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satisfy a want or need. However it is much more than just a physical object.
It is the complete bundle of benefits or satisfactions that buyers perceive they
will obtain if they purchase the product. It is the sum of all physical,
psychological, symbolic, and service attributes.
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Marketing - Market
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Good - Accounting - Service
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Three Aspects
There are three aspects to any product or service:
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1 - Core Benefit
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• in-use benefits
• psychological benefits (e.g., self-image enhancement, hope, status, self
worth)
• problem reduction benefits(e.g., safety, convenience)
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• warranty
• installation
• delivery
• credit availability
• after-sale service and maintenance
Classifying Products
Product management involves developing strategies and tactics that will
increase product demand (referred to as primary demand) over the product's
life cycle.
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Product management - Product's life cycle
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Types of Products
There are several types of products:
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Marketing - Product - Target market
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The changes are usually minor; they can be merely a change in packaging or
also include a change inadvertising theme. The physical product need not
change, but it could.
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Position - Marketing mix - Price - Distribution strateg
variables
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The disadvantage of this repositioning is that it usually requires
large advertising and production expenditures.
The conditions a product is sold under will change over time. The Product Life
Cycle refers to the succession of stages a product goes through. Product Life Cycle
Management is the succession of strategies used by management as a product
goes through its life cycle.
The stages
Products tend to go through five stages:
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Marketing mix - Advertising - Promotional - Pricing -D
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Market evolution
Market Evolution is a process that parallels the product life cycle. As a product
category matures, the industry goes through stages that mirror the five
stages of a product life cycle:
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Technology lifecycle
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There is usually technology hype at the introduction of any new technology,
but only after some time has passed can it be judged as mere hype or
justified true acclaim.
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• fitting an exponential curve to the first part of the growth curve, and
assuming eternal exponential growth
• fitting a linear curve to the first part of the growth curve, and assuming
that takeup of the new technology is disappointing
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Technology adoption - Diffusion of innovations -
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• Bleeding edge - any technology that shows high potential but hasn't
demonstrated its value or settled down into any kind of consensus. Early
adopters may win big, or may be stuck with a white elephant.
• Leading edge - a technology that has proven itself in the marketplace but
is still new enough that it may be difficult to find knowledgeable personnel
to implement or support it.
• State of the art - when everyone agrees that a particular technology is the
right solution.
• Dated - still useful, still sometimes implemented, but a replacement
leading edge technology is readily available.
• Obsolete - has been superseded by state-of-the-art technology, rarely
implemented anymore.
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Models of diffusion
There are several theories that proport to explain the mechanics of diffusion:
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• Perceived usefulness (PU) - This was defined by Fred Davis as "the
degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would
enhance his or her job performance".
• Perceived ease-of-use (EOU) Davis defined this as "the degree to which
a person believes that using a particular system would be free from effort"
(Davis, 1989).
History
The technology acceptance model is one of the most influential extensions of
Ajzen and Fishbein’s theory of reasoned action (TRA) in the literature. It was
developed by Fred Davis and Richard Bagozzi (Bagozzi et al., 1992; Davis et
al., 1989). TAM replaces many of TRA’s attitude measures with the two
technology acceptance measures— ease of use, and usefulness. TRA and
TAM, both of which have strong behavioural elements, assume that when
someone forms an intention to act, that they will be free to act without
limitation. In the real world there will be many constraints, such as limited
ability, time constraints, environmental or organisational limits, or
unconscious habits which will limit the freedom to act (Bagozzi et al., 1992).
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Usage
Several researchers have replicated Davis’s original study (Davis, 1989) to
provide empirical evidence on the relationships that exist between usefulness,
ease of use and system use (Adams, Nelson & Todd, 1992; Davis et al.,
1989; Hendrickson, Massey & Cronan, 1993; Segars & Grover, 1993;
Subramanian, 1994; Szajna, 1994). Much attention has focused on testing
the robustness and validity of the questionnaire instrument used by Davis.
Adams et al (1992) replicated the work of Davis (1989) to demonstrate the
validity and reliability of his instrument and his measurement scales. They
also extended it to different settings and, using two different samples, they
demonstrated the internal consistency and replication reliability of the two
scales. Hendrickson et al (1993) found high reliability and good test-retest
reliability. Szajna (1994) found that the instrument had predictive validity for
intent to use, self-reported usage and attitude toward use. The sum of this
research has confirmed the validity of the Davis instrument, and to support
its use with different populations of users and different software choices.
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Mark Keil and his colleagues have developed (or, perhaps rendered more
popularisable) Davis’s model into what they call the Usefulness/EOU Grid,
which is a 2×2 grid where each quadrant represents a different combination
of the two attributes. In the context of software use, this provides a
mechanism for discussing the current mix of usefulness and EOU for
particular software packages, and for plotting a different course if a different
mix is desired, such as the introduction of even more powerful software (Keil,
Beranek & Konsynski, 1995).
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Venkatesh and Davis extended the original TAM model to explain perceived
usefulness and usage intentions in terms of social influence and cognitive
instrumental processes. The extended model, referred to as TAM2, was tested
in both voluntary and mandatory settings. The results strongly supported
TAM2 (Venkatesh and Davis, 2000).
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The process
There are several stages in the new product development process:
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• Idea Generation
• *ideas for new products obtained from customers, the R&D department,
competitors, focus groups, employees, or trade shows
• *formal idea generating techniques include attribute listing, forced
relationships, brainstorming, morphological analysis, problem analysis,
virtual prototyping, the Kano model, and rapid prototyping
• Idea Screening
• *eliminate unsound concepts
• *must ask three questions:
• **will the target market benefit from the product
• **is it technically feasible to manufacture the product
• **will the product be profitable
• Concept Development and Testing
• *develop the marketing and engineering details
• **who is the target market
• **what benefits will the product provide
• **how will consumers react to the product
• **how will the product be produced
• **what will it cost to produce it
• *test the concept by asking a sample of prospective customers what they
think of the idea
• Business Analysis
• *estimate likely selling price
• *estimate sales volume
• *estimate profitability and breakeven point
• Beta Testing and Market Testing
• *produce a physical prototype or mock-up
• *test the product in typical usage situations
• *make adjustments where necessary
• *produce an initial run of the product and sell it in a test market area to
determine customer acceptance
• Technical Implementation
• *New program initiation
• *Resource estimation
• *Requirement publication
• *Engineering operations planning
• *Department scheduling
• *Supplier collaboration
• *Resource plan publication
• *Program review and monitoring
• *Contingencies - what-if planning
• Commercialization
• *launch the product
• *produce and place advertisements and other promotions
• *fill the distribution pipeline with product
• *critical path analysis is useful at this stage
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Diffusion theories - Diffusion of innovations
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Patent - Trademark - Service mark - Tradename - Co
secret
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Generally, copyrights are fairly easy to obtain but are applicable only in
certain instances. Patents on the other hand, tend to involve complex claims
and approval processes, tend to be expensive to obtain, and even more
expensive to defend and preserve.
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The phrase research and development (also R and D or R&D) has a special
commercial significance apart from its conventional coupling of research and
technological development.
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Research - Development
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In general, R&D activities are conducted by specialized units or centers
belonging to companies, universitiesand State agencies.
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Companies - Universities - State
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Commerce - Future - Science - Technology
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Statistics - Industry - Competition - Progress - Budge
lication
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Bank ratios are one of the best measures, because they are continuously
maintained, public and reflect risk.
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Merck & Co. - Novartis
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Such companies are often seen as poor credit risks because their spending
ratios are so unusual.
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Generally such firms prosper only in markets whose customers have extreme
needs, such as medicine, scientific instruments, safety-critical mechanisms
(aircraft) or high technology military armaments. The extreme needs justify
the high risk of failure and consequently high gross margins from 60% to
90% of revenues. That is, gross profits will be as much as 90% of the sales
cost, with manufacturing costing only 10% of the product price, because so
many individual projects yield no exploitable product. Most industrial
companies get only 40% revenues.
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Generally the largest technology companies not only have the largest
technical staffs, but also manage them most effectively.
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Process
The basic steps are:
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Analysis
Any number of algorithms may be used to estimate utility functions. The
original methods were
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Advantages
• able to use physical objects
• measures preferences at the individual level
Disadvantages
• only a limited set of features can be used because the number of
combinations increases very quickly as more features are added.
• information gathering stage is complex
• difficult to use for product positioning research because there is no
procedure for converting perceptions about actual features to perceptions
about a reduced set of underlying features
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Group - Decision making - Product - Service - Brand
marketing - Product management - Organization - M
segments - Graphs - Matrices
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Customer - Needs - Engineering - Pugh Concept Sele
Configuration - F-35 Joint Strike Fighter - Technology
Six Sigma
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Analytic Hierarchy Process - GEMBA
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Early use of QFD in the United States met with initial enthusiasm, then
plummeting popularity when it was discovered that much time could be
wasted if poor group decision making techniques were employed. A
discussion of the cultural implications of QFD practices in the U.S. can be
found at Cultural Adaptation of QFD. Since the early introduction of QFD, the
technique has been developed to shorten the time span and reduce the
required group efforts (such as "Blitz QFD®"). Tools such as online survey
software can be used to gather qualitative customer feedback and prioritize
the needs. Subsequently, those needs may be "flowed" into a HOQ and
studied through a myriad of supporting templates or "deployments".
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Results of QFD analysis have been applied in Japan and elsewhere into
deploying the high impact controllable factors in Strategic
planning and Strategic management (also known as Hoshin Planning or Policy
Deployment). This technique somewhat resembles Management by
objectives (MBO), but adds a significant element in the goal setting process,
called "catchball". Use of these Hoshin techniques by U.S. companies such as
Hewlett Packard have been advertized as notably successful in focusing
company resources over the medium-to-long term, aligning resources to
stated organizational goals throughout the organizational structure.
HISTORY
QFD was originally developed by Dr. Yoji Akao and others at the Kobe
Shipyard ca. 1966. An earlier technique, the Ishikawa diagram or "fishbone"
diagram, was initially used for this task, albeit using a reversal of the original
fishbone technique. Instead of extracting cause from observed process effects
(such as in statistical process control), the fishbone diagram was "turned
around" to first identify product/service needs (the "WHATs"), then the
"HOWs" or fishbones of the diagram were used to develop needed process or
product characteristics. TheIshikawa diagram was eventually replaced by
matrix methods which were more flexible and adapted to numeric treatment.
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1966 - Ishikawa diagram - Statistical process control
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Matrix of Matrices - Comprehensive QFD
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In addition, the same technique can extend the method into the constituant
product subsystems, configuration items, assemblies, and parts. From these
detail level components, fabrication and assembly process QFD charts can be
developed to support statistical process control techniques.
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Subsystems - Configuration items - Statistical proces
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Relative - Observer - Belief system - Competition - Z
sum- Game
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Common usage
A context in which failure is frequently used is in formal grading of scholastic
achievement. 'Failing a test' or being assigned a 'failing mark' indicates that a
student has submitted work or received a mark below a minimum threshold
of performance or quality required to continue studies in a subject.
Types of failure
Failure can be differentially perceived from the viewpoints of the evaluators.
A person who is only interested in the final outcome of an activity would
consider it to be an Outcome Failure if the core issue has not been resolved
or a core need is not met. A failure can also be a process failure whereby
although the activity is completed successfully, a person may still feel
dissatisfied if the underlying process is perceived to be below expected
standard or benchmark.
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Marketing - 1991
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Moore uses the diffusion of innovations theory from Everett Rogers, but argued
that there is a chasm between the early adopters of the product (the
technology enthusiasts and visionaries) and the early majority (the
pragmatists). Moore argues that this is because visionaries and pragmatists
have very different expectations. Moore attempts to explore those differences
and builds from there to suggest techniques to successfully cross the
"chasm", including choosing a target market, understanding the
whole product concept, positioning theproduct, building a marketing strategy,
choosing the most appropriate distribution channel and pricing.
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Diffusion of innovations - Everett Rogers - Product - T
market - Whole product - Positioning - Marketing stra
Distribution channel - Pricing
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In 2002, 10 years after the first publication, more than 300,000 copies had
been sold. Crossing the Chasm is available in several prints, one is ISBN
0060517123.
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Most new technologies follow a similar technology lifecycle. This is similar to
a product life cycle, but applies to an entire technology, or a generation of a
technology.
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• fitting an exponential curve to the first part of the growth curve, and
assuming eternal exponential growth
• fitting a linear curve to the first part of the growth curve, and assuming
that takeup of the new technology is disappointing
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Technology adoption - Diffusion of innovations -
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• Bleeding edge - any technology that shows high potential but hasn't
demonstrated its value or settled down into any kind of consensus. Early
adopters may win big, or may be stuck with a white elephant.
• Leading edge - a technology that has proven itself in the marketplace but
is still new enough that it may be difficult to find knowledgeable personnel
to implement or support it.
• State of the art - when everyone agrees that a particular technology is the
right solution.
• Dated - still useful, still sometimes implemented, but a replacement
leading edge technology is readily available.
• Obsolete - has been superseded by state-of-the-art technology, rarely
implemented anymore.
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The theory
Christensen distinguishes between low-end disruption which targets customers
who do not need the full performance of the high end of the market and new-
market disruption which targets customers who could previously not be served
profitably by the incumbent.
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Not all disruptive technologies are of lower performance. There are a several
examples where the disruptive technology outperforms the existing
technology but is not adapted by existing majors in the market. These occur
in industries with a high capitalization sunk into the older technology. To
update, an existing player not only must invest in new technology but also
must replace (and perhaps dispose of at high cost) the older infrastructure. It
may simply be most cost effective for the existing player to "milk" the current
investment during its decline - mostly by insufficient maintenance and lack of
progressive improvement to maintain the long term utility of the existing
facilities. A new player is not faced with such a balancing act.
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Some examples of high-performance disruption:
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Business implications
Disruptive technologies are not disruptive to customers, and often take a long
time before they are significantly disruptive to other manufacturers, so they
are often difficult to recognize. Indeed, as Christensen points out and studies
have shown, it is often entirely rational for incumbent companies to ignore
disruptive technologies, since they compare so badly to existing approaches,
and the initial markets for a disruptive technology are often very small
compared to the main existing market for the technology. Even if a disruptive
technology is recognized, existing businesses are often reluctant to take
advantage of it, since it would involve competing with their existing (and
more profitable) technological approach. Christensen recommends that
existing firms watch for these technologies, invest in small firms that might
produce them, and continue to push technological demands in their core
market so that performance stays above what disruptive technologies can
achieve.
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A life cycle cost analysis calculates the cost of a system or product over its
entire life span.
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Cost - System - Product
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• planning,
• research and development,
• production,
• operation,
• maintenance,
• disposal or salvage.
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Plan, Isère - Floor plan - Archaeological plan - Plans (
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Objective - Goal
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Ad-hoc - Project - Diplomacy - Career - Economic
development - Military - Combat - Business
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Research and development - Opportunity cost -
Cannibalization - Consumer
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Monopolistic - Oligopolistic
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Associated products that are complements to the old products will also
become obsolete with the introduction of new products. For example video
tape holders saw the same fate as video tapes and video tape decks.
Likewise, buggy whips became obsolete when people started traveling in cars
instead of buggies.
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Systemic obsolescence
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Interoperability - Network externalities
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Style obsolescence
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Notification obsolescence
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These products could be built with military spec components, but they are not
because it is felt that this imposes an unnecessary cost on the purchaser.
Value engineering will reduce the cost of making the product, and lower the
price to consumers (unless there is a lack of competition in the industry, in
which case the cost reduction will probably not be passed on to the consumer
in the form of lower price). A company will typically use the least expensive
components that satisfy product?s lifetime projections.
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Packaging materials
Commonly used packaging materials include:
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• corrugated cardboard
• excelsior (wood wool)
• jute
• paper
• plastics, including expanded polystyrene
• wood
• bubble wrap
Packaging types
The above materials are fashioned into different types of packages and
containers such as:
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• Boxes
• Pallets
• Bags
• Bottles
• Cans
• Cartons
• Aseptic packages
• Wrappers
• Blister packs
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Commonwealth English - American English - Moral
purchasing- Allergies - Developed nation - Developin
nations - Meat
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With regard to food and drugs, mandatory labelling has been a major
battleground between consumer advocatesand corporations since the late 19th
century.
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Food - Drug - Consumer advocates - Corporation - 19
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Scandal - United States - Canada - Nutrition Facts - E
Union - Nutrition Information - Allergen
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China - Clothing - Factory - Telephone - Fax - Made I
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The genetic modification of food has led to one of the most persistent and
divisive debates about the mandatory labelling. Advocates of such labelling
claim that the consumer should make the choice whether to expose
themselves to any health risk from consuming such foods. Detractors point to
well-controlled studies that conclude genetically modified food is safe, and
point out that for many commodity products, the identity of the grower and
the custody chain are not known.
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Genetic modification - Food - Health risk - Genetically
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Consumer - Packaging
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Marketing - Products - Product bundling
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Brand name - Family branding - Brand equity
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Image anchors are highly promoted products within a line that define the image of
the whole line. Image anchors are usually from the higher end of the line's range.
When you add a new product within the current range of an incomplete line, this is
referred to as line filling.
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Price lining is the use of a limited number of prices for all your product
offerings. This is a tradition started in the old five and dime stores in which
everything cost either 5 or 10 cents. Its underlying rationale is that these
amounts are seen as suitable price points for a whole range of products by
prospective customers. It has the advantage of ease of administering, but the
disadvantage of inflexibility, particularly in times of inflation or unstable
prices.
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Marketing - Customer - Software - Hardware
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The concept of whole product comes from the realization that there is often a
gap between the productshipped to the customer and the marketing promise
made to that customer.
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Product - Customer
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Computer - Operating system
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The concept of whole product was first formally introduced Theodore Levitt
in The Marketing Imagination first published in 1983. It became popular in the
high tech arena with the publication of Geoffrey A. Moore's Crossing the
Chasm in 1991.
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Finance
Main article portfolio (finance)
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Management, Marketing
In strategic management and marketing, a portfolio is a collection
of products, services, or brands that are offered for sale by a company. In
building up a product portfolio a company can use various analytical
techniques including B.C.G. Analysis, contribution margin analysis, G.E. Multi
Factoral analysis,and Quality Function Deployment. Typically a company tries to
achieve both diversification and balance in their portfolio of product offerings.
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Strategic management - Marketing - Products - Servi
Brand - B.C.G. Analysis - Contribution margin analys
Factoral analysis - Quality Function Deployment -Dive
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Education, learning
In education, portfolio refers to a personal collection of information describing
and documenting a person?s achievements and learning. There is a variety of
portfolios ranging from learning logs to extended collections of achievement
evidence. Portfolios are used for many different purposes such as
accreditation of prior experience, job search, continuing professional
development, certification of competences.
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Education - Learning logs
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Tens of millions of people across the world have already used some kind
of portfolio. Alone in the UK, more than 4 million people have got a
qualification (NVQ) through accreditation of prior learning or accreditation of
work experience, and most of them have built a portfolio to collect the
evidence required to get their certificate.
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Politics
In politics, portfolio can refer to the office of the President in a country.
Portfolio can also refer to the contents of the job a minister has. For example
in the United Kingdom, Peter Mandelson's title was Minister Without Portfolio.
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Brand marketing - Product management - Strategic
management - Products - Portfolio - Market share
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BCG Matrix
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Each circle represents a product or brand. The size of the circle indicates the
value of the sales of that product or brand. A "question mark" has the
potential to become a "star" in the future if it is developed. A company should
have a balanced portfolio. This implies having at least one "cash cow" which
can generate revenue that can be used to develop one or more "question
mark". This process, referred to as "milking your cash cow", is shown in the
next diagram where the arrows represent cash flows.
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G.E. multi factoral analysis is a technique used in brand marketing and product
management to help a company decide what product(s) to add to its
product portfolio. It is conceptually similar to B.C.G. analysis, but somewhat more
complicated. Like in BCG Analysis, a two dimensional portfolio matrix is created.
But with the GE model the dimensions are multi factoral. One dimension
comprises nine industry attractivness measures, the other comprises twelve
internal business strength measures. Each product, brand, service, or potential
product is mapped in this industry attractiveness/business strength space. The
GE multi factoral model was first developed by General Electric in the 1970s.
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In marketing, cannibalization refers to a reduction in
the sales volume, sales revenue, or market share of one product as a result of
the introduction of a new product by the same producer.
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Marketing - Sales - Market share
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For example, if Coca Cola were to intoduce a similar product (say, Diet Coke
or Cherry Coke), this new product could take some of the sales away from
the original Coke. Cannibalization is an important consideration in
product portfolio analysis.
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Marketing - Products - Software - Word processor -
Spreadsheet - Database - Office suite
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Product bundling is most suitable for high volume and high margin
(i.e., low marginal cost) products. Research by Yannis Bakos and Erik
Brynjolfsson found that bundling was particularly effective for digital
"information goods" with close to zero marginal cost, and could enable
a bundler with an inferior collection of products to drive even superior
quality goods out of the market place.{{fn|1}}
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Pure bundling occurs when a consumer can only purchase the entire
bundle or nothing, mixed bundling occurs when consumers are offered a
choice between the purchasing the entire bundle or one of the
separate parts of the bundle.
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There are problems with the use of product portfolio techniques in crafting
a brands strategic direction andpositioning:
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Portfolio - Brand - Positioning
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Marketing - Product - Brand - Target market
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Write out the value customers derive and the attributes your services
offer to create the first draft of your positioning. Test it on people who
don't really know what you do or what you sell, watch their facial
expressions and listen for their response. When they want to know
more because you've piqued their interest and started a conversation,
you'll know you're on the right track.
Positioning concepts
More generally, there are three types of positioning concepts:
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• 1 functional positions
• solve problems
• provide benefits to customers
• get favorable perception by investors (stock profile) and lenders
• 2 symbolic positions
• self-image enhancement
• ego identification
• belongingness and social meaningfulness
• affective fulfillment
• 3 experiential positions
• provide sensory stimulation
• provide cognitive stimulation
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Perceptual mapping is a graphics technique used by marketers that attempts to
visually display the perceptions of customers or potential customers. Typically
the position of a product, product line, brand, or company is displayed relative
to their competition.
Related Topics:
Graphics - Marketers - Position - Product - Product lin
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Perceptual maps can have any number of dimensions but the most common
is two dimensions. Any more is a challenge to draw and confusing to
interpret. The first perceptual map below shows consumer perceptions of
various automobiles on the two dimensions of sportiness/conservative and
classy/affordable. This sample of consumers felt Porsche was the sportiest
and classiest of the cars in the study (top right corner). They
feltPlymouth was most practical and conservative (bottom left corner).
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Automobile - Porsche - Plymouth
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Cars that are positioned close to each other are seen as similar on the
relevant dimensions by the consumer. For example consumers see Buick,
Chrysler, and Oldsmobile as similar. They are close competitors and form a
competitive grouping. A company considering the introduction of a new model
will look for an area on the map free from competitors. Some perceptual
maps use different size circles to indicate the sales volume or market share of
the various competing products.
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A company considering introducing a new product will look for areas with a
high density of ideal points. They will also look for areas without competitive
rivals. This is best done by placing both the ideal points and the competing
products on the same map.
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Some maps plot ideal vectors instead of ideal points. The map below, displays
various aspirin products as seen on the dimensions of effectiveness and
gentleness. It also shows two ideal vectors. The slope of the ideal vector
indicates the preferred ratio of the two dimensions by those consumers within
that segment. This study indicates there is one segment that is more
concerned with effectiveness than harshness, and another segment that is
more interested in gentleness than strength.
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Perceptual maps need not come from a detailed study. There are also
intuitive maps (also called judgmental maps or consensus maps) that are
created by marketers based on their understanding of their industry.
Management uses its best judgement. It is questionable how valuable this
type of map is. Often they just give the appearance of credibility to
management’s preconceptions.
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Factor analysis is a statistical technique that originated in psychometrics. It is used
in the social sciences and inmarketing, product management, operations research,
and other applied sciences that deal with large quantities of data. The objective is
to explain the most of the variability among a number of observable random
variables in terms of a smaller number of unobservable random variables
called factors. The observable random variables are modeled as linear combinations
of the factors, plus "error" terms.
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Linear combination - Omphalology
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The numbers 10 and 6 would be the factor loadings associated with the field
of omphalology. Other academic subjects would have factor loadings other
than 10 and 6. Two students having identical degrees of verbal intelligence
and identical degrees of mathematical intelligence would have different
aptitudes in omphalology or any other subject because individual aptitudes
differ from average aptitudes. That difference is the "error" — an unfortunate
misnomer in statistics that means the amount by which an individual differs
from what is average (see errors and residuals in statistics).
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The observable data that go into factor analysis would be 10 scores of each of
the 1000 students, a total of 10,000 numbers. The factor loadings and levels
of the two kinds of intelligence of each student must be inferred from the
data. Indeed, even the number of factors (two, in this example) must be
inferred from the data.
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:egin{matrix}x_{1,i} & = & mu_1 & + & ell_{1,1}v_i & + & ell_{1,2}m_i &
+ &
arepsilon_{1,i} \
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x_{10,i} & = & mu_{10} & + & ell_{10,1}v_i & + & ell_{10,2}m_i & + &
arepsilon_{10,i}
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end{matrix}
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where
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:X=mu+LF+epsilon
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where
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The values of the loadings L, the averages μ, and the variances of the
"errors" ε must be estimated given the observed data X.
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Charles Spearman - Intelligence research - ''g'' theor
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Related Topics:
Raymond Cattell - Fluid and crystallized intelligence -
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Applications in psychology
Factor analysis has been used in the study of human intelligence as a method
for comparing the outcomes of (hopefully) objective tests and to construct
matrices to define correlations between these outcomes, as well as finding
the factors for these results. The field of psychology that measures human
intelligence using quantitative testing in this way is known as psychometrics
(psycho=mental, metrics=measurement).
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Advantages
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Information collection
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SPSS - SAS
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Analysis
The analysis will isolate the underlying factors that explain the data. Factor
analysis is an interdependence technique. The complete set of interdependent
relationships are examined. There is no specification of either dependent
variables, independent variables, or causality. Factor analysis assumes that
all the rating data on different attributes can be reduced down to a few
important dimensions. This reduction is possible because the attributes are
related. The rating given to any one attribute is partially the result of the
influence of other attributes. The statistical algorithm deconstructs the rating
(called a raw score) into its various components, and reconstructs the partial
scores into underlying factor scores. The degree of correlation between the
initial raw score and the final factor score is called a factor loading. There are
two approaches to factor analysis: "principal component analysis" (the total
variance in the data is considered); and "common factor analysis" (the
common variance is considered).
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Note that there are very important conceptual differences between the two
approaches, an important one being that the common factor model involves a
testable model whereas principal components does not. This is due to the fact
that in the common factor model, unique variables are required to be
uncorrelated, whereas residuals in principal components are correlated.
Finally, components are not latent variables; they are linear combinations of
the input variables, and thus determinate. Factors, on the other hand, are
latent variables, which are indeterminate. If your goal is to fit the variances
of input variables for the purpose of data reduction, you should carry out
principal components analysis. If you want to build a testable model to
explain the intercorrelations among input variables, you should carry out a
factor analysis.
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Advantages
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Statistical - Data visualisation
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Scientific visualisation - Data mining - Cognitive scien
Psychophysics - Psychometrics - Ecology - Marketing
Multidimensional scaling in marketing
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Analysis steps
• Formulate the problem and gather data - Identify the salient attributes
consumers use to evaluate products in this category - Use quantitative
marketing research techniques (such as surveys) to collect data from a
sample of potential customers concerning their ratings of all the product
attributes. The data collection stage is usually done by marketing research
professionals. Survey questions ask the respondent to rate a product from
one to five (or 1 to 7, or 1 to 10) on a range of attributes chosen by the
researcher. Anywhere from five to twenty attributes are chosen. They
could include things like: ease of use, weight, accuracy, durability,
colourfulness, price, or size. The attributes chosen will vary depending on
the product being studied. The same question is asked about all the
products in the study. The data for multiple products is codified and input
into a statistical program such as SPSS or SAS. (This step is the same as
in Factor analysis).
• Estimate the Discriminant Function Coefficients and determine the
statistical significance and validity - Choose the appropriate discriminant
analysis method. The direct method involves estimating the discriminant
function so that all the predictors are assessed simultaneously. The
stepwise method enters the predictors sequentially. The two-group
method should be used when the dependent variable has two categories
or states. The multiple discriminant method is used when the dependent
variable has three or more categorical states. Use Wilks’s Lambda to test
for significance in SPSS or F stat in SAS. The most common method used
to test validity is to split the sample into an estimation or analysis sample,
and a validation or holdout sample. The estimation sample is used in
constructing the discriminant function. The validation sample is used to
construct a classification matrix which contains the number of correctly
classified and incorrectly classified cases. The percentage of correctly
classified cases is called the hit ratio.
• Plot the results on a two dimensional map, define the dimensions, and
interpret the results. The statistical program (or a related module) will
map the results. The map will plot each product (usually in two
dimensional space). The distance of products to each other indicate either
how different they are. The dimensions must be labelled by the
researcher. This requires subjective judgement and is often very
challenging. Seeperceptual mapping.
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Preferred - Product positioning - Multi dimensional sc
analysis - Perceptual maps
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If all the data is used in the regression, the program will derive a single
equation and hence a single ideal vector. This tends to be a blunt instrument
so researchers refine the process with cluster analysis. This creates clusters
that reflect market segments. Separate preference regressions are then done
on the data within each segment. This provides an ideal vector for each
segment.
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Cluster analysis - Market segment
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The discipline of brand management was started at Procter & Gamble as a
result of a famous memo by Neil H. McElroy.
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Procter & Gamble - Neil H. McElroy
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Product - Product line - Brand - Brand equity - Qualit
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• be legally protectable
• be easy to pronounce
• be easy to remember
• be easy to recognize
• attract attention
• suggest product benefits (e.g.: Easy-Off) or suggest usage
• suggest the company or product image
• distinguish the product's positioning relative to the competition.
A premium brand typically costs more than other products in the category.
An economy brand is a brandtargeted to a high price elasticity market
segment. A fighting brand is a brand created specifically to counter a
competitive threat. When a company's name is used as a product
brand name, this is referred to as corporate branding. When one brand
name is used for several related products, this is referred to asfamily
branding. When all a company's products are given different brand
names, this is referred to asindividual branding. When a company uses
the brand equity associated with an existing brand name to introduce a
new product or product line, this is referred to as brand leveraging.
When large retailers buy products in bulk from manufacturers and put
their own brand name on them, this is called private branding, store
brand, or private label. Private brands can be differentiated
from manufacturers' brands (also referred to as national brands). When
two or more brands work together to market their products, this is referred
to as co-branding. When a company sells the rights to use a brand name to
another company for use on a non-competing product or in another
geographical area, this is referred to as brand licensing.
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Targeted - Price elasticity - Market segment - C
branding - Family branding - Individual branding
equity - Product line - Retailers - Private brandin
brand - Private label
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Repositioning - Rebranding - Target market
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Brand - Product
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Concepts
Some marketers distinguish the psychological aspect of a brand from the
experiential aspect. The experiential aspect consists of the sum of all points
of contact with the brand and is known as the brand experience. The
psychological aspect, sometimes refered to as the brand image, is a symbolic
construct created within the minds of people and consists of all the
information and expectations associated with a product or service.
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Advertising - Marketplace - Brand management
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Brand equity measures the total value of the brand to the brand owner, and
reflects the extent of brand franchise. The term brand name is often used
interchangeably with "brand", although it is more correctly used to specifically
denote written or spoken linguistic elements of a brand. In this context a
"brand name" constitutes a type oftrademark, if the brand name exclusively
identifies the brand owner as the commercial source of products or services.
A brand owner may seek to protect proprietary rights in relation to a brand
name through trademarkregistration.
Related Topics:
Brand equity - Trademark - Proprietary
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The act of associating a product or service with a brand has become part
of pop culture. Most products have some kind of brand identity, from
common table salt to designer clothes. In non-commercial contexts, the
marketing of entities which supply ideas or promises rather than product and
services (eg. political parties or religious organizations) may also be known as
"branding".
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Pop culture - Table salt - Designer - Political parties
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Value added - Generic
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Advertising spokespersons have also become part of some brands, for
example: Mr. Whipple of Charmin toilet tissue and Tony the Tiger of Kellogg’s.
History
Brands in the field of marketing originated in the 19th century with the advent
of packaged goods.Industrialization moved the production of many household
items, such as soap, from local communities to centralized factories.
These factories, generating mass-produced goods, needed to sell their
products to a wider market, to a customer base familiar only with local goods.
It quickly became apparent that a generic package of soap had difficulty
competing with familiar, local products. The packaged goods manufacturers
needed to convince the market that the public could place just as much trust
in the non-local product.
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19th century - Goods - Industrialization - Factories
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1900 - James Walter Thompson
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Many brands of that era, such as Uncle Ben's rice and Kellogg's breakfast
cereal furnish illustrations of the problem. The manufacturers wanted their
products to appear and feel as familiar as the local farmers' produce. From
there, with the help of advertising, manufacturers quickly learned to associate
other kinds of brand values, such as youthfulness, fun or luxury, with their
products. This kickstarted the practice we now know as "branding".
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Business Week - Top 100 most valuable brands world
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In this context, the meaning of "brand" is closely aligned with the meaning of
"trademark".
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United States
• Apple (computer)
• Boeing (aerospace)
• Coca-Cola (soft drink)
• Columbia Records (recorded sound—since 1988 owned by Sony)
• Ford Motor Company (automobiles)
• Hershey's (chocolate)
• McDonald's (fast food restaurant)
• Microsoft (software)
• The Gap (clothing retailer)
• Sony (electronics)
• Starbucks (coffee)
European
• BP (petrol—UK)
• BMW (carmaker—Germany)
• BRIO (toys—Sweden)
• Cadbury (chocolate—UK)
• Chanel (luxury apparel—France)
• Guinness (alcohol; Ireland)
• Ferrari (carmaker—Italy)
• IKEA (furniture—Sweden)
• Lego (toys—Denmark)
• Mercedes-Benz (automobile line—Germany)
• Nestlé (food—Switzerland)
• Nokia (mobile phones—Finland)
• Orangina (soft drink)
• SAP (software—Germany)
• Volkswagen (carmaker—Germany)
Japanese
• Canon
• Honda
• National (Panasonic in U.S.)
• Nintendo
• Nissan
• Panasonic
• Sony
• Toyota
• Sega
Australian
Criticisms of branding
Criticism has been leveled against the concept and implementation of brands,
much of it associated with the "antiglobalization" movement. One of the better
known criticisms of branding is found in Naomi Klein's book, No Logo. The
book claims that corporations' brands serve as structures for corporations to
hide behind, and that such global problems as sweatshop labor and
environmental degradation have been permitted and exacerbated by
branding.
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Antiglobalization - Naomi Klein - No Logo
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Brand - Business alliance
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• Cobranding is the usage of two or more brands on one certain product. For
example, Dell computers carries three brands on their packages and
cases: Dell, Microsoft Windows, and Intel.
• Brand licensing is a contractual agreement where a company lets another
organisation use its brand on other products in exchange for a licensing
fee.
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Brand - Product
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Distribution channel - Retailer
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Brand name - Corporate - Brand equity - Family bran
brand - IBM - Pepsi - Coca-Cola
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Corporate branding can result in significant economies of scope since
one advertising campaign can be used for several products. It also
facilitates new product acceptance because potential buyers are already
familiar with the name. A corporate branding strategy is generally only useful
when the company is already well known with a very positive image in
the target market.
Related Topics:
Economies of scope - Advertising campaign - New pr
acceptance - Target market
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Marketing - Products - Brand name - Individual brand
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There are often economies of scope associated with family branding since
several products can efficiently bepromoted with a single advertisement or
campaign. Family branding facilitates new product introductions by providing a
'foot-in-the-door' in potential customers' evoked set. When considering
purchasing a new type of product, potential customers will tend to evoke in
their minds a product with a familiar brand name. Being a part of this evoked
set could lead to trial purchase, product acceptance, or other advantages.
Related Topics:
Economies of scope - Promoted - New product introd
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Marketing - Corporation - Brand - Trademark
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These guidelines govern how the identity is applied and confirm approved
colour palettes, typefaces, page layouts and other such methods of
maintaining visual continuity and brand recognition across all physical
manifestations of the brand.
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Many companies, such as McDonalds and Electronic Arts have their own
identity that runs through all of their products and merchandise. The
trademark "M" logo and the yellow and red appears consistently throughout
the McDonalds packaging and advertisements. Many companies pay large
amounts of money for an identity that is extremely distinguishable, so it can
appeal more to its targeted audience.
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McDonalds - Electronic Arts
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;
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Commonwealth English - Sign - Business - Product -
Consumer - Intellectual property - Industrial property
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Logo - Symbol - Non-conventional trademark
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Brand - Logo - Marketing - Advertising
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Service mark - United States - Certification mark - Co
mark - Defensive trade mark - Synonymous - Generi
trademark
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Sounds - Jurisdiction
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The use of the ™ symbol next to a trademark, usually in the top right-hand
corner, means that the trademark owner claims certain exclusive rights in
relation to that trademark. Although this symbol denotes only that the owner
holds unregistered trade mark rights, such rights can be enforced by way of
an action for passing off. The ® symbol is used to denote that a trademark
has been registered with the government trade marks officeof a
particular country or jurisdiction. Upon registration, a trademark can be
enforced by way of an action forinfringement.
Related Topics:
Property - Proprietary - Right - Marketplace - Office -
hina - Infringement
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Bundle - Exclusive right - Exclusive
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From the "salty" examples given above it can be noted that the
distinctive character of the term is closely related to the products or
services in connection with which this term is used.
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A general method for assessing the distinctive character of a mark is
to consider a consumer's reaction to a mark. The mark may only be
inherently registrable if the consumer has never encountered the mark
before. On the other hand, the mark is unlikely to be inherently
registrable if it informs her about any characteristic of the relevant
products or services (eg. whether they are delicious, large, spicy,
black or sweet, in the case of fruit). In any other case the mark may
not be registrable.
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Geographical indication - Public domain
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Acquired distinctiveness
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European Union - Commonwealth - Australia - Hong
Kingdom - United States - Evidence
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In the United States, if a trademark has been used for a continuous period of
at least five years after the date of registration, the right to use the mark and
the registration may become "incontestable" (eg. invulnerable to cancellation
for non-use, but not for becoming generic). In such cases the USPTO checks
and confirm whether the request for incontestability meets formality
requirements, but whether a registration is incontestable at law can only be
determined during proceedings involving the registration.
Related Topics:
Generic - USPTO - Proceedings
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Most jurisdictions totally exclude certain types of terms and symbols from
registration as trademarks, including the emblems, insignia and flags of
nations, certain organisations and the modern Olympic Games, marks which
are deceptive as to the origin of their associated products or services (eg. as
to their geographic origin), and marks comprising signs which are contrary to
accepted principles of morality (eg. marks which are obscene).
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In the U.S., failure to use a trademark for this period of time, aside from the
corresponding impact on product quality, will result in abandonment of the
mark, whereby any party may use the mark. An abandoned mark is not
irrevocably in the public domain, but may instead be re-registered by any
party which has re-established exclusive and active use, including the original
mark owner. Further, if a court rules that a trademark has become "generic"
through common use (such that the mark no longer performs the essential
trademark function and the average consumer no longer considers that
exclusive rights attach to it), the corresponding registration may also be ruled
invalid.
Related Topics:
Public domain - Generic
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For example, the Bayer company's trademark "Aspirin" has been ruled
generic in the United States, so other companies may use that name
for acetylsalicylic acid as well (although it is still a trademark
in Canada). Xeroxfor copiers and Band-Aid for adhesive bandages are both
trademarks which are at risk of succumbing to genericide, which the
respective trademark owners actively seek to prevent. In order to prevent
marks becoming generic, trademark owners often contact those who appear
to be using the trademark incorrectly, from web page authors to dictionary
editors, and request that they cease the improper usage. The proper use of a
trademark means using the mark as an adjective, not as a noun or
a verbhttp://www.inta.org/info/faqsU.html
http://www.3com.com/corpinfo/en_US/legal/trademark/prop_usage_tmb.htm
l#1 http://www.adobe.com/misc/trade.html, though for certain trademarks,
use as nouns and, less commonly,verbs is common. For example, Adobe sent
e-mails to many web authors using the term "photoshopped" telling them
that they should only use the term "modified by Adobe® Photoshop®
software." Xerox has also purchased print advertisements declaring that "you
cannot 'xerox' a document, but you can copy it on a XeroxBrand copying
machine." Such efforts may or may not be successful in preventing
genericism in the long run, which depends less on the mark owner's efforts
and more on how the public actually perceives and uses the mark. In fact,
legally it is more important that the trademark holder visibly and actively
seems to attempt to prevent its trademark from becoming generic, regardless
of real success.
Enforcing trademark rights
The extent to which a trademark owner may prevent unauthorized use of
trademarks which are the same as or similar to its trademark depends on
various factors such as whether its trademark is registered, the similarity of
the trademarks involved, the similarity of the products and/or services
involved, and whether the owner?s trademark is well known.
Related Topics:
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Related Topics:
Common Law - Business - Reputation - Goodwill - To
~~~~~~~~~~
If a trademark has been registered, then it is much easier for the trademark
owner to demonstrate its trademark rights and to enforce these rights
through an infringement action. Unauthorised use of a registered trade mark
need not be intentional in order for infringement to occur, although damages
in an infringementlawsuit will generally be greater if there was an intention to
deceive.
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For trademarks which are considered to be well known, infringing use may
occur where the use occurs in relation to products or services which are not
the same as or similar to the products or services in relation to which the
owner's mark is registered.
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Where one party makes a threat to sue another for trademark infringement,
but does not have a genuine basis or intention to carry out that threat, or
does not carry out the threat at all within a certain period, the threat may
itself become a basis for legal action.
Other aspects
Consumer protection and confusion
One of the public policy objectives given for trademark law is consumer
protection, that is, to prevent the public from being misled as to the origin or
quality of a product or service. A trademark owner also uses trademark law to
prevent unauthorised third party use of a mark which is identical to the
owner’s mark, or which is so similar that use of the other party’s mark would
result in a likelihood of confusion.
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Related Topics:
Nice Classification - Lexis - Lexus - Confusingly simila
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Dilution
~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~
Many countries allow trademarks to be licensed. Under U.S. law, the licensor
must monitor the quality of the goods produced under license or risk losing
the mark. A license without quality control falls under the doctrine of 'naked
licensing' which the courts consider to be a form of abandonment. Trademark
licenses are commonly for a limited period and include appropriate warranties
of quality by the licensee plus rights to inspect and monitor for quality control
by the licensor.
Related Topics:
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Related Topics:
Patent - Intellectual property
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~~~~~~~~~~
Related Topics:
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Drawing these distinctions is necessary but often challenging for the courts
and lawyers, especially in jurisdictions such as the United States, where
patents and copyrights will eventually expire into the public domain but
trademarks do not. Unlike patents and copyrights, which in theory are
granted for one-off fixed terms, trademarks remain valid as long as the
owner actively uses and defends them and maintains their registrations with
the applicable jurisdiction's trade marks office. This often involves payment of
a periodic renewal fee.
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~~~~~~~~~~
The advent of the Domain Name System has led to attempts by trademark
holders to enforce their rights over domain names that are similar or identical
to their existing trademarks, particularly by seeking control over the domain
names at issue. As with dilution protection, enforcing trademark rights over
domain name owners involves protecting a trademark outside the obvious
context of its consumer market, because domain names are global and not
limited by goods or service.
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This conflict was more easily resolved when the domain name user actually
used his website to compete with the trademark owner. Cybersquatting,
however, involves no such competition, but instead an unlicensed user
registering the trademark as a domain name in order to pressure a payoff (or
other benefit) from the lawful mark owner. Typosquatters—those registering
common misspellings of trademarks as domain names—have also been
targeted successfully in trademark infringement suits.
Related Topics:
Cybersquatting - Typosquatters
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This clash of the new technology with preexisting trademark rights resulted in
several high profile decisions as the courts of many countries tried to
coherently address the issue (and not always successfully) within the
framework of existing trademark law. As the website itself was not the
product being purchased, there was no actual consumer confusion, and
so initial interest confusion was a concept applied instead. Infringing domain
names were analogized to a sign identifying one store but falsely placed in
front of another, in the hopes that customers will in the end not care that
they were duped or will at least give up on trying to reach the right store.
Related Topics:
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Related Topics:
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This international legal change has also led to the creation of ICANN Uniform
Dispute Resolution Policy and other dispute policies for specific countries (such
as Nominet UK's DRS) which attempt to streamline the process of resolving
who should own a domain name (without dealing with other infringement
issues such as damages). This is particularly desirable to trademark owners
when the domain name registrant may be in another country or even
anonymous.
Related Topics:
ICANN - Uniform Dispute Resolution Policy - Nominet
~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~
As with other trademarks, the domain name will not be subject to registration
unless the proposed mark is actually used to identify the registrant's goods or
services to the public, rather than simply being the location on the Internet
where the applicant's web site appears. Amazon.com is a prime example of a
protected trademark for a domain name central to the public's identification
of the company and its products.
~~~~~~~~~~
Related Topics:
~~~~~~~~~~
The inherent limitations of the territorial application of trade mark laws have
been mitigated by variousintellectual property treaties. One such treaty is
the WTO (formerly GATT) Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights ('TRIPs'). Amongst other things, TRIPs generally requires that
the trade mark laws of member jurisdictions are compatible with each other,
a quality which is known as ‘harmonisation’. For example, Article 15(1)
of TRIPs provides a definition for ‘sign’ which is used as or forms part of the
definition of a 'trade mark' contained in the trade mark legislation of many
jurisdictions around the world.
Related Topics:
Intellectual property - Treaties - WTO - GATT - TRIPs
~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~
Related Topics:
~~~~~~~~~~
In basic terms, the primary advantage of the Madrid system is that it allows a
trademark owner to obtain trademark protection in any or all member states
by filing one application in one jurisdiction with one set of fees, and make any
changes (eg. changes of name or address) and renew registration across all
applicable jurisdictions through a single administrative process.
Related Topics:
~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~
The Community Trade Mark system is the supranational trade mark system
which applies in the European Union, whereby registration of a trade mark
with the Office of Harmonisation in the Internal Market (Trade Marks and
Designs) (i.e.. OHIM, the trade marks office of the European Union), leads to a
registration which is effective throughout the EU as a whole. The CTM system
is therefore said to be unitary in character, in that a CTM registration applies
indivisibly across all European Union member states. However, the CTM
system did not replace the national trade mark registration systems; the CTM
system and the national systems continue to operate in parallel to each
other. See also European Union trade mark law.
Related Topics:
Supranational - European Union - OHIM - European U
states - European Union trade mark law
~~~~~~~~~~
Other systems
Related Topics:
Belgium - The Netherlands - Luxembourg - Benelux
~~~~~~~~~~
For the trade mark law which applies in a selection of other countries and
jurisdictions, please refer to the following articles.
Related Topics:
~~~~~~~~~~
The inherent limitations of the territorial application of trade mark laws have
been mitigated by variousintellectual property treaties. One such treaty is
the WTO (formerly GATT) Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights ('TRIPs'). Amongst other things, TRIPs generally requires that
the trade mark laws of member jurisdictions are compatible with each other,
a quality which is known as ‘harmonisation’. For example, Article 15(1)
of TRIPs provides a definition for ‘sign’ which is used as or forms part of the
definition of a 'trade mark' contained in the trade mark legislation of many
jurisdictions around the world.
Related Topics:
Intellectual property - Treaties - WTO - GATT - TRIPs
~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~
Related Topics:
~~~~~~~~~~
In basic terms, the primary advantage of the Madrid system is that it allows a
trademark owner to obtain trademark protection in any or all member states
by filing one application in one jurisdiction with one set of fees, and make any
changes (eg. changes of name or address) and renew registration across all
applicable jurisdictions through a single administrative process.
Related Topics:
~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~
The Community Trade Mark system is the supranational trade mark system
which applies in the European Union, whereby registration of a trade mark
with the Office of Harmonisation in the Internal Market (Trade Marks and
Designs) (i.e.. OHIM, the trade marks office of the European Union), leads to a
registration which is effective throughout the EU as a whole. The CTM system
is therefore said to be unitary in character, in that a CTM registration applies
indivisibly across all European Union member states. However, the CTM
system did not replace the national trade mark registration systems; the CTM
system and the national systems continue to operate in parallel to each
other. See also European Union trade mark law.
Related Topics:
Supranational - European Union - OHIM - European U
states - European Union trade mark law
~~~~~~~~~~
Other systems
Related Topics:
Belgium - The Netherlands - Luxembourg - Benelux
~~~~~~~~~~
For the trade mark law which applies in a selection of other countries and
jurisdictions, please refer to the following articles.
Related Topics:
~~~~~~~~~~
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;
Concepts
One consequence of a trademark becoming generic is that the exclusive rights
which may attach to the use or registration of the trademark can no longer be
legally enforced. The diminishing or loss of these rights is sometimes known
as genericide, although other terms may be used to refer to the process by
which a trademark becomes generic. Genericide typically occurs over a period
of time where the trademark owner does not maintain or enforce its
proprietary rights (eg. by using the mark, or by pursuing infringement action).
Related Topics:
Generic - Exclusive right - Infringement
~~~~~~~~~~
This means that the legal determination of whether a mark has become
generic will usually arise in the context of an attempt to invalidate or
otherwise cancel a registration for a mark before a government trademarks
office or registry, or before a court. In this context a genericized trademark is
a trademark which no longer serves to uniquely identify the commercial
source or origin of a product or service.
Related Topics:
Legal - Registry - Court
~~~~~~~~~~
Related Topics:
~~~~~~~~~~
Legal protection
Trademarks, unlike copyrights and patents, must be actively used in order to
maintain strong legal rights. By comparison, a copyright or patent holder does
not necessarily need to use their creation in order to maintain their rights.
Related Topics:
Copyright - Patent
~~~~~~~~~~
However, a trademark owner must be careful not to lose control of how its
trademark is used. If a trademark becomes successful in gaining mind
share it may become "generic" through common use. Once this point is
reached it may no longer be possible to enforce rights in relation to the
trademark.
~~~~~~~~~~
For example, if a trademark owner does not police the use of its trademark in
relation to a new product, by preventing third parties using the trademark to
describe their copies of the product, and the general public start using the
trademark as the generic name for the product, the trademark may become a
genericized trademark. Thomas Edison's mimeograph is a classic example.
Related Topics:
Thomas Edison - Mimeograph
~~~~~~~~~~
Avoiding genericide
Trademark owners should not use their trademark as verbs or noun, implying
the word is generic. Likewise, using the trademark as
a plural or possessive (i.e. a noun) will imply the trademark is generic (unless
the mark itself is possessive or plural, e.g., "Friendly's" restaurants). If the
trademark is associated with a new invention, the trademark owner should
use a descriptive term for the product that can be distinguished from the
trademark for the product.
Related Topics:
Verb - Noun - Plural - Possessive - Invention
~~~~~~~~~~
Related Topics:
Xerox - Photocopy - Russian - Below - Johnson & Joh
AID
~~~~~~~~~~
Related Topics:
~~~~~~~~~~
European Union
Since 2003 the European Union has actively sought to restrict the use
of geographical indications by third parties outside the EU. Although a GI for
specialty food or drink may be generic, a GI is not a trademark because it
does not serve to exclusively identify a specific commercial enterprise, and
therefore cannot constitute a genericized trademark.
Related Topics:
2003 - European Union - Geographical indication - Ge
~~~~~~~~~~
Related Topics:
Canada - Parma - Italy
~~~~~~~~~~
Other affected products include Champagne, Bordeaux and many other wine
names, Roquefort, Parmesan andFeta cheese, and Scotch whisky. In
the 1990s the Parma consortium successfully sued the Asda supermarketchain
to prevent it using the description Parma ham on prosciutto produced in
Parma but sliced outside the region. See also Protected Designation of Origin.
Related Topics:
Generic - Proprietary
~~~~~~~~~~
If any of the original registrations for the trademarks appearing in this list
have not yet expired or been cancelled, it is unlikely that the owners of the
registrations would be able to successfully enforce their registered trade mark
rights against third parties.
Related Topics:
~~~~~~~~~~
Related Topics:
~~~~~~~~~~
Related Topics:
Consensus - Marketplace
~~~~~~~~~~
The following list comprises those marks which were originally created and
used as trademarks, and which may continue in use as trademarks, and be
actively enforced by their trademark owners, but which are generally
acknowledged as becoming genericized trademarks due to increasing generic
usage. However, until such time as the term is officially abandoned, it
remains properly capitalized.
Related Topics:
Trademark - Genericized trademark
~~~~~~~~~~
Related Topics:
~~~~~~~~~~
(It is assumed all of the marks in this list are still valid trademarks and when
used in most documents require the use of capital letters and either the TM or
(R) mark as appropriate.)
Related Topics:
~~~~~~~~~~
Related Topics:
~~~~~~~~~~
Related Topics:
~~~~~~~~~~
• Kerosene
• Lava lamp - This originally derived from an alteration of the
trademark Lava Lite, although lava lamp was subsequently registered as a
trademark in the United Kingdom by Mathmos Limited.
• Montessori - Although capitalization of the name suggests trademark
significance, it did not originate as a trademark.
• Nylon - synthetic polymer (polyamid) invented at DuPont (IUPAC name PA
6,6).
• SPAM - This pork and ham product and trademark of Hormel Foods was
the indirect origin of the electronic term of the same name. However, with
reference to meat products, "spam" does not denote the generic.
Filipino
Related Topics:
~~~~~~~~~~
Finnish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew
• Pele-phone - informal Hebrew for mobile phone. The word 'pele' means
a miracle in the Hebrew language. This is the name of the first company to
provide mobile services in Israel, founded by Motorola. More formal terms
for 'pelephone' are 'telefon selulari' (cellular phone) or 'telefon nayad'
(mobile phone).
Indian
Polish
• rower – bicycle, after James Starley's Rover bicycle (James's son, John
Kemp Starley was a co-founder of the Rover car company)
• adidas – training shoe
• ksero – photocopying machine (kserowa? = to photocopy)
• walkman – used in common language for any personal stereo; the
same is with discman for portable CD players
• pampers – diaper
Romanian
Russian
• Кеды (Kedy) from Keds training shoe. The same type of shoe known
as Vans in the US
• Памперсы (Pampersy) - diapers (nappies), from Procter & Gamble's
'Pampers'
• Примус (Primus) - kerosene stove
• Скотч (Skotch) - a transparent adhesive tape
• Унитаз (Unitaz) - toilet fixture, from Finnish brand Unitas (Unity)
• Фломастер (Flomaster) - felt-tip pen, from Flo-Master brand
• Ксерокс (Xerox) - copy machine
• ???? (Jeep) - off-road vehicle of certain proportions
Switzerland
• Natel - mobile phone (the name that the incumbent operator Swisscom,
gave its mobile network from the full name of this, Nationales Autotelefon)
Turkish
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
Related Topics:
Brand - Detective - Cigarette - Poster
~~~~~~~~~~
However, unauthorized use of real trademarks for such purposes could trigger
legal action by their owners — especially if the brands are referenced in a
way that could be seen to have negative marketing impact. In general, the
use of a real brand requires prior written consent by the brand's owner, who
will typically demand some control on the brand's use. These hassles are
probably the main reason for the use of fictitious brands.
~~~~~~~~~~
Real brands are often used, of course. Sometimes a specific brand is needed
because of its prior associations; e.g. the Coca-Cola machine scene
in Kubrick's Dr. Strangelove would not work with any other real or fictitious
brand (except possibly Pepsi). Sometimes the author will use a common
brand only to make the scene more natural or create a specific ambience.
More commonly, such uses are instances of product placement — the insertion
of "casual" (but actually paid and intentional) positive references to brands in
movies, television programming, games, and books. However, this practice is
so widespread in the entertainment industry that it gives authors another
reason to avoid the use of real brands: any such reference would be
suspected by the public of being paid advertising, and could diminish the
artistic or intellectual merit of the work.
Related Topics:
Kubrick - Dr. Strangelove - Pepsi - Product placemen
Entertainment industry
~~~~~~~~~~
Related Topics:
~~~~~~~~~~
Sometimes, ususally on television or movies, a real brand would not be
permitted, due to restrictions in advertising particular products, especially
cigarettes and alcohol. Usually a fictional brand would be created that bears
some resemblance to a real brand.
Related Topics:
~~~~~~~~~~
Related Topics:
~~~~~~~~~~
Finally, the use of a real brand may be excluded also when the plot is meant
to develop in a time or place (e.g. in a distant future, or in a fictional
universe) where the real brand would not have existed anyway.
~~~~~~~~~~
Fictional brands
The following is an incomplete list of fictional brands, organized by product
category.
Related Topics:
~~~~~~~~~~
Beverages
Alcoholic beverages
• A Cold One - Homestar Runner
• Alamo Beer - King of the Hill
• A.M. Ale - Saturday Night Live
• Bear Whiz Beer - Firesign Theatre
• Bearhugger's Whisky - Discworld (varieties include Old Selected Dragon's
Blood and The MacAbre)
• Bendërbrau Cold-Fusion Steam Beer (microbrew) - Futurama
• Black Hole Brew - Home Movies
• BOA - Neon Genesis Evangelion
• Brewmaster - Saturday Night Live, parody of Meisterbrau commercial
• Buddweiser Light - Saturday Night Live, parody of Budweiser Light
commercial
• Butterbeer - Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban
• Buzz Beer - caffeinated beer from The Drew Carey Show
• Cap-Beer-Cino - caffeinated beer competitor to Buzz Beer from The Drew
Carey Show
• Cloudmir Vodka - Arrested Development
• C.M.O.T. Dibbler's Genuine Authentic Soggy Mountain Dew - Discworld,
the bottle says 'one hundred and fifty percent proof'! This is almost
certantly a lie.
• Colonel Kwik-E-Mart's Kentucky Bourbon - The Simpsons
• Drunken Cowboy Whiskey - The Simpsons
• Duff Beer - The Simpsons (includes: Duff Lite, Duff Dry, Duff Dark, Duff
Cold, Lady Duff, Raspberry Duff, Tartar Control Duff, and Henry K. Duff's
Private Reserve)
• Elsinore Beer - Strange Brew
• Fudd Beer - The Simpsons
• Gamma Gulp Beer - from Fallout. It glows in the dark!
• Guatemalica Beer - King of the Hill
• Haka Beer - from a university marketing exercise. Was ficticious until
market research showed that is was so popular that someone actually
started brewing it.
• Hennigan's (whiskey) - Seinfeld
• Jenkins (beer) - EastEnders
• Klein's Beer - Futurama
• Koul-Brau beer - DC Comics
• Leopard Lager - Red Dwarf
• Löbrau Beer - Futurama
• Masterbrew - Saturday Night Live parody of Meisterbrau commercial
• Mister Beer- Saturday Night Live parody of Meisterbrau commercial
• Ol' Kentucky Liqour - Space Ghost Coast to Coast
• Old Phillipino Creamy (coming in shorts & quarts) - Firesign Theatre
• Olde Fortran Malt Liquor - Futurama
• Old Vinyards - The Lord of the Rings
• Pabst Blue Robot - Futurama
• Pawtucket Patriot Ale - Family Guy
• Plummett & Rose Wines & Spirits - the company Montague Egg works for
in the stories by Dorothy L. Sayers
• Red Tick Beer - The Simpsons
• Rettib - a backwards version of bitter-Red Dwarf
• Rocker City Beer - The Far Arena
• Roentgen Rum - from Fallout. It glows in the dark!
• Roo Beer - (FourEcksian lager) Discworld
• Sam Adams' Head Boston Lager - Futurama
• Samuel Jackson Boston Lager - Chappelle's Show
• Schmitz Gay Beer - Saturday Night Live
• Shires Ale - The Archers
• S'more Schnapps - South Park
• Spud Beer - Saturday Night Live
• Spunk beer - Tank Girl
• St. Pauli Exclusion Principle Girl Beer - Futurama
• Tenku Beer - Kill Bill
• That Ol' Janx Spirit - Primary ingredient of a Pan Galactic Gargle
Blaster in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
• Three Wizards Chardonay - Discworld
• Turbot's Really Odd Real Ale - Discworld
• Willer Beer - The Kentucky Fried Movie
• Winkle's Old Peculiar Real Ale - Discworld
• Wudbeiser - Gravitation (a parody of Budweiser)
• Vagrant's Choice Fortified Scotch - The Simpsons
• Victory Gin - Nineteen Eighty-Four by George Orwell
• Yebichu - Neon Genesis Evangelion (a combination on real beer Yebisu
and Ebichu, both of which the creators were fans of)
~~~~~~~~~~
Carbonated Beverages
• 6+ - The Man Who Sold the Moon
• bebop cola - Sealab 2021, Comes in a variety of flavors: Root Bird,
Gilberto Grape, Artie Shawberry, Kiwi Holliday, Peachmo, John Cola-trane,
Don Wild Cherry, Vince Guavaldi, Dave Bruberry, Cab Colaway, Dexterade,
Nina Lemone, Mango Reinhardt, Getzberry, Fizzy Gillespie, Marian
McPineapple, Or'ngette Coleman, Mingus Dew, Plain, and Diet Plain.
• Bouncy Bubble Beverage (aka B3). Also B1, B2 and B4. - Paranoia RPG
• Brotherhood's Sparkling Pomayde - Murder Must Advertise and Montague
Egg stories (both by Dorothy L. Sayers)
• Bubbleshake - (actually an addictive appetite suppressant) Doctor Who
• Buzz Cola - (also Crystal Buzz Cola) The Simpsons
• Cactus Cola - The Flintstones
• Cadre Cola - The Running Man movie
• Carbie Cola - (The most carbonated soft drink ever), Fillmore
• Coo-Coo Cola - Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers
• Cowboy Cola - Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (Mirage Studios comics)
• Dopokoke - cocaine-spiked drink in For His Son, a 1912 D. W.
Griffith short
• Double Bubble Burp-a-Cola - Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory
• Ebola Cola ("The hemorrhage that refreshes") - Transmetropolitan comics
• Fizzade - Doctor Who
• Fizzy Lifting Drinks - Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory
• Fukk Cola - Syrup
• Grepis-Cola - 75th most popular soft drink in the world - Daniel
Pinkwater's Borgel
• Hip Pop - The Simpsons
• Jammin' Orange Blast - Futurama
• Jooky - Sprite TV commercial, "It's a party in a can!"
• Kreml cola - One, Two, Three
• Moka Cola - The Man Who Sold the Moon
• Mrs. Arbiter's Ginger Beer - Discworld
• Nozz-a-La - Dark Tower, an alternate version of Coca Cola.
• Nuka-Cola - Fallout
• Nuke cola - Deus Ex
• Patrola Cola - window cleaner with soy beans from Robert Downey Sr.'s
"Putney Swope"
• Pepsi Perfect - Back to the Future Part II
• Poop Cola - Invader Zim
• Purple Flurp - Jimmy Neutron
• Rocka Cola - The Flintstones
• sHades - ("sHades - The soda from Hell") - The Long Dark Teatime of the
Soul
• Slug-o-Cola - '
• Slurm - Futurama
• Soder Cola - DC Comics, esp. Superman titles
• Soylent Cola ("The Taste Varies from Person to Person") - Futurama
• Sprunk -
• Volt Cola - Beavis and Butt-head (parody of Jolt Cola)
• Yo-Joe Cola - G.I. Joe comics
• Zesti Cola - DC Comics, esp. Batman titles; Soder's great rival.
Other beverages
• Aquarta Milk - Mad magazine
• Bucket's Bovine-, Ovine- and Caprine-Based Drinks - Discworld
• Cardio Punch Sports Drink - Lizzie McGuire
• Chocolate Chip Juice - Sealab 2021
• Colombia's Shame Discount Coffee - The Simpsons
• Crab Juice - The Simpsons
• Curly Mountain Straight - Klatchian coffee, Discworld
• Dalai Lamanade - faux earth-friendly beverage, "The Heartbroke Kid"
episode of The Simpsons
• Dr. Breen's Private Reserve - Bottled water, Halflife 2
• Drink - a drink (all foods and beverages in the film are similarly branded.)
- Repo Man
• Ersatz Brothers Coffee ("look for the can in the plain brown can") - The
Firesign Theatre
• Extreme Walrus Juice - Futurama
• Garden Blast - organic vegetable juice - The Simpsons
• Jamin' Juice - Home Movies
• Malk ("Now with more Vitamin R!") - The Simpsons
• Mococoa - All-natural chocolate drink, made from beans grown on the
upper slopes of Mt. Nicaragua (The Truman Show)
• Morgan Springs - bottled water brand - Seinfeld 6th season episode "The
Gymnast"
• Moland Springs - bottled water brand created by the merger of Morgan
Springs and Poland Creek - Seinfeld6th season episode "The Gymnast"
• Lord Green tea (a play on Earl Grey tea) - Discworld
• Poland Creek - bottled water brand - Seinfeld 6th season episode "The
Gymnast"
• Red Desert Special - Klatchian coffee, Discworld
• Salty Lemonade - Invader Zim
• Shiz! - Futurama
• Slurm ("it's highly addictive!") - Futurama
• Squishee - Slurpee-type drink, The Simpsons
• Swill - Mineral water, Saturday Night Live
• Twentyman Teas - Murder Must Advertise by Dorothy L. Sayers
• Yahoo - Chocolate beverage, Angry Beavers,Hey Arnold
TV Dinners
• Al Sharpton's Veal Medallions - Late Night with David Letterman
• Freak Show Sushi - Late Night with David Letterman
• Hot 'n' Hearty Microbe Casserole - Late Night with David Letterman
• I Can't Believe It's Not Perch! - Late Night with David Letterman
• John Gotti's Guys-Who-Crossed-Me Stew - Late Night with David
Letterman
• Jolly Green Giant's Assorted Elf Parts - Late Night with David Letterman
• Old-Fashioned Singed Tabby - Late Night with David Letterman
• Scorched Canadian Geese Extracted from Commercial Jet Engines - Late
Night with David Letterman
• Split Pea & Hamster - Late Night with David Letterman
• Swanson's Sweaty Man Dinner - Late Night with David Letterman
Breakfast Cereals
• Admiral Crunch - Futurama
• Ano-Weet - Monty Python's Flying Circus
• Archduke Chocula - Futurama
• Brekkie Flakes - UK TV commercial for Lombard Direct (loans company)
• Budget-O's - The Simpsons
• Bunbury's Breakfast Bran - Murder Must Advertise by Dorothy L. Sayers
• Canine Crunchies - 101 Dalmatians
• Captain Sucrose - FoxTrot
• Chocolate Frosted Sugar Bombs - Calvin and Hobbes
• Chunky Puffs - Ed, Edd, and Eddy
• Colon Blow (also Super Colon Blow) - Saturday Night Live
• Cocosplodies (also know as Count Frankenchokey) - Invader Zim
• Cowboy Crunchies - Toy Story 2
• Dino Puffs - Mama's Family
• Drama Flakes - The Tick
• Ethereal cereals - Robert Downey Sr.'s "Putny Swope"
• Froot Poots - All That
• Generic Puffs - Family Guy
• Grandma's Oatmeal Cookie Crunch - King of the Hill
• Honey-Coated Fiber Bears - Full House
• Jackie O's - The Simpsons
• Kap'n Alphabet - Muppets From Space
• Kavity Krunch - CatDog
• Kelp Chex - The Simpsons
• Kelpo - SpongeBob SquarePants
• Krispies - Red Dwarf
• Krusty O's - The Simpsons Comes in:
• Regular
• with sharp metal rings
• with flesh eating bacteria
• Little Chocolate Donuts - Saturday Night Live
• Loosener's Castor Oil Flakes - Firesign Theatre
• Lucky Captain Rabbit King Nuggets - Powerpuff Girls
• Lucky Chodes - Ren and Stimpy
• Meaties ("Free Kid Inside!") - The Far Side
• Meatloaf Crunch - The Amanda Show
• N'yuk-N'yuks - "The Breakfast of Stooges" from The Three Stooges In
Orbit
• Oat Loops - cheap generic version of Cheerios made in Mexico, King of the
Hill
• Oaties - Married... with Children and Seinfeld
• Peabody's Piper Parritch - Murder Must Advertise by Dorothy L. Sayers
• Peanutbutter Puffy Outs - from Home Movies
• Quarry - "Better tasting 'cause it's mined" Saturday Night Live
• Raw Bits - Prairie Home Companion
• Reptar Cereal - Rugrats
• Shredded Meat - All That
• Spaceballs the Breakfast Cereal - Spaceballs
• Stabby-Ohs - (Itchy & Scratchy brand cereal) The Simpsons
• Stix - A spoof of Trix - Robot Chicken
• Sugar Frosted Lumps - Ren and Stimpy
• Sugar Frosted Milk - Ren and Stimpy
• Sugar Sod Pops - Ren and Stimpy
• Veggie-O's -Daddy Day Care
• Wheelies Cereal - "Stays crunchy in the face of adversity," Family Guy
Confections and candy products
• Bertie Bott's Every Flavour Beans - jellybeans from the Harry Potter series
(In the real world Jelly Bellyproduces under licence Bertie Bott's Every
Flavour Beans)
• Big Pink (gum) - Futurama
• Butter Scotchy Finger Pie - The New Woody Woodpecker Show
• Chocolate Salty Balls - South Park
• Chocos - DC Comics, favourite cookie of the Martian
Manhunter (replacing Oreos, which featured as such inKeith
Giffen's Justice League of America)
• Crunchy Frogs - Monty Python's Flying Circus (chocolate candy with a
real frog inside)
• Everlasting Gobstopper - Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory (The
name was licensed for a realjawbreaker made by Nestlé which changes
color and flavor as it is consumed)
• Good 'N' Linty - Late Night with David Letterman
• Hardened Toothpaste Mint Patties - Late Night with David Letterman
• Higgs and Meakins - chocolate manufacturers in Discworld
• Hubble Bubble (gum) - Futurama
• Hyperbubble - gum advertised in Chewing Magazine - Calvin and Hobbes
• Jack-O's - Will & Grace (parody of Oreos, named for the character Jack
McFarland)
• Jolly Time Jelly Beans - Actually exists, but if you open a can of 'jelly
beans' a joke snake explodes out of the can in your face.
• Jupiter Crunch - candy bar from Fred D'Ignazio's Chip Mitchell series
• Krusty-Glop DoNuts, popular flavours including Kranberry Krullers,
Pumpkin Puffs, Sinful Cinnamons, and the single-glazed maple old-
fashioned - Larry Gonick's Attack of the Smart Pies (2005)
• Liquid Nitrogum - Futurama
• Mexican Monkey Brittle - Late Night with David Letterman
• Mookie Way - Late Night with David Letterman
• Mock Choc, a chocolate substitute - Judge Dredd
• Mockolate, a chocolate substitute - Friends
• Mrs. Muldoon's Expectorant Lozenges - cough sweets in Discworld
• Pep bubble gum, causes levitation - Duck Tales
• Reverend Al's Marshmallow Medallions - Late Night with David Letterman
• Roger Ebert's Mystery Log - Late Night with David Letterman
• Snacky Cakes - South Park
• Styro-Pak Cookies - Futurama
• Sunoco Resin Chews - Late Night with David Letterman
• Sunshine Desserts - a whole dessert range. In The Fall and Rise of
Reginald Perrin, the title character works for the company that makes
them.
• Stuff, a creamy whipped dessert with unusual powers - The Stuff
• Sta-Puft Marshmallows - Ghostbusters
• Swell's Goody - Monty Python's Flying Circus
• Tomboy Toffee - Murder Must Advertise by Dorothy L. Sayers
• Turkish Prison Taffy - Late Night with David Letterman
• Two Musketeers and a Guy with a Hacking Cough - Late Night with David
Letterman
• Whizzo Chocolates - Monty Python's Flying Circus
• Wienrich and Boettcher- very upmarket chocolate manufacturers
in Discworld
• Wonka's Nutty Crunch Surprise - Charlie and the Chocolate Factory
• Wonka's Whipplefudgemallow Delight - Charlie and the Chocolate Factory
Nutritional supplements
• Buck-u-Uppo - P.G. Wodehouse's Mr Mulliner stories
• Jollop's Concentrated Lactobeef Tablets for Travellers - Murder Must
Advertise by Dorothy L. Sayers
• Maltogene - Murder Must Advertise by Dorothy L. Sayers
• Nutrax nerve tonic - Murder Must Advertise by Dorothy L. Sayers
• Vitameatavegemin, a nutritional supplement that incidentally contains a
high proportion of alcohol - I Love Lucy
• Soylent Green - from the film of the same name, made of recycled
humans.
~~~~~~~~~~
Clothing lines/brands
Tobacco products
Cigarettes
• Benson & Hedge Trimmings - Late Night with David Letterman
• Carcinoma Angels cigarettes - Transmetropolitan
• Cloud Nine marijuana cigarettes - Doctor Who novels
• Coughing Nails cigarettes - Deus Ex
• Die-Before-Your-Kid-Goes-To-College Lights - Late Night with David
Letterman
• Drome Cigarettes - Lolita by Vladimir Nabokov (a play on "Dromedary",
the kind of camel pictured on Camel cigarette packages)
• El Dorado Cigarettes - Family Guy
• Fantastic Cigarettes ("long in the leaf and short in the can") - The Firesign
Theatre
• Gasperettes - Murder Must Advertise by Dorothy L. Sayers
• Gee, Your Lungs Smell Terrific - Late Night with David Letterman
• Hashmore cigarettes - The Muller-Fokker Effect
• Hendi Winzerman's Small Cigars - Hellsing anime and manga (a play on
the Henri Wintermans brand)
• Highmaster marijuana cigarettes - When H.A.R.L.I.E. Was One
• Hint o' Lint 100's - Late Night with David Letterman
• Holy Smokes cigarettes - Deus Ex
• Holy Spirit Cigarettes - Kentucky Fried Movie
• Kentucky Slims Chicken-Flavored Cigarettes - Futurama
• L&M Turkish Prison Standards - Late Night with David Letterman
• Land-O-Smiles marijuana cigarettes - The Man in the High Castle
• Laramie cigarettes (and Laramie Jr.) - The Simpsons
• Llama Cigarettes - The Shadow also, presumably unrelated in NCIS (Llama
being an obvious reference toCamel
• Marion Barry "Extras" - Late Night with David Letterman
• Mazedonia Zigarettes - Syldavian brand in Hergé's Tintin album L'Affaire
Tournesol (1956)http://www.zompist.com/syldavian.html.
• MoonMist Cigarettes - Kurt Vonnegut's The Sirens of Titan
• Morley cigarettes - The X-Files, Millennium, Buffy the Vampire Slayer,
others
• Mr. Butt - Late Night with David Letterman* Manitoba Cigarettes - King of
the Hill
• Nails cigarettes - "Dogma"
• Napalm cigarettes - Pollen by Jeff Noon
• Necromancer cigarettes - Discworld
• Oscar Mayer Smokable Weenies - Late Night with David Letterman
• Ozark Eddie's Mentholated Skeeter Chasers - Late Night with David
Letterman
• Puffin Cigarettes - Murder Must Advertise by Dorothy L. Sayers
• Red Apple cigarettes - Pulp Fiction, Four Rooms, From Dusk Till Dawn, Kill
Bill
• Sleepy's Mattress-Flashers - Late Night with David Letterman
• "Sun-Kissed" Cured Cannabis Cigarettes - an American product seen
in France, in which UV light converts the inactive isomers converts into Δ9-
THC, Carl Sagan's Contact
• Triboro - NCIS - an obvious reference to Marlboro
• Victory cigarettes - Nineteen Eighty-Four by George Orwell
• Whifflets - Murder Must Advertise by Dorothy L. Sayers
• Cigarettes bearing only the sign of the dollar - Atlas Shrugged by Ayn
Rand
Cigars
• Cigars of the Pharaoh - Hergé's Tintin album Les cigares du
pharaon (1934)
• Dutch Butts - Futurama
• Le Grand Cigar - Futurama
• Pantweed's Slim Pantellas - Discworld
• Royal Kooparillo - Futurama (a single cigar costing $1,000.00, it's wrapper
is a piece of the original US constitution)
• Zuban Cigars - Futurama (supposedly "the finest cigars in the universe")
Household products
Petroleum Products
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Vehicles
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Other products
• Various ACME products - Wile E. Coyote and other Looney Tunes animated
cartoons
• Arachno Spores - "The fatal spore with the funny name!" - Futurama
• Akina iconographs - imp-powered "cameras" in Discworld
• Baby Smokes-A-Lot - doll, Family Guy
• Bag-O-Glass - Saturday Night Live
• Bamboo Boogie Boots - Futurama
• Bioalchemic Products - imp-powered personal organisers in Discworld
• "The Daily Supernova" - a newspaper, Futurama
• Dirty Hoe Topsoil -- The Simpsons
• Flemin's Port-a-Can - Now, with juicy shrimp and coconut urinal cakes
-- Tom Goes to the Mayor
• Dr. Flimflam's Miracle Cream - Futurama
• Flod - "the most perfect cube of fat, ever" -- Ren & Stimpy
• Gravistat - a wall-mounted device used to adjust gravity level, Futurama
• Gulliver's Buffet Trough-style Trough Breakfast -- Tom Goes to the Mayor
• Happy Fun Ball - "Do not taunt Happy Fun Ball." - Saturday Night Live
• Kegelcizer - Futurama
• Lexcorp, Lexoil, Lexair, Lex-Mart etc. - Various brands owned by Lex
Luthor in DC Comics
• Li'l Bastard - line of mischief-making kits for young children, often used
by Bart Simpson in The Simpsons
• Log, from BLAM-O - a toy sensation from Ren & Stimpy
• Loose Blood - mysterious product advertised on Firesign Theater
• Magnavolt car security system - Robocop 2 film
• Molten Boron - Futurama
• Nishi - brand of electronics, The Big Hit
• Ono-Sendai - brand of cyberdecks and other computer gear
in Neuromancer
• Old Glory Insurance - covers robot attacks ("For when the metal ones
decide to come for you - and they will.") Saturday Night Live
• Oops, I Crapped My Pants! - adult diapers. Saturday Night Live
• Ortho-pure Procreation Pills - The Running Man film
• Phat Rascall Bedding -- Tom Goes to the Mayor
• Poop (cola, chocolates, etc.) - Invader Zim
• Poopin Diggins - The Bob Show
• Pregnercise - Futurama
• Screw You, Pal tires - "If you can find a better set of tires, screw you,
pal!" Saturday Night Live
• Señor Science Scientific Melting Kit - The Brak Show
• Señor Science Carnivore Footwear Removal Device - The Brak Show
• Shankman's Rubbing Compound - "When something needs rubbing, think
Shankman!" Futurama
• Sketch-N-Etch - doodling machine in a couch gag in The Simpsons
• Slashco knives - The Simpsons
• Strong Force Krazy Glue - Futurama
• Super Adhesive Industrial Glue - Family Guy
• Thompson's Teeth - "The only teeth strong enough to eat other
teeth!" Futurama
• Try-Hard 1-11 pacemaker battery - "Picks up where your heart left
off." Saturday Night Live
• Ubik - From the Philip K. Dick novel of that name. "Safe when used as
directed".
• Va-poo-rise - vaporizes dog poop, Envy
• Victoria's Circuit - a lingerie store for robots, Futurama
• Willard - personal organizer, knockoff of the Wizard brand - Seinfeld 9th
season episode "The Wizard"