An introduction

Table of Contents
The Operational Amplifier______________________________slides 3-4
The Four Amplifier Types______________________________slide 5
VCVS(Voltage Amplifier) Summary:
Noninverting Configuration____________slides 6-9
Inverting Configuration________________slides 10-12
ICIC(Current Amplifier) Summary________________________slide 13
VCIS (Transconductance Amplifier) Summary_____________slides 14-15
ICVS (Transresistance Amplifier) Summary_______________slides 16-18
Power Bandwidth_____________________________________slide 19
Slew Rate____________________________________________slide 20
Slew Rate Output Distortion____________________________ slide 21
Noise Gain___________________________________________slide 22
Gain-Bandwidth Product_______________________________slide 23
Cascaded Amplifiers - Bandwidth________________________slide 24
Common Mode Rejection Ratio__________________________slides 25-26
Power Supply Rejection Ratio___________________________slide 27
Sources_____________________________________________slide 28

1
 The Operational Amplifier
• Usually Called Op Amps
• An amplifier is a device that accepts a varying input signal and produces
a similar output signal with a larger amplitude.
• Usually connected so part of the output is fed back to the input.
(Feedback Loop)
• Most Op Amps behave like voltage amplifiers. They take an input voltage
and output a scaled version.
• They are the basic components used to build analog circuits.
• The name “operational amplifier” comes from the fact that they were
originally used to perform mathematical operations such as integration
and differentiation.
• Integrated circuit fabrication techniques have made high-performance
operational amplifiers very inexpensive in comparison to older discrete
devices.

The Operational Amplifier

+VS

i(-) _
Inverting
RO
vid A Output
Ri
vO = Advid
Noninverting
i(+) +

-VS
• i(+), i(-) : Currents into the amplifier on the inverting and noninverting lines
respectively
• vid : The input voltage from inverting to non-inverting inputs
• +VS , -VS : DC source voltages, usually +15V and –15V
• Ri : The input resistance, ideally infinity
• A : The gain of the amplifier. Ideally very high, in the 1x1010 range.
• RO: The output resistance, ideally zero
• vO: The output voltage; vO = AOLvid where AOL is the open-loop voltage gain

2
 The Four Amplifier Types
Gain Transfer
Description Symbol Function
Voltage Amplifier
or Av vo/vin
Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)
Current Amplifier
or Ai io/iin
Current Controlled Current Source (ICIS)
Transconductance Amplifier
gm
or io/vin
(siemens)
Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCIS)
Transresistance Amplifier
rm
or vo/iin
(ohms)
Current Controlled Voltage Source (ICVS)

VCVS (Voltage Amplifier) Summary

Noninverting Configuration
i(+)
+ iO iL vid = vo/AOL
vid Assuming AOL

_ iF +
+ + + vO vid =0
vin i(-) vF RF RL vL - Also, with the assumption
_ _ _
that Rin = 
i(+) = i(-) = 0
+
v1 R1 This means that,
Applying KVL the _ i1 iF = i1
following equations can Therefore: iF = vin/R1
be found: Using the equation to the left the output
v1 = vin voltage becomes:
vO = v1 + vF = vin+ iFRF vo = vin + vinRF = vin RF + 1
R1 R1

3
 VCVS (Voltage Amplifier) Summary
Noninverting Configuration Continued
The closed-loop voltage gain is symbolized by Av and is found to be:
Av = vo = RF + 1
vin R1
The original closed loop gain equation is:
Av = AF = AOL AF is the amplifier
1 + AOLβ gain with feedback

Ideally AOL
 , Therefore Av = 1

β
Note: The actual value of AOL is given for the specific device and usually
ranges from 50k
500k.
β is the feedback factor and by assuming open-loop gain is infinite:
β = R1
R1 + RF

VCVS (Voltage Amplifier) Summary

Noninverting Configuration Continued
Input and Output Resistance
Ideally, the input resistance for this configuration is infinity, but the a closer
prediction of the actual input resistance can be found with the following
formula:
RinF = Rin (1 + βAOL) Where Rin is given for the
specified device. Usually Rin is
in the MΩ range.
Ideally, the output resistance is zero, but the formula below gives a more
accurate value:
RoF = Ro Where Ro is given for the
βAOL + 1 specified device. Usually Ro is in
the 10s of Ωs range.

4
 VCVS (Voltage Amplifier)
i(+)
Noninverting Configuration Example
+ iO iL
vid
kΩ
Given: vin = 0.6V, RF = 200 kΩ
_ +
+
iF
vO kΩ , AOL = 400k
R1 = 2 kΩ
+ +
vin i(-) vF RF RL vL - Rin = 8 M Ω , Ro = 60 Ω
_ _ _
Find: vo , iF , Av , β , RinF and RoF
+
v1 R1
_ i1
Solution:
0.6*2x105 = 60.6 V
vo = vin + vinRF = 0.6 + 0.6*2x10 iF = vin = 0.6 = 0.3 mA
R1 2000 R1 2000
Av = RF + 1 = 2x105 + 1 = 101 β = 1 = 1 = 9.9x10-3
R1 2000 AOL 101
RinF = Rin (1 + β AOL) = 8x106 (1 + 9.9x10-3*4x105) = 3.1688x1010 Ω
RoF = Ro = 60 = 0.015 Ω
β AOL + 1 9.9x10-3*4x105 + 1

VCVS (Voltage Amplifier) Summary

Inverting Configuration
RF The same assumptions
iF
used to find the
R1 equations for the
i1
noninverting
+
configuration are also
+ _ + used for the inverting
vin vO configuration.
_ RL -

General Equations:
i1 = vin/R1
iF = i1
vo = -iFRF = -vinRF/R1
Av = RF/R1 β = R1/RF

5
 VCVS (Voltage Amplifier) Summary
Inverting Configuration Continued
Input and Output Resistance
Ideally, the input resistance for this configuration is equivalent to R1.
However, the actual value of the input resistance is given by the following
formula:
Rin = R1 + RF
1 + AOL
Ideally, the output resistance is zero, but the formula below gives a more
accurate value:
RoF = Ro
1 + βAOL

Note: β= R1 This is different from the equation used

R1 + RF on the previous slide, which can be confusing.

VCVS (Voltage Amplifier)

Inverting Configuration Example
iF RF
kΩ
Given: vin = 0.6 V, RF = 20 kΩ
R1
i1 kΩ , AOL = 400k
R1 = 2 kΩ
+
Rin = 8 M Ω , Ro = 60 Ω
+ _ +
vin vO Find: vo , iF , Av , β , RinF and RoF
_ RL -

Solution:
vo = -iFRF = -vinRF/R1 = -(0.6*20,000)/2000 = 12 V
iF = i1 = vin/R1 = 1 / 2000 = 0.5 mA
Av = RF/R1 = 20,000 / 2000 = 10 β = R1/RF = 2000 / 20,000 = 0.1
Rin = R1 + RF = 2000 + 20,000 = 2,000.05 Ω
1 + AOL 1 + 400,000
RoF = Ro = 60 = 1.67 m Ω
1 + β AOL 1 + 0.09*400,000 Note: β is 0.09 because using
different formula than above

6
 ICIS (Current Amplifier) Summary
 Not commonly done using operational amplifiers
iL
Load
_
iin
+ iin = iL
Similar to the voltage
1 Possible follower shown below:
ICIS
Operational
Amplifier _
+ vin = vo
Application vin
_ +
+ vO
-
Both these amplifiers have
unity gain:
Voltage Follower
Av = Ai = 1

VCIS (Transconductance Amplifier) Summary

Voltage to Current Converter
iL iL
Load Load
i1 R1 i1 R1
_ _

+ OR +
vin + vin +
_ _ +
vin
_
General Equations:
iL = i1 = v1/R1
v1 = vin
The transconductance, gm = io/vin = 1/R1
Therefore, iL = i1 = vin/R1 = gmvin
The maximum load resistance is determined by:
RL(max) = vo(max)/iL

7
 VCIS (Transconductance Amplifier)
Voltage to Current Converter Example
iL
Load Given: vin = 2 V, R1 = 2 kΩ
i1 R1 vo(max) =  10 V
_
Find: iL , gm and RL(max)
+
vin +
_ Solution:

iL = i1 = vin/R1 = 2 / 2000 = 1 mA
Note:
gm = io/vin = 1/R1 = 1 / 2000 = 0.5 mS
• If RL > RL(max) the op amp
will saturate RL(max) = vo(max)/iL = 10 V / 1 mA
• The output current, iL is
independent of the load = 10 k Ω
resistance.

VCIS (Transresistance Amplifier) Summary

Current to Voltage Converter
iF RF

+
iin + vO
-

General Equations:
iF = iin
vo = -iFRF
rm = vo/iin = RF

8
 VCIS (Transresistance Amplifier) Summary
Current to Voltage Converter

• Transresistance Amplifiers are used for low-power

applications to produce an output voltage proportional to
the input current.

• Photodiodes and Phototransistors, which are used in the

production of solar power are commonly modeled as
current sources.

• Current to Voltage Converters can be used to convert these

current sources to more commonly used voltage sources.

Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE

Spring 2002

VCIS (Transresistance Amplifier)

Current to Voltage Converter Example
iF RF
Given: iin = 10 mA
RF = 200 Ω
_
Find: iF , vo and rm
+
iin + vO
-

Solution:

iF = iin = 10 mA

vo = -iFRF = 10 mA * 200 Ω = 2 V

rm = vo/iin = RF = 200

9
 Power Bandwidth
The maximum frequency at which a sinusoidal output signal can be
produced without causing distortion in the signal.
The power bandwidth, BW p is determined using the desired output
signal amplitude and the the slew rate (see next slide) specifications
of the op amp.
BW p = SR
2πVo(max)
SR = 2πfVo(max) where SR is the slew rate

Example:
Given: Vo(max) = 12 V and SR = 500 kV/s
Find: BW p
Solution: BW p = 500 kV/s = 6.63 kHz
2π * 12 V

Slew Rate
A limitation of the maximum possible rate of change of the output of
an operational amplifier.
As seen on the previous slide, This is derived from:
SR = 2πfVo(max) SR = ∆vo/∆tmax
 f is the
frequency in Slew Rate is independent of the
Hz closed-loop gain of the op amp.

Example:
Given: SR = 500 kV/s and ∆vo = 12 V (Vo(max) = 12V)
Find: The ∆t and f.
Solution: ∆t = ∆vo / SR = (10 V) / (5x105 V/s) = 2x10-5 s
f = SR / 2πVo(max) = (5x105 V/s) / (2π * 12) = 6,630 Hz

10
 Slew Rate Distortion
v
desired output
waveform SR = ∆vv/∆tt = m (slope)

∆vv
t
∆t
actual output
because of slew
rate limitation

The picture above shows exactly what happens when the slew
rate limitations are not met and the output of the operational
amplifier is distorted.

Noise Gain
The noise gain of an amplifier is independent of the amplifiers
configuration (inverting or noninverting)
The noise gain is given by the formula:
AN = R1 + RF
R1

Example 1: Given a noninverting amplifier with the resistance

values, R1 = 2 kΩ and RF = 200 kΩ
Find: The noise gain.
AN = 2 kΩ + 200 kΩ = 101  Note: For the
2 kΩ noninverting amplifier AN = AV

Example 2: Given an inverting amplifier with the resistance

values, R1 = 2 kΩ and RF = 20 kΩ
Find: The noise gain.
AN = 2 kΩ + 20 kΩ = 12  Note: For the
2 kΩ inverting amplifier AN > AV

11
 Gain--Bandwidth Product
Gain
In most operational amplifiers, the open-loop gain begins dropping
off at very low frequencies. Therefore, to make the op amp useful
at higher frequencies, gain is traded for bandwidth.
The Gain-Bandwidth Product (GBW) is given by:
GBW = ANBW

Example: For a 741 op amp, a noise gain of 10 k corresponds

to a bandwidth of ~200 Hz
Find: The GBW
GBW = 10 k * 200 Hz = 2 MHz

Cascaded Amplifiers - Bandwidth

Quite often, one amplifier does not increase the signal enough and
amplifiers are cascaded so the output of one amplifier is the input to the
next.
The amplifiers are matched so:
BW S = BW 1 = BW 2 = GBW where, BW S is the bandwidth of all
AN the cascaded amplifiers and AN is
the noise gain
The Total Bandwidth of the Cascaded Amplifiers is:
BW T = BW s(21/n – 1)1/2 where n is the number of amplifiers
that are being cascaded
Example: Cascading 3 Amplifiers with GBW = 1 MHz and AN = 15,
Find: The Total Bandwidth, BW T
BW S = 1 MHz / 15 = 66.7 kHz
BW T = 66.7 kHz (21/3 – 1)1/2 = 34 kHz

12
 Common--Mode Rejection Ratio
Common
The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) relates to the ability of the op
amp to reject common-mode input voltage. This is very important
because common-mode signals are frequently encountered in op amp
applications.
CMRR = 20 log|AN / Acm|
Acm = AN
log-1
(CMRR / 20)
We solve for Acm because Op Amp data sheets list the CMRR value.

The common-mode input voltage is an average of the voltages that are

present at the non-inverting and inverting terminals of the amplifier.
vicm = v(+) + v(-)
2

Common--Mode Rejection Ratio

Common
Example

Given: A 741 op amp with CMRR = 90 dB and a noise gain,

AN = 1 k
Find: The common mode gain, Acm

Acm = AN = 1000
log-1 (CMRR / 20) log-1 (90 / 20)

= 0.0316

It is very desirable for the common-

common-mode gain to be small.

13
 Power Supply Rejection Ratio
One of the reasons op amps are so useful, is that they can be
operated from a wide variety of power supply voltages.

The 741 op amp can be operated from bipolar supplies ranging

from 5V to 18V with out too many changes to the
parameters of the op amp.

The power supply rejection ratio (SVRR) refers to the slight

change in output voltage that occurs when the power supply of
the op amp changes during operation.

SVRR = 20 log (∆Vs / ∆Vo)

The SVRR value is given for a specified op amp. For the 741
op amp, SVRR = 96 dB over the range 5V to 18V.

Open--Loop Op Amp Characteristics

Open
Table 12.11

Device LM741C LF351 OP-07 LH0003 AD549K

Hybrid
Technology BJT BiFET BJT BiFET
BJT

AOL(typ) 200 k 100 k 400 k 40 k 100 k

Rin Ω
2 MΩ 1012 Ω Ω
8 MΩ Ω
100 kΩ 1013 Ω || 1 pF

Ro 50 Ω 30 Ω 60 Ω 50 Ω ~100 Ω

SR µs
0.5 V/µ µs
13 V/µ µs
0.3 V/µ µs
70 V/µ µs
3 V/µ

CMRR 90 dB 100 dB 110 dB 90 dB 90 dB

14
 Sources
Dailey, Denton. Electronic Devices and Circuits, Discrete and Integrated. Prentice Hall, New
Jersey: 2001. (pp 456-
456-509)
1Table 12.1: Selected Op Amps and Their Open Loop Characteristics, pg 457
Liou, J.J. and Yuan, J.S. Semiconductor Device Physics and Simulation. Plenum Press,
Liou, New
York: 1998.
Neamen,, Donald. Semiconductor Physics & Devices. Basic Principles. McGraw
Neamen McGraw--Hill, Boston:
1997. (pp 351-
351-357)

Web Sources
www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0803814.html
http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0836717.html
http://people.msoe.edu/~saadat/PSpice230Part3.htm

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