ATOMIC STRUCTURE

 Introduction : The elements are made of tiny particles known as atoms. Atom shows all the
physical and chemical properties of that element.
 Atom :
Definition – “The smallest indivisible particle of an element is known as atom.”
Different theories are put forward by different scientists to suggest atomic structure.
1) Dalton’s atomic theory (1808)
2) J.J. Thomson’s atomic theory (1808)
3) Rutherford’s atomic theory (1911)
According to these scientists, an atom is composed of number of subatomic particles like
protons, neutrons, electrons. These subatomic particles are considered as fundamental
particles. Number of other subatomic particles like mesons, positrons are discovered
afterwards.
According to Rutherford’s atomic model, an atom consists of central rigid part called as
nucleus. Protons and neutrons are present in the nucleus. Electrons are revolving around the
nucleus in circular path known as orbits.

Rutherford’s atomic model

• Protons and neutrons have nearly unit mass, while electrons have negligible
mass, so mass of atom is concentrated in the nucleus of atom.
• Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged and neutrons
are neutral. In an atom, number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.
Therefore, atom as a whole is electrically neutral.

 Fundamental particles of an atom :

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 Three fundamental particles present in an atom are electron, proton and neutron.
a) Electron : It is represented as ‘e- ’. It is present in the extra nuclear part of an atom.
It carries unit negative (-ve) charge.
Mass of electron = 0.0005486 amu = 0.91095 x 10 -29 gm = 0.91095 x 10 -31 kg
b) Proton : It is represented as ‘P ’. It is present in the nucleus of an atom.
It carries unit positive (+ve) charge.
Mass of proton = 1.0073 amu = 1.6726 x 10 -24 gm = 1.6726 x 10 -27 kg
c) Neutron : It is represented as ‘n ’. It is present in the nucleus of an atom.
It carries no electric charge (neutral).
Mass of neutron = 1.0087 amu = 1.6749 x 10 -24 gm = 1.6749 x 10 -27 kg

Electron Proton Neutron

1) symbol e- P n
2) electric charge negative (-1) positive (+1) no charge (0)
3) location Revolves around in the nucleus in the nucleus
the nucleus
4) mass 0.0005486 amu 1.0073 amu 1.0087 amu
0.91095 x 10-29 gm 1.6726 x 10 -24 gm 1.6749 x 10 -24 gm
0.91095 x 10 -31 kg 1.6726 x 10 -27 kg 1.6749 x 10 -27 kg

 Atomic Number and Atomic mass number :

Atomic number and atomic mass number are the fundamental properties of atom.
Atomic Number (Z) : “The number of protons which is equal to the number of electrons is
known as atomic number.” It is represented as ‘Z ‘.
Atomic number (Z) = no. of protons = no. of electrons
Atomic Mass Number (A) : “The total number of protons and neutrons together present in
the nucleus of atom is known as atomic mass number.” It is represented as‘A‘.
Atomic mass number (A) = no. of protons + no. of neutrons
Atomic number (Z) = no. of protons
Atomic mass number (A) = no. of protons + no. of neutrons
A = Z + no. of neutrons
Therefore, no. of neutrons = A - Z

Atomic weight : “The average relative weight of an atom of element as compared with
1/12th weight of carbon atom is known as atomic weight or atomic mass.”
The elements are present in various isotopic forms; therefore atomic mass may have
fractional number.
e.g. atomic weight of chlorine :

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 Chlorine has two isotopic forms Cl35 and Cl37. These isotopes are present in the ratio
3:1 in chlorine gas.
Therefore,
Average atomic weight of Cl = (35 x 3) + (37 x 1) = 105 + 37 = 142
4 4 4
= 35.5
Thus, atomic weight of Cl is 35.5

Distinction between atomic number and atomic mass number :

Atomic Number Atomic Mass Number
1.The number of protons which is equal 1.The total number of protons and
to the number of protons is known as neutrons together present in the
atomic number. nucleus of an atom is known as atomic
mass number.
2. It is represented as ‘Z ‘ 2. It is represented as ‘A ‘
3. It decides chemical properties of 3. It decides physical properties of
element. element.
4. Z = no. of protons = no. of electrons 4. A = no. of protons + no. of neutrons

Distinction between atomic mass and atomic mass number :

Atomic mass Atomic Mass Number
1. The average relative weight of an 1.The total number of protons and
atom of an element as compared with neutrons together present in the
1/12th weight of carbon atom is known nucleus of an atom is known as atomic
as atomic weight or atomic mass. mass number.
2. It may have fractional value. 2. It is always a whole number.
3. It is average weight of atoms. 3. It is number of protons and neutrons.

 Isotopes and Isobars :

Isotopes :
Definition : “The different atoms of the same element having same atomic numbers but
different atomic mass numbers, are known as isotopes.”
e.g. Hydrogen has three isotopes protium, deuterium, tritium 1 H1 , 1 H2 , H3
1

Isotopes At. no. At. Mass no. No. of protons = No. of

no. of electrons neutrons
1 H1 1 1 1 0
1 H2 1 2 1 1
1 H3 1 3 1 2
3
 Properties :
i) Isotopes are the atoms of same element.
ii) They have same atomic number, same electronic configuration, same number of
protons and electrons.
iii) They have different atomic mass number and different number of neutrons.
iv) Isotopes have same chemical properties but different physical properties.

Other examples of isotopes :

(i) 17 Cl35 & 17 Cl37
(ii) 6 C12 & 6C14
(iii) 11 Na23 & 11 Na24

Isobars :
Definition : “The atoms of different elements having same atomic mass numbers are known
as isobars.”
e.g. 18 Ar40 , 19 K40 , 20 Ca40
Isobars At. no. At. Mass no. No. of protons = No. of
no. of electrons neutrons
40
18 Ar 18 40 18 22
19 K40 19 40 19 21
20 Ca40 20 40 20 20

Properties :
i) Isobars are the atoms of different elements.
ii) They have same atomic mass number.
iii) They have different atomic number, different electronic configuration, different number
of protons, neutrons and electrons.
iv) Isobars have different chemical properties but same physical properties.

Other examples of isobars :

(i) 6 C14 & 7N14
(ii) 12 Mg24 & 11 Na24

Distinction between isotopes and isobars :

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 Isotopes Isobars
1. Isotopes are atoms of same element. 1.Isobars are atoms of different element
2. They have same atomic number. 2 They have different atomic number.
3. They have same number of protons and 3. They have different number of protons,
electrons but different number of electrons and neutrons.
neutrons.
4.They have different atomic mass number 4. They have same atomic mass number.
5. They have same chemical properties. 5. They have different chemical properties.
6. They have different physical properties. 6. They have same physical properties.

 Bohr Theory :
Niels Bohr put forward theory of atomic structure in 1913. He suggested some modifications
in the Rutherford’s atomic model.
Assumptions :
(1) An atom consists of a small positively charged nucleus at its centre.
(2) The negatively charged electrons are revolving around the nucleus in certain circular
paths called energy levels.
(3) Each energy level is associated with a definite amount of energy.
(4) The energy levels are numbered as n = 1,2,3,4 etc. or represented as K, L, M, N, etc.
(5) The electrons revolving around the nucleus in certain energy levels neither gain nor lose
energy. Thus energy of revolving electrons is definite.
(6) When electron jumps from inner lower energy level to outer higher energy level, it
absorbs some energy (gain of energy).
(7) When electron jumps from outer higher energy level to inner lower energy level, it emits
some energy (loss of energy).

Circular energy levels or orbits in an atom

 Orbits and orbitals :

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Orbits :
Definition : “The fixed circular paths along which electrons are revolving around the nucleus are
known as orbits.”
According to Bohr’ theory, electrons revolving in certain closed circular paths (orbits) having a
definite energy. Therefore these orbits are called as energy levels. These energy levels are
numbered as n = 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. starting from the innermost energy level. These energy levels
are also named as K, L, M, N, etc. Total number of orbitals present in the main energy level is
equal to n2.The total number of electrons present in main energy level is equal to 2n2

Main Energy level (n) Number of orbitals (n2) Total Number of electrons (2n2)
n=1 1 2
n=2 4 6
n=3 9 18
n=4 16 32

Orbitals :
Definition : “The region in space around the nucleus where probability of finding an electron is
maximum, is known as orbital.”
The main energy level contains some sub-energy levels namely s, p, d, f . These sub-energy
levels contain orbitals.
sub-energy No. of orbitals Names of orbitals
level
s one s
p three px, py, pz

(i) s - orbitals :The s - sub energy level consists of only one orbital known as s - orbital.
s – orbitals are spherical and non-directional in character. Every s-orbital can be filled
with two electrons.
(ii) p - orbitals :The p-sub energy level consists of three orbitals, designated as px, py, pz
orbitals. p – orbitals are dumb-belled shaped, and perpendicular to each other. Every p –
orbital contains two lobes.
In px – orbital two lobes are situated along x-axis, in py – orbital two lobes are situated
along y -axis, while in pz – orbital two lobes are situated along z –axis. Thus p – orbitals
are directional in character.
Every p -orbital can be filled with two electrons. Thus p - sub energy level can be filled
with total six electrons.

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 Distinction between orbits and orbitals :
Orbits Orbitals
1. Orbits are fixed circular paths along 1. Orbital is the region in space around the
which electrons are revolving around nucleus where probability of finding an
the nucleus. electron is maximum.
2. Orbits are designated by numbers n = 1, 2. Orbitals are designated as s, p, d, f
2, 3, 4, etc. or by letters K,L,M,N,etc.
3. Orbits are closed circular paths. 3. Orbitals can have different shapes like
spherical, dumb-belled shaped.

 Quantum Numbers:
I] Principle Quantum Number (n) –
It represents the main energy level or “shell”. It has values n = 1, 2, 3, 4……..
II] Azimuthal Quantum Number (l) –
It represents “subshell”. It has integer values from 0 to n-1.
n-1
l= 0, 1, 2, 3, …. n - 1
orbital: s p d f ….
III] Magnetic Quantum Number (m) –
It represents the “orbital”. It has integer values from (- l) to (+ l) including 0.
0
m = (-l), … -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, … (+l)
IV] Spin Quantum Number (s) –
It represents the “spin of electron”. It has values (+1/2) & (-1/2)
s = +1/2 , -1/2

 Pauli’s exclusion Principle :

“No two electrons in an atom can have same values of all the four quantum numbers.”

 The Aufbau Principle :

Statement : “The electrons always enter into the available lowest energy level first before
entering into the next higher energy level.”
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 Increasing energy of orbitals 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s ………. so on

 Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity –

Statement : “When electrons are filled in the orbitals having same energy, first they enter
singly with parallel spin and then pairing of electrons starts in the orbitals.”
2s 2p
(Z=5) [He] 2s2 2p1
B (Z=5)

(Z=6) [He] 2s2 2p2

C (Z=6)

(Z=7) [He] 2s2 2p3

N (Z=7)

 Filling up of orbitals by electrons :

Electronic configuration : “The arrangement of electrons in the various energy levels and
sub-energy levels is known as electronic configuration.”
The electronic configuration of an atom can be written, by taking into account the
above rules : Pauli’s exclusion principle, Aufbau Principle, Hund’s rule.
The electronic configuration of atoms can be written in different ways :
a) Regular representation :
Hydrogen (Z = 1) 1s1
Carbon (Z = 6) 1s2 2s2 2p2 OR [He] 2s2 2p2
Sodium (Z = 11) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 OR [Ne] 3s1

b) Diagrammatic representation :

c) Orbital representation :
i) Carbon (Z = 6) 1s2 2s2 2p2

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ii) Sodium (Z = 11) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

 Electronic Configuration of the elements from atomic number 1 to 30 :

Atomic Symbol Name of Electronic configuration Short
numbe element electronic conf.
r
1 H Hydrogen 1s1 1s1
2 He Helium 1s2 1s2
3 Li Lithium 1s2 2s1 [He] 2s1
4 Be Beryllium 1s2 2s2 [He] 2s2
5 B Boron 1s2 2s2 2p1 [He] 2s2 2p1
6 C Carbon 1s2 2s2 2p2 [He] 2s2 2p2
7 N Nitrogen 1s2 2s2 2p3 [He] 2s2 2p3
8 O Oxygen 1s2 2s2 2p4 [He] 2s2 2p4
9 F Fluorine 1s2 2s2 2p5 [He] 2s2 2p5
10 Ne Neon 1s2 2s2 2p6 [He] 2s2 2p6
11 Na Sodium 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 [Ne] 3s1
12 Mg Magnesium 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 [Ne] 3s2
13 Al Aluminum 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 [Ne] 3s2 3p1
14 Si Silicon 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2 [Ne] 3s2 3p2
15 P Phosphorus 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 [Ne] 3s2 3p3
16 S Sulphur 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 [Ne] 3s2 3p4
17 Cl Chlorine 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 [Ne] 3s2 3p5
18 Ar Argon 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 [Ne] 3s2 3p6
19 K Potassium 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 [Ar] 4s1
20 Ca Calcium 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 [Ar] 4s2
21 Sc Scandium 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1 [Ar] 4s2 3d1
22 Ti Titanium 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d2 [Ar] 4s2 3d2
23 V Vanadium 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d3 [Ar] 4s2 3d3
24 Cr Chromium 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d4 [Ar] 4s2 3d4
25 Mn Manganese 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5 [Ar] 4s2 3d5
26 Fe Iron 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6 [Ar] 4s2 3d6
27 Co Cobalt 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d7 [Ar] 4s2 3d7
28 Ni Nickel 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d8 [Ar] 4s2 3d8
29 Cu Copper 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d9 [Ar] 4s2 3d9
30 Zn Zinc 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 [Ar] 4s2 3d10

 Valency :
Definition : The number of electrons present in the outermost energy level of atom, which can
be shared, gained (taken) from other element or given to other element is called as valency of
that element.
There are two types of valencies : (i) Electrovalency, (ii) Covalency

(i) Electrovalency :
Definition : “The number of electrons from in the outermost energy level of atom, which can
be gained (taken) from other element or given to other element is called as electrovalency of
that element.”
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 Electrovalency is of two types ;
a) Positive electrovalency : ‘The number of electrons, which can be given by the atom to other
atom is called as positive electrovalency.’
e.g. sodium, magnesium & aluminium have 1, 2 & 3 electrons in the outermost energy level. So
they can give 1,2 & 3 electrons respectively to form Na+, Mg++ , Al+++ ions. Thus Na, Mg & Al
have positive electrovalency.
b) Negative electrovalency : ‘The number of electrons, which can be gained by the atom from
other atom is called as negative electrovalency.’
e.g. phosphorus, sulphur & chlorine have 5, 6 & 7 electrons in the outermost energy level. So
- - -
they can gain 3, 2 &1 electrons respectively to form P , S - -, Cl -- ions. Thus P, S & Cl have
negative electrovalency.
(ii) Covalency : The number of electrons present in the outermost energy level of atom,
which can be shared with the other atom is called as valency of that element.
e.g. carbon & silicon have 4 electrons in the outermost energy level. They can share these
4 electrons with other atoms, thus they show covalency 4.
 Octet Rule :
“The atoms tend to acquire eight electrons in the outermost energy level.” This is octet rule.
When an atom contains eight electrons in the outermost energy level, its electronic
configuration is ‘stable electronic configuration’.
All the elements of 8th group have 8 electrons in the outermost energy level, so they have
stable electronic configurations. Hence these elements are very stable. They are chemically
inactive and called as ‘inert elements’.
e.g. Neon (at.no. 10) E.C. 1s2 2s2 2p6
8
Argon (at.no. 18) E.C. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
8
 Duplet Rule :
“Helium shows stable electronic configuration with two electrons in the outermost energy
level.” This is duplet rule.
• Thus , an atom shows stable electronic configuration when it completes duplet or octet.

 Formation of compounds :
There are two main types of compounds :
(a) Electrovalent (ionic) compounds, (b) Covalent compounds.

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 (a) Electrovalent (ionic) compounds :
Definition : ”The compounds formed by transfer of electrons from one atom to other
atom are known as electrovalent compounds.”
During the formation of electrovalent (ionic) compounds, electrovalent (ionic) bonds
are formed. e.g. NaCl, CaCl2
Properties :
1. Electrovalent compounds are completely soluble in water.
2. Electrovalent compounds produce positive and negative ions when dissolved in water.
3. Electrovalent compounds have high melting points and boiling points.
4. Electrovalent compounds are crystalline in nature.

(b) Covalent compounds :

Definition : ”The compounds formed by sharing of electrons between two atoms are known
as covalent compounds.”
During the formation of covalent compounds, covalent bonds are formed.
e.g. H2O, NH3
Properties :
1. Covalent compounds are not soluble in water but they are soluble in benzene, acetone.
2. Covalent compounds do not produce ions when dissolved in water.
3. Covalent compounds have low melting points and boiling points.
4. Covalent compounds are mostly non-crystalline in nature.

Distinction between electrovalent and covalent compounds :

Electrovalent compounds
1. Electrovalent compounds are
completely soluble in water.
2. They produce positive and negative
ions when dissolved in water.
3. They have high melting points and
boiling points.
4. They are crystalline in nature.
Covalent compounds
1.Covalent compounds are insoluble in water
but they are soluble in benzene, acetone.
2. They do not produce ions when
dissolved in water.
3. Covalent compounds have low melting
points and boiling points.
4. They are mostly non-crystalline in nature.

 Formation of electrovalent compounds :

1) Formation of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) molecule :
NaCl molecule contains one Na and one Cl atom.
i) Atomic number of sodium is 11 and atomic number of chlorine is 17.
11
ii) Electronic configurations
Na (Z=11) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
2 8 1
2
Cl (Z=17) 1s 2s 2p 3s2 3p5
2 6

2 8 7
iii) Sodium has one electron and chlorine has seven electrons in outermost energy level.
iv) To obtain stable electronic configuration (8 electrons in outermost energy level) sodium
gives one electron and chlorine gains one electron.
v) Due to the electron transfer sodium forms Na+ ion and chlorine forms Cl - ion.
vi) These ions are held together by electrostatic force of attraction called as electrovalent
or ionic bond.
vii) Thus NaCl compound is electrovalent compound.
Diagrammatic Representation :

2) Formation of Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) molecule :

CaCl2 molecule contains one Ca and two Cl atoms.
i) Atomic number of calcium is 20 and atomic number of chlorine is 17.
ii) Electronic configurations
Ca (Z=20) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
2 8 8 2

Cl (Z=17) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

2 8 7
iii) Calcium has two electrons and chlorine has seven electrons in outermost energy level.
iv) To obtain stable electronic configuration (8 electrons in outermost energy level) calcium
gives two electrons and each of the two chlorine atoms gains one electron.
v) Due to electron transfer calcium forms Ca++ ion and two chlorine atoms form 2Cl - ions.
vi) These ions are held together by electrostatic force of attraction called as electrovalent
or ionic bond.
vii) Thus CaCl2 compound is electrovalent compound.
Diagrammatic Representation :

3) Formation of Aluminum Chloride (AlCl3) molecule :

AlCl3 molecule contains one Al and three Cl atoms.
i) Atomic number of aluminum is 13 and atomic number of chlorine is 17.
ii) Electronic configurations
12
 Al (Z=13) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s23p1
2 8 3
2
Cl (Z=17) 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p5
2 6 2

2 8 7
iii) Al has three electrons and Cl has seven electrons in outermost energy level.
iv) To obtain stable electronic configuration (8 electrons in outermost energy level)
aluminum gives three electrons and each of the three chlorine atoms gains one electron.
v) Due to electron transfer aluminum forms Al+++ ion and three chlorine atoms form 3Cl- ions.
vi) These ions are held together by electrostatic force of attraction called as electrovalent
or ionic bond.
vii) Thus AlCl3 compound is electrovalent compound.
Diagrammatic Representation :

4) Formation of Magnesium Oxide (MgO) molecule :

MgO molecule contains one Mg and one O-atom.
i) Atomic number of magnesium is 12 and atomic number of oxygen is 8.
ii) Electronic configurations
Mg (Z=12) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
2 8 2
O (Z= 8) 1s2 2s2 2p4
2 6
iii) Magnesium has two electrons and oxygen has six electrons in outermost energy level.
iv) To obtain stable electronic configuration (8 electrons in outermost energy level)
magnesium gives two electrons and oxygen atom gains two electrons.
v) Due to electron transfer magnesium forms Mg++ ion and oxygen atom forms O- - ion.
vi) These ions are held together by electrostatic force of attraction called as electrovalent
or ionic bond.
vii) Thus MgO compound is electrovalent compound.
Diagrammatic Representation :

 Formation of covalent compounds :

1) Formation of Chlorine (Cl2) molecule :
Cl2 molecule contains two Cl atoms.
i) Atomic number of chlorine is 17.

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ii) Electronic configuration
Cl (Z=17) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
2 8 7
iii) Chlorine has seven electrons in the outermost energy level.
iv) To obtain stable electronic configuration (8 electrons in outermost energy level) chlorine
needs one more electron.
v) Two chlorine atoms contribute one electron each. Total two electrons are
shared in between them.
vi) Thus, ‘one electron pair’ is shared in between two chlorine atoms.
vii) Due to sharing of electron pair, covalent bond is formed in between two Cl atoms.
vii) Cl2 molecule is formed by sharing of electrons, so it is a covalent compound.
Diagrammatic Representation :

2) Formation of Nitrogen (N2) molecule :

N2 molecule contains two N atoms.
i) Atomic number of nitrogen is 7.
ii) Electronic configuration
N (Z= 7) 1s2 2s2 2p3
2 5
iii) Nitrogen has five electrons in the outermost energy level.
iv) To obtain stable electronic configuration (8 electrons in outermost energy level) nitrogen
needs three more electron.
v) Two nitrogen atoms contribute three electrons each. Total six electrons are
shared in between them.
vi) Thus, ‘three electron pairs’ are shared in between two nitrogen atoms.
vii) Due to sharing of electron pairs, covalent bonds are formed in between two N atoms.
vii) N2 molecule is formed by sharing of electrons, so it is a covalent compound.
Diagrammatic Representation :

3) Formation of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) molecule :

CO2 molecule contains one carbon and two O-atoms.
i) Atomic number of carbon is 6 and atomic number of oxygen is 8.
ii) Electronic configurations
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 C (Z= 6) 1s2 2s2 2p2
2 4
2
O (Z= 8) 1s 2s 2p4
2

2 6

iii) Carbon has four electrons and oxygen has six electrons in the outermost energy level.
iv) To obtain stable electronic configuration (8 electrons in outermost energy level) carbon
needs four more electrons and each oxygen atom needs two electrons.
v) One carbon atom contributes four electrons and both oxygen atoms contribute two
electrons each. Total eight electrons are shared in between them as shown in diagram.
vi) Thus, total ‘four electron pairs’ are shared in between them.
vii) Due to sharing of electron pairs, covalent bonds are formed in between C and O.
vii) CO2 molecule is formed by sharing of electrons, so it is a covalent compound.
Diagrammatic Representation :

4) Formation of Water (H2O) molecule :

H2O molecule contains two hydrogen and one O-atom.
i) Atomic number of Hydrogen is 1 and atomic number of oxygen is 8.
ii) Electronic configurations
H (Z= 1) 1s1
1
O (Z= 8) 1s2 2s2 2p4
2 6

iii) Hydrogen has one electron and oxygen has six electrons in the outermost energy level.
iv) To obtain stable electronic configuration each hydrogen needs one more electron (2
electrons in outermost energy level) and oxygen atom needs two electrons (8 electrons
in outermost energy level).
v) Two hydrogen atoms contribute one electron each and oxygen atom
contributes two electrons. Total four electrons are shared in between them.
vi) Thus, total ‘two electron pairs’ are shared in between them.
vii) Due to sharing of electron pairs, covalent bonds are formed in between H and O.
vii) H2O molecule is formed by sharing of electrons, so it is a covalent compound.

Diagrammatic Representation :

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5) Formation of Ammonia (NH3) molecule :
NH3 molecule contains one nitrogen and three hydrogen atoms.
i) Atomic number of Hydrogen is 1 and atomic number of nitrogen is 7.
ii) Electronic configurations
H (Z= 1) 1s1
1
O (Z= 7) 1s2 2s2 2p3
2 5

iii) Hydrogen has one electron and nitrogen has five electrons in outermost energy level.
iv) To obtain stable electronic configuration each hydrogen needs one more electron
(2 electrons in outermost energy level) and nitrogen atom needs three electrons
(8 electrons in outermost energy level).
v) Three hydrogen atoms contribute one electron each and nitrogen atom
contributes three electrons. Total six electrons are shared in between them.
vi) Thus, total ‘three electron pairs’ are shared in between them.
vii) Due to sharing of electron pairs, covalent bonds are formed in between N and H.
vii) NH3 molecule is formed by sharing of electrons, so it is a covalent compound.
Diagrammatic Representation :

6) Formation of Acetylene (C2H2) molecule :

C2H2 molecule contains two carbon and two hydrogen atoms.
i) Atomic number of carbon is 6 and atomic number of hydrogen is 1.
ii) Electronic configurations
C (Z= 6) 1s2 2s2 2p2
2 4

H (Z= 1) 1s1
1
iii) Carbon has four electrons and hydrogen has one electron in the outermost energy level.
iv) To obtain stable electronic configuration each carbon atom needs four electrons
(8 electrons in outermost energy level) and each hydrogen needs one more electron
(2 electrons in outermost energy level).
v) Two carbon atoms contribute four electrons each and two hydrogen atoms contribute
one electron each.
Each carbon atom shares three electrons with other carbon atom and one electron with
hydrogen atom as shown in the diagram.
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vi) Thus, out of total ‘five electron pairs’, three electron pairs are shared in between
carbon-carbon and two in between carbon-hydrogen.
vii) Due to sharing of electron pairs, covalent bonds are formed in between C and H.
vii) C2H2 molecule is formed by sharing of electrons, so it is a covalent compound.
Diagrammatic Representation :

7) Formation of Ethylene (C2H4) molecule :

C2H4 molecule contains two carbon and four hydrogen atoms.
i) Atomic number of carbon is 6 and atomic number of hydrogen is 1.
ii) Electronic configurations
C (Z= 6) 1s2 2s2 2p2
2 4
1
H (Z= 1) 1s
1
iii) Carbon has four electrons and hydrogen has one electron in the outermost energy level.
iv) To obtain stable electronic configuration each carbon atom needs four electrons
(8 electrons in outermost energy level) and each hydrogen needs one more electron
(2 electrons in outermost energy level).
v) Two carbon atoms contribute four electrons each and four hydrogen atoms contribute
one electron each.
Each carbon atom shares two electrons with other carbon atom and two electron with
two hydrogen atoms as shown in the diagram.
vi) Thus, out of total ‘six electron pairs’, two electron pairs are shared in between
carbon-carbon and four in between carbon-hydrogen.
vii) Due to sharing of electron pairs, covalent bonds are formed in between C and H.
vii) C2H4 molecule is formed by sharing of electrons, so it is a covalent compound.
Diagrammatic Representation :

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