, geometry, and overall surface heat
transfer coefficient. Generally, forced convection heat sink thermal performance is
improved by increasing the thermal conductivity of the heat sink materials, increasing the
surface area (usually by adding extended surfaces, such as fins or foam metal) and by
increasing the overall area heat transfer coefficient.
Use in electronics
Explanation:
72
In common use, it is a metal object brought into contact with an electronic component's
hot surface — though in most cases, a thin thermal interface material mediates between
the two surfaces. Microprocessors and power handling semiconductors are examples of
electronics that need a heat sink to reduce their temperature through increased thermal
mass and heat dissipation (primarily by conduction and convection and to a lesser extent
by radiation). Heat sinks are widely used in electronics, and have become almost
essential to modern integrated circuits like microprocessors, DSPs, GPUs, and more.
Construction and materials:
A heat sink usually consists of a base with one or more flat surfaces and an array of comb
or fin-like protrusions to increase the heat sink's surface area contacting the air, and thus
increasing the heat dissipation rate. While a heat sink is a static object, a fan often aids a
heat sink by providing increased airflow over the heat sink — thus maintaining a larger
temperature gradient by replacing the warmed air more quickly than passive convection
achieves alone — this is known as a forced air system.
Heat sinks are made from a good thermal conductor such as copper or aluminum alloy.
Copper (401 W/(m·K) at 300 K) is significantly more expensive than aluminum (237 W/
(m·K) at 300 K) but is also roughly twice as efficient as a thermal conductor. Aluminum
has the significant advantage that it can be easily formed by extrusion, thus making
complex cross-sections possible. The heat sink's contact surface (the base) must be flat
and smooth to ensure the best thermal contact with the object needing cooling.
Frequently, a thermally conductive grease is used to ensure optimal thermal contact; such
grease usually contains ceramic materials such as beryllium oxide and aluminium nitride,
but may alternatively contain finely divided metal particles, e.g. colloidal silver. Further,
a clamping mechanism, screws, or thermal adhesive hold the heat sink tightly onto the
component, but specifically without pressure that would crush the component.
73
Crystal oscillator
A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a

vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise
frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz
wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to
stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters/receivers.
Operation
A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a
regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions.
Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal, with
appropriate transducers, since all objects have natural resonant frequencies of vibration.
For example, steel is very elastic and has a high speed of sound. It was often used in
mechanical filters before quartz. The resonant frequency depends on size, shape,
elasticity, and the speed of sound in the material. High-frequency crystals are typically
cut in the shape of a simple, rectangular plate. Low-frequency crystals, such as those used
in digital watches, are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork. For applications not
needing very precise timing, a low-cost ceramic resonator is often used in place of a
quartz crystal.
When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in an
electric field by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is
known as piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz will generate an electric
field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a
quartz crystal behaves like a circuit composed of an inductor, capacitor and resistor, with
a precise resonant frequency.
Quartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its size change in such a
way that the frequency dependence on temperature can be very low. The specific
characteristics will depend on the mode of vibration and the angle at which the quartz is
cut (relative to its crystallographic axes)1 Therefore, the resonant frequency of the plate,
which depends on its size, will not change much, either. This means that a quartz clock,
filter or oscillator will remain accurate. For critical applications the quartz oscillator is
mounted in a temperature-controlled container, called a crystal oven, and can also be
mounted on shock absorbers to prevent perturbation by external mechanical vibrations.
74
Quartz timing crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to
tens of megahertz. More than two billion (2×109) crystals are manufactured annually.
Most are small devices for consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios,
computers, and cell phones. Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement
equipment, such as counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes.
Electrical model:
A quartz crystal can be modelled as an electrical network with low impedance (series)
and a high impedance (parallel) resonance point spaced closely together. Mathematically
the impedance of this network can be written as:
where s is the complex frequency (s = jω), ωs is

the series resonant frequency in radians per
second and ωp is the parallel resonant frequency
in radians per second.
Adding additional capacitance across a crystal

will cause the parallel resonance to shift
downward. This can be used to adjust the
frequency that a crystal oscillator oscillates at.
Crystal manufacturers normally cut and trim
their crystals to have a specified resonant
frequency with a known 'load' capacitance added
to the crystal. For example, a 6 pF 32 kHz crystal
has a parallel resonance frequency of 32,768 Hz
when a 6.0 pF capacitor is placed across the crystal. Without this
capacitance, the resonance frequency is higher than 32,768 Hz.
75
Light-emitting diode
A light-emitting diode, usually called an LED is a semiconductor diode that emits

incoherent narrow-spectrum light when electrically biased in the forward direction of the
p-n junction, as in the common LED circuit. This effect is a form of electroluminescence.
A LED is usually a small area light source, often with extra optics added to the chip that
shapes its radiation pattern. LEDs are often used as small indicator lights on electronic
devices and increasingly in higher power applications such as flashlights and area
lighting. The color of the emitted light depends on the composition and condition of the
semiconducting material used, and can be infrared, visible, or ultraviolet. LEDs can also
be used as a regular household light source. Besides lighting, interesting applications
include sterilization of water and disinfection of devices.
LED technology
Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material impregnated,
or doped, with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily
from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction.
Charge-carriers—electrons and holes—flow into the junction from electrodes with
different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and
releases energy in the form of a photon.
The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band gap
energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the
electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative transition which produces no optical
emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED
have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-
ultraviolet light.
LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide.
Advances in materials science have made possible the production of devices with ever-
shorter wavelengths, producing light in a variety of colors.
LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type
layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many
commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate. Substrates that are
transparent to the emitted wavelength, and backed by a reflective layer, increase the LED
76
efficiency. The refractive index of the package material should match the index of the
semiconductor, otherwise the produced light gets partially reflected back into the
semiconductor, where it may be absorbed and turned into additional heat, thus lowering
the efficiency. This type of reflection also occurs at the surface of the package if the LED
is coupled to a medium with a different refractive index such as a glass fiber or air. The
refractive index of most LED semiconductors is quite high, so in almost all cases the
LED is coupled into a much lower-index medium. The large index difference makes the
reflection quite substantial (per the Fresnel coefficients), and this is usually one of the
dominant causes of LED inefficiency. Often more than half of the emitted light is
reflected back at the LED-package and package-air interfaces. The reflection is most
commonly reduced by using a dome-shaped (half-sphere) package with the diode in the
center so that the outgoing light rays strike the surface perpendicularly, at which angle
the reflection is minimized. An anti-reflection coating may be added as well. The
package may be cheap plastic, which may be colored, but this is only for cosmetic
reasons or to improve the contrast ratio; the color of the packaging does not substantially
affect the color of the light emitted. Other strategies for reducing the impact of the
interface reflections include designing the LED to reabsorb and reemit the reflected light
(called photon recycling) and manipulating the microscopic structure of the surface to
reduce the reflectance, either by introducing random roughness or by creating
programmed moth eye surface patterns.
Considerations in use
Unlike incandescent light bulbs, which light up regardless of the electrical polarity, LEDs
will only light with correct electrical polarity. When the voltage across the p-n junction is
in the correct direction, a significant current flows and the device is said to be forward-
biased. If the voltage is of the wrong polarity, the device is said to be reverse biased, very
little current flows, and no light is emitted. Some LEDs can be operated on an alternating
current voltage, but they will only light with positive voltage, causing the LED to turn on
and off at the frequency of the AC supply.
Advantages of using LEDs
1. LEDs produce more light per watt than incandescent bulbs; this is useful in
battery powered or energy-saving devices.
2. LEDs can emit light of an intended color without the use of color filters that
traditional lighting methods require. This is more efficient and can lower initial
costs.
3. The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and
fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it
in a usable manner.
77
4. When used in applications where dimming is required, LEDs do not change their
color tint as the current passing through them is lowered, unlike incandescent
lamps, which turn yellow.
5. LEDs are ideal for use in applications that are subject to frequent on-off cycling,
unlike fluorescent lamps that burn out more quickly when cycled frequently, or
HID lamps that require a long time before restarting.
6. LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with external shock.
Fluorescent and incandescent bulbs are easily broken if dropped on the ground.
78
Printed circuit board
A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect
electronic components using conductive pathways, or traces, etched from copper sheets
laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. Alternative names are printed wiring board
(PWB), and etched wiring board. A PCB populated with electronic components is a
printed circuit assembly (PCA), also known as a printed circuit board assembly (PCBA).
PCBs are rugged, inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They require much more
layout effort and higher initial cost than either wire-wrapped or point-to-point constructed
circuits, but are much cheaper and faster for high-volume production. Much of the
electronics industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control needs are set by
standards that are published by the IPC organization.
Manufacturing
Patterning (etching)
The vast majority of printed circuit boards are made by bonding a layer of copper over
the entire substrate, sometimes on both sides, (creating a "blank PCB") then removing
unwanted copper after applying a temporary mask (eg. by etching), leaving only the
desired copper traces. A few PCBs are made by adding traces to the bare substrate (or a
substrate with a very thin layer of copper) usually by a complex process of multiple
electroplating steps.
There are three common "subtractive" methods (methods that remove copper) used for
the production of printed circuit boards:
1. Silk screen printing uses etch-resistant inks to protect the copper foil. Subsequent
etching removes the unwanted copper. Alternatively, the ink may be conductive,
printed on a blank (non-conductive) board. The latter technique is also used in the
manufacture of hybrid circuits.
2. Photoengraving uses a photomask and chemical etching to remove the copper foil
from the substrate. The photomask is usually prepared with a photoplotter from
data produced by a technician using CAM, or computer-aided manufacturing
software. Laser-printed transparencies are typically employed for phototools;
79
however, direct laser imaging techniques are being employed to replace
phototools for high-resolution requirements.
3. PCB milling uses a two or three-axis mechanical milling system to mill away the
copper foil from the substrate. A PCB milling machine (referred to as a 'PCB
Prototyper') operates in a similar way to a plotter, receiving commands from the
host software that control the position of the milling head in the x, y, and (if
relevant) z axis. Data to drive the Prototyper is extracted from files generated in
PCB design software and stored in HPGL or Gerber file format.
"Additive" processes also exist. The most common is the "semi-additive" process. In this
version, the unpatterned board has a thin layer of copper already on it. A reverse mask is
then applied. (Unlike a subtractive process mask, this mask exposes those parts of the
substrate that will eventually become the traces.) Additional copper is then plated onto
the board in the unmasked areas; copper may be plated to any desired weight. Tin-lead or
other surface platings are then applied. The mask is stripped away and a brief etching step
removes the now-exposed original copper laminate from the board, isolating the
individual traces.
The additive process is commonly used for multi-layer boards as it facilitates the plating-
through of the holes (to produce conductive vias) in the circuit board.
Lamination
Some PCBs have trace layers inside the PCB and are called multi-layer PCBs. These are
formed by bonding together separately etched thin boards.
Drilling
Holes, or vias, through a PCB are typically drilled with tiny drill bits made of solid
tungsten carbide. The drilling is performed by automated drilling machines with
placement controlled by a drill tape or drill file. These computer-generated files are also
called numerically controlled drill (NCD) files or "Excellon files". The drill file describes
the location and size of each drilled hole.
When very small vias are required, drilling with mechanical bits is costly because of high
rates of wear and breakage. In this case, the vias may be evaporated by lasers. Laser-
drilled vias typically have an inferior surface finish inside the hole. These holes are called
micro vias.
It is also possible with controlled-depth drilling, laser drilling, or by pre-drilling the

individual sheets of the PCB before lamination, to produce holes that connect only some
80
of the copper layers, rather than passing through the entire board. These holes are called
blind vias when they connect an internal copper layer to an outer layer, or buried vias
when they connect two or more internal copper layers and no outer layers.
The walls of the holes, for boards with 2 or more layers, are plated with copper to form
plated-through holes that electrically connect the conducting layers of the PCB. For
multilayer boards, those with 4 layers or more, drilling typically produces a smear
comprised of the bonding agent in the laminate system. Before the holes can be plated
through, this smear must be removed by a chemical de-smear process, or by plasma-etch.
Exposed conductor plating and coating
The places to which components will be mounted are typically plated, because bare
copper oxidizes quickly, and therefore is not readily solderable. Traditionally, any
exposed copper was plated with solder by hot air solder levelling (HASL). This solder
was a tin-lead alloy, however new solder compounds are now used to achieve compliance
with the RoHS directive in the EU, which restricts the use of lead. Other platings used are
OSP (organic surface protectant), immersion silver (IAg), immersion tin, electroless
nickel with immersion gold coating (ENIG), and direct gold. Edge connectors, placed
along one edge of some boards, are often gold plated.
Electrochemical migration (ECM) is the growth of conductive metal filaments on or in a

printed circuit board (PCB) under the influence of a DC voltage bias.[1][2]
Solder resist
Areas that should not be soldered to may be covered with a polymer solder resist (solder
mask) coating. The solder resist prevents solder from bridging between conductors and
thereby creating short circuits. Solder resist also provides some protection from the
environment.
Screen printing
Line art and text may be printed onto the outer surfaces of a PCB by screen printing.
When space permits, the screen print text can indicate component designators[1], switch
setting requirements, test points, and other features helpful in assembling, testing, and
servicing the circuit board.
Screen print is also known as the silk screen, or, in one sided PCBs, the red print.
Lately some digital printing solutions have been developed to substitute the traditional
screen printing process. This technology allows printing variable data onto the PCB,
including serialization and barcode information for traceability purposes.
81
Solder
And
Soldering Proficiency
82
Solder
A solder is a fusible metal alloy, with a melting point or melting range of 180 to 190 °C
(360 to 370 °F), which is melted to join metallic surfaces, especially in the fields of
electronics and plumbing, in a process called soldering.
Lead Solder
Tin/lead solders are commercially available with tin concentrations between 5% and 70%
by weight. The greater the tin concentration, the greater the solder’s tensile and shear
strengths. At the retail level, the two most common alloys are 60/40 Sn/Pb and 63/37
Sn/Pb. The 63/37 ratio is notable in that it is a eutectic mixture, which means:
1. It has the lowest melting point (183 °C or 361.4 °F) of all the tin/lead
alloys; and
2. The melting point is truly a point — not a range.
At a eutectic composition, the liquid solder solidifies as a eutectic, which consists of fine
grains of nearly pure lead and nearly pure tin phases, but in no way is it an intermetallic,
since there are no tin/lead intermetallics, as can be seen from a tin/lead equilibrium
diagram.
In plumbing, a higher proportion of lead was used. This had the advantage of making the
alloy solidify more slowly, so that it could be wiped over the joint to ensure water
tightness. Although lead water pipes were displaced by copper when the significance of
lead poisoning began to be fully appreciated, lead solder was still used until the 1980s
because it was thought that the amount of lead that could leach into water from the solder
was negligible. Since even small amounts of lead have been found detrimental to health,
lead in plumbing solder was replaced by copper or antimony, with silver often added, and
the proportion of tin was increased.
Flux Core Solder
Solder often comes pre-mixed with, or is used with, flux, a reducing agent designed to
help remove impurities (specifically oxidised metals) from the points of contact to
improve the electrical connection. For convenience, solder is often manufactured as a
hollow tube and filled with flux. Most cold solder is soft enough to be rolled and
packaged as a coil, making for a convenient and compact solder/flux package. The two
83
principal types of flux are acid flux, used for metal mending, and rosin flux, used in
electronics, where the corrosiveness of the vapours that arise when acid flux is heated
could damage components. Due to concerns over atmospheric pollution and hazardous
waste disposal, the electronics industry has been gradually shifting from rosin flux to
water-soluble flux, which can be removed with deionised water and detergent, instead of
hydrocarbon solvents.
Since solder can occasionally splash (due to the

superheated flux inside or from contact with water in
the cleaning sponge), it is recommended that safety
goggles be worn when soldering. Though small solder
splashes on skin are painful, they usually do not cause
lasting harm. For large scale work additional protective
clothing may be needed.
Lead Free Solder
According to the European Union Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive
(WEEE) and Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS), lead had to be
eliminated from electronic systems by July 1, 2006, leading to much interest in lead-free
solders. These contain tin, copper, silver, and sometimes bismuth, indium, zinc,
antimony, and other metals in varying amounts. The lead-free replacements for
conventional Sn60/Pb40 solder have higher melting points, requiring re-engineering of
most components and materials used in electronic assemblies. Lead-free solder joints
may produce mechanically weaker joints depending on service and manufacture
conditions, which may lead to a decrease in reliability using such solders. "Tin Whiskers"
are another problem with many lead-free solders, where slender crystals of tin slowly
grow out of the solder joint. These whiskers can bridge a short circuit years after a
device's manufacture.
Different elements serve different roles in the

solder alloy:
1. Silver provides mechanical strength, but has

worse ductility than lead. In absence of lead, it
improves resistance to fatigue from thermal cycles.
2. Copper lowers the melting point, improves resistance to thermal cycle fatigue,
and improves wetting properties of the molten solder. It also slows down the rate
of dissolution of copper from the board and part leads in the liquid solder.
84
3. Bismuth significantly lowers the melting point and improves wettability. In
presence of lead and tin, bismuth forms crystals of Sn16Pb32Bi52 with melting
point of only 95 °C, which diffuses along the grain boundaries and may cause a
joint failure at relatively low temperatures. A lead-contaminated high-power part
can therefore desolder under load when soldered with a bismuth-containing
solder.
4. Indium lowers the melting point and improves ductility. In presence of lead it
forms a ternary compound that undergoes phase change at 114 °C.
5. Zinc lowers the melting point and is low-cost. However it is highly susceptible to
corrosion and oxidation in air, therefore zinc-containing alloys are unsuitable for
some purposes, e.g. wave soldering, and zinc-containing solder pastes have
shorter shelf life than zinc-free ones.
6. Antimony is added to increase strength without affecting wettability.
85
Soldering Proficiency
Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting
and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a relatively low melting
point. Soft soldering is characterized by the melting point of the filler metal, which is
below 400°C.[1] The filler metal used in the process is called solder.
Soldering is distinguished from brazing by use of a lower melting-temperature filler

metal; it is distinguished from welding by the base metals not being melted during the
joining process. In a soldering process, heat is applied to the parts to be joined, causing
the solder to melt and be drawn into the joint by capillary action and to bond to the
materials to be joined by wetting action. After the metal cools, the resulting joints are not
as strong as the base metal, but have adequate strength, electrical conductivity, and water-
tightness for many uses. Soldering is an ancient technique that has been used practically
as long as humans have been making items out of metal.
Applications
The most frequent application of soldering is

assembling electronic components to printed
circuit boards (PCBs). Another common
application is making permanent but reversible
connections between copper pipes in plumbing
systems. Joints in sheet-metal objects such as
food cans, roof flashing, rain gutters and
automobile radiators have also historically been
soldered, and occasionally still are. Jewelry and
small mechanical parts are often assembled by soldering. Soldering is also used to join
lead came and copper foil in stained glass work. Soldering can also be used to effect a
semi-permanent patch for a leak in a container or cooking vessel.
Methods
Soldering operations can be performed with hand tools, one joint at a time, or en masse
on a production line. Hand soldering is typically performed with a soldering iron (for fine
work) or gun (for larger items), a torch (again large or small depending on the size of the
work), or occasionally a hot-air pencil. These techniques require a great deal of skill to
use on the newest fine-pitch chip packages; in particular ball grid array (BGA) devices
are notoriously difficult if not impossible to rework by hand.
Currently, mass-production printed circuit boards (PCBs) are almost always wave
soldered or reflow soldered. In wave soldering, parts are temporarily adhered to the PCB
86
with small dabs of adhesive, and then the assembly is passed over a small fountain in a
bulk container of molten solder. Reflow soldering is a somewhat newer process in which
a solder paste (a sticky mixture of powdered solder and flux) is used to stick the
components to their attachment pads, after which the assembly is heated by an infrared
lamp or (more commonly) by passing it through a carefully-controlled oven. Since
different components can be best assembled by different techniques, it is common to use
two or more processes for a given PCB; the surface mounted parts may be reflow
soldered, followed by a wave soldering process for the through-hole mounted
components, with some of the bulkier parts hand-soldered on last.
Note that the distinction between soldering and brazing is arbitrary, with the only
difference being the melting temperature of the filler material. A temperature of 450 °C is
usually used as a practical cut-off. Different equipment and/or fixturing is usually
required since (for instance) a soldering iron generally cannot achieve high enough
temperatures for brazing. Practically speaking there is a significant difference between
the two processes—brazing fillers have far more structural strength than solders, and are
formulated for this as opposed to maximum electrical conductivity. Brazed connections
are often as strong or nearly as strong as the parts they connect, even at elevated
temperatures.
"Hard soldering" or "silver soldering" (performed with high-temperature solder

containing up to 40% silver) is also often a form of brazing, since it involves filler
materials with melting points in the vicinity of, or in excess of, 450 °C. Although the
term "silver soldering" is used much more often than "silver brazing", it may be
technically incorrect depending on the exact melting point of the filler in use. In silver
soldering ("hard soldering"), the goal is generally to give a beautiful, structurally sound
joint, especially in the field of jewelry. Thus, the temperatures involved, and the usual use
of a torch rather than an iron, would seem to indicate that the process should be referred
to as "brazing" rather than "soldering", but the endurance of the "soldering" apellation
serves to indicate the arbitrary nature of the distinction (and the level of confusion)
between the two processes.
Basic Soldering Techniques
Electronic components (PCB's)
The heat source tool should be selected to provide adequate heat for the size of joint to be
completed. A soldering gun at 100 watts output may provide too much heat for printed
circuit boards, while a 23 watt iron may not provide enough heat for joining copper roof
flashing or large stained-glass lead came. Using a tool with too high a temperature can
damage sensitive components, but a tool that is too cool can cause an extended heating-
up period which can also cause extensive damage.
87
For attachment of electronic components to a PCB, proper selection and use of flux is the
best way to ensure that all solder pads and device terminals remain clean and oxide-free,
which is essential for good wetting and heat transfer. The soldering iron tip must be clean
and pre-tinned with solder to ensure rapid heat transfer. The devices must be mounted on
the circuit board properly. Components which dissipate large amounts of heat during
operation are sometimes elevated above the PCB a few millimeters to allow proper
cooling. After inserting a through-hole mounted component, the excess leads can be cut
leaving only a length equal to the radius of the pad. Plastic mounting clips or holders may
be used with large devices to reduce mounting stresses.
A heat sink may be used on the leads of sensitive components to reduce heat transfer to
the component (notice that the heat sink will require the use of MORE heat to complete
the joint!). If ALL copper surfaces are not properly fluxed and brought above the melting
temperature of the solder in use, the result will be an unreliable 'cold soldered' joint. To
achieve a properly heated joint, the soldering iron and the solder must be applied
separately to the surfaces to be joined, rather than the iron being applied directly to the
solder. When the surfaces are adequately heated up, the solder will melt and flow into the
joint. The solder supply is then removed from the joint, followed by the heat source. Even
distribution of solder throughout the joint gives a mechanically sound and electrically
conductive joint. Since non-eutectic solder alloys have a small plastic range, the joint
must not be disturbed until the solder has cooled down through both the liquids and solids
temperatures. Visually, a good solder joint will appear smooth and shiny, with the outline
of the soldered wire clearly visible. Too little solder will result in a dry and unreliable
joint; too much solder (the 'solder blob' very familiar to beginners) is not necessarily
unsound, but will not allow proper inspection of the joint. Depending on the flux used,
any flux residue remaining on the joint may need to be removed, using water, alcohol or
other solvents compatible with the process. Excess solder and unconsumed flux and
residues must be wiped from the soldering iron tip between joints, but the tip of the iron
must be kept wetted with solder ("tinned") constantly when hot to prevent oxidation and
corrosion of the tip itself.
Environmental legislation in many countries, and the whole of the European Community
area, has led to a change in formulation of both solders and fluxes. Water soluble non-
rosin based fluxes have been increasingly used since the 1980's so that soldered boards
can be cleaned with water or water based cleaners. This eliminates hazardous solvents
from the production environment, and effluent.
Desoldering and Resoldering
Used solder contains some of the dissolved base metals and is unsuitable for reuse in
making new joints. Once the solder's capacity for the base metal has been achieved it will
no longer properly bond with the base metal, usually resulting in a brittle cold solder joint
with a crystalline appearance.
88
It is good practice to remove solder from a joint prior to resoldering—desoldering wicks
or vacuum desoldering equipment can be used. Desoldering wicks contain plenty of flux
that will lift the contamination from the copper trace and any device leads that are
present. This will leave a bright, shiny, clean junction to be resoldered.
The lower melting point of solder means it can be melted away from the base metal,
leaving it mostly intact though the outer layer will be "tinned" with solder. Flux will
remain which can easily be removed by abrasive or chemical processes. This tinned layer
will allow solder to flow into a new joint, resulting in a new joint, as well as making the
new solder flow very quickly and easily.
Soldering Defects
Various problems may arise in the soldering process which leads to joints which are non-
functional either immediately or after a period of use. The most common defect when
hand-soldering results from the parts being joined not exceeding the solder's liquidus
temperature, resulting in a "cold solder" joint. This is usually the result of the soldering
iron being used to heat the solder directly, rather than the parts themselves. Properly
done, the parts to be connected are heated by the iron, which in turn melts the solder,
guaranteeing adequate heat in the joined parts for thorough wetting.
An improperly selected or applied flux can cause joint failure, or if not properly cleaned
off the joint, may corrode the metals in the joint over time and cause eventual joint
failure. Without flux the joint may not be clean, or may be oxidized, resulting in an
unsound joint.
Movement of metals being soldered before the solder has cooled will cause a highly
unreliable cracked joint.
Common Tools
Hand-soldering tools include the electric soldering iron, which has a variety of tips
available ranging from blunt to very fine to chisel heads for hot-cutting plastics, and the
soldering gun, which typically provides more power, giving faster heat-up and allowing
larger parts to be soldered. Hot-air guns and pencils allow rework of component packages
which cannot easily be performed with irons and guns. Torches are available in sizes
ranging from very small butane/oxygen units suitable for very fine but high-temperature
jewelry work, to full-size oxy-fuel torches suitable for much larger work. Toaster ovens
and handheld infrared lights have been used to reproduce production processes on a much
smaller scale.
Bristle brushes are usually used to apply plumbing paste flux. For electronic work, flux-
core solder is generally used, but additional flux may be used from a flux pen or
dispensed from a small bottle with a syringe-like needle.
89
Wire brushes, wire wool and emery cloth are commonly used to prepare plumbing joints
for connection. Electronic joints rarely require mechanical cleaning.
For PCB assembly and rework, alcohol and acetone are commonly used with cotton
swabs or bristle brushes to remove flux residue. A heavy rag is usually used to remove
flux from a plumbing joint before it cools and hardens. A glassfibre brush can also be
used.
For electronic work, solder wick and vacuum-operated "solder suckers" are used to undo
solder connections.
Soldering Iron
A soldering iron is a device for applying heat to melt solder for attaching two metal parts.
A soldering iron is composed of a heated metal tip and an insulated handle. Heating is
often achieved electrically, by passing a current, supplied through an electrical cord or a
battery, through a heating element. Another heating method includes combustion of a
suitable gas, which can either be delivered through a tank mounted on the iron
(flameless), or through an external torch.
Some irons stay hot as long as they are turned on, while others heat up and cool down in
a few seconds.
For electrical work, wires are usually soldered to

printed circuit boards, other wires, or small
terminals. A low-power iron is suitable for this
work. In earlier days wires were frequently
soldered to large chassis made of heavy metal,
but this high-power requirement is now rare.
Higher power is used for non-electrical metal-
work.
Small battery-operated or gas soldering irons are useful when there isn’t a convenient
source of electricity.
Some soldering irons have interchangeable tips for different types of work. Pyramid tips
with a triangular flat face are useful for soldering sheet metal. Fine round or chisel tips
are typically used for electronics work.
When not in use, soldering irons are often placed in stands to keep them away from
flammable materials. Such a stand often also comes with a sponge and flux pot for
90
cleaning the tip. Some soldering irons for continuous and professional use come as part
of a soldering station, which allows the exact temperature of the tip to be adjusted, kept
constant, and displayed.
A new tip needs to be coated, heated, and then covered with solder before its first use.
This procedure is called "tinning". The tinning forms a liquid layer which facilitates the
transfer of heat to the work piece. A dirty tip does not transfer heat well. The tip needs to
be kept coated with a shiny layer of solder by occasional wiping and applying solder
directly to the tip.
For best results, particularly in electrical work where good electrical contact is required,
the iron should be used to heat the work piece, and solder applied to it: this helps to
prevent "cold joints", where hot solder is applied by the iron to a relatively cold target,
shrouding it in solder to look like a good joint, but without wetting it properly, and
without forming a good connection. Electrical solder contains flux cores (the purpose of
the flux is to clean the oxides off the metals to permit a good joint). If the solder is
applied to the iron first then the flux is rapidly burnt off (the wispy white smoke you get
from the tip of the iron) and cannot serve its purpose on the joint. In heavier applications,
including plumbing, flux is normally applied completely separately.
While soldering is used in plumbing applications, a soldering iron is not suitable for
heating the large areas of heavy metal used, and a blow-torch is the tool of choice.
Temperature Regulated Soldering Station
A temperature-controlled soldering station is a complete unit usually used for soldering

electronic components, and consisting of an electrical power supply, a soldering iron, and
is different for lead-based and lead-free solders. Lead-based solder uses 250°C to 280°C
or 300°C while lead-free soldering needs a higher temperature, about 350°C to 400°C.
91
Applications
And
Future Scope
92
Applications
Increased productivity, accuracy, and endurance:
Jobs which require speed, accuracy, reliability or endurance can be performed far better
by a robot than a human. Hence many jobs in factories which were traditionally
performed by people are now robotized. This has led to cheaper mass-produced goods,
including automobiles and electronics. Robots have now been working in factories for
more than fifty years, ever since the Unimate robot was installed to automatically remove
hot metal from a die casting machine. Since then, factory automation in the form of large
stationary manipulators has become the largest market for robots. The number of
installed robots has grown faster and faster, and today there are more than 1 million
robots in operation worldwide (Half of the robot population is located in Asia, 1/3 in
Europe, and 16% in North America. Australasia and Africa each account for 1%).
Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs):
Mobile robots, following markers or wires in the floor, or using vision or lasers, are used
to transport goods around large facilities, such as warehouses, container ports, or
hospitals. Early AGV-style robots were limited to tasks that could be accurately defined
and must be performed the same every time. Very little feedback or intelligence was
required, and the robots may need only the most basic of exteroceptors to sense things in
their environment, if any at all. However, newer AGV's, such as the Speci-Minder,
ADAM, Tug, and PatrolBot Gofer qualify under the JARA definition of intelligent
robots. They use some form of natural features recognition to navigate. Scanning lasers,
stereovision or other means of sensing the environment in two- or three-dimensions is
combined with standard dead-reckoning calculations in a probabilistic manner to
continuously update the AGV's current location, eliminating cumulative error. This
means that the Self-Guided Vehicle (SGV) can navigate a space autonomously once it
has learned it or been provided with a map of it. Such new robots are able to operate in
complex environments and perform non-repetitive and non-sequential tasks such as
carrying tires to presses in factories, delivering masks in a semi-conductor lab, delivering
specimens in hospitals and delivering goods in warehouses.
93
Future Scope
As of 2008, the robotic arm business is approaching a mature state, where advance
features can be provided like speed, accuracy and ease of use for most of the applications.
Vision guidance (machine vision) is bringing a lot of flexibility to robotic cells. So we
have the arm and the eye, but the part that still has poor flexibility is the hand: the end
effecter attached to a robot is often a simple pneumatic, 2-position wrench. This doesn't
allow the robotic cell to easily handle different parts, in different orientations.
Hand-in-hand with increasing off-line programmed applications, robot calibration is

becoming more and more important in order to guarantee a good positioning accuracy.
Other developments include downsizing industrial arms for consumer applications

(micro-robotic arms), manufacture of domestic robots and using industrial arms in
combination with more intelligent automated guided vehicles (AGVs) to make the
automation chain more flexible between pick-up and drop-off.
In future robots will be commonplace: in home, factories, agriculture, building &

construction, undersea, space, mining, hospitals and streets for repair, construction,
maintenance, security, entertainment, companionship, care.
Purposes of these Future Robots:

1. Robotized space vehicles and facilities
2. Anthropomorphic general-purpose robots with hands like humans used for factory
jobs –
3. Intelligent robots for unmanned plants - Totally automated factories will be

commonplace.
4. Robots for guiding blind people
5. Robots for almost any job in home or hospital, including Robo-surgery.
6. Housework robots for cleaning, washing etc - Domestic robots will be small,
specialized and attractive, e.g. cuddly
Properties of these Future Robots:

1. Autonomous, with environmental awareness sensors
2. Self diagnostic self repairing
3. Artificial brains with ten thousand or more cells
94
References
1. Op-Amp and Linear Integrated Circuits by Gayakwad
2. IEEE Transactions on Automation Science and Engineering
3. IEEE Transactions on Robotics
4. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
5. IEEE Journal of Field Robotics
6. International Journal of Robotics and Automation
7. Cx51 Compiler - Optimizing C Compiler and Library Reference for Classic

and Extended 8051 Microcontrollers
8. 80C51 family programmer’s guide and instruction set
9. 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems by Muhammad Ali Mazidi
10. Internet
i. Google.com
ii. Hobbytron.com
iii. Quasarelectronics.com
iv. Bityard.com
v. Proporta.com
95

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Major Project Report

Line Chaser Robot

In the partial fulfillment for B.E. (Electrical Engineering),

Submitted By- Project Guide-

Department of Electrical Engineering

This is to certify that Mr. Varun Katoria of Hindu College of

The project is graded

By Miss Rakhi Kamra

It is my pleasure to acknowledge the assistance of Miss Rakhi Kamra,

I would like to express my gratitude to her for providing invaluable

Giving me Precious Gift of

4. Brief Description of Major Components Used - 13

ii. Motor Driver IC ULN2003 - 33

iii. Op-Amp LM358 - 36

vi. Lithium Ion Battery - 46

vii. Voltage Regulator - 48

5. Working of Line Chaser Robot - 53

7. Circuit Diagram of Line Chaser Robot - 58

8. PCB art work used - 59

9. Top View and Bottom View of Line Chaser Robot - 60

10. Minor Components employed in circuit

iv. Heat Sink - 71

11. PCB Manufacturing - 78

12. Solder and Soldering Proficiency - 81

14. Future Scope - 93

Introduction to 8051 Microprocessor:

Important features and applications:

On-chip RAM - 128 bytes ("Data Memory")

On-chip ROM - 4 kB ("Program Memory")

Four byte bi-directional input/output port

UART (serial port)

Two 16-bit timers

Power saving mode

A robot is a mechanical or virtual, artificial agent. It is usually an electromechanical

-is not 'natural' i.e. artificially created

-can sense its environment, and manipulate or interact with things in it

-moves with one or more axes of rotation or translation

-makes dexterous coordinated movements

-appears to have intent or agency .

-a clockwork car is never considered a robot

-a car with an onboard computer, like Bigtrak, which could drive in a

However, for many laymen, if a machine looks anthropomorphic or zoomorphic (e.g.

-a player piano is rarely characterized as a robot

-a CNC milling machine is very occasionally characterized as a robot.

-a factory automation arm is almost always characterized as a robot or an

-an autonomous wheeled or tracked device, such as a self-guided rover or self-

-a zoomorphic mechanical toy, like Roboraptor, is usually characterized as a

-a humanoid, like ASIMO, is almost always characterized as a robot or a service

In Line Chaser Robot

-8-bit data bus

-16-bit address bus

-34 general purpose registers each of 8 bits

-16 bit timers (usually 2, but may have more, or less).

-3 internal and 2 external interrupts.

-Bit as well as byte addressable RAM area of 16 bytes.

-4 8-bit ports, (short models have 2 8-bit ports).

-16-bit program counter and data pointer

There are 4 8-bit ports: P0, P1, P2 and P3.

Data and Program Memory

The 8051 Microprocessor can be programmed in 8051 Assembly, C and a number of

Program Start Address

DATA BUS (External) 8 bit

Figure 1.1 8051 functional block diagram.