You are on page 1of 188

1.

Read through the following passage on the structure of prokaryotic cells, then write on the
dotted lines the most appropriate word or words to complete the account.

Bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, are prokaryotic organisms. One of the main

differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells is that in a prokaryotic cell,

the bacterial chromosome is not surrounded by a ............................................. .

Prokaryotic cells store carbon compounds in the form of .............................................

and ................................................. and they may also contain one or more small circular

DNA molecules, known as ................................................ . E. coli cells are motile due

to the presence of a......................................................... .


(Total 5 marks)

2. The photograph below shows a section through a mitochondrion as seen using an electron
microscope.

C B
Prof. R. Bellairs/Wellcome Photo Library

(a) Name the parts labelled A, B and C.

A ................................................................................................................................

B ................................................................................................................................

C ................................................................................................................................
(3)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 1


(b) Describe the role of mitochondria.

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 5 marks)

3. The diagram below shows the structure of a chromosome as it might appear at the end of
prophase of mitosis.

A
B

(a) Name the parts labelled A and B.

A .................................................................................................................................

B .................................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) During metaphase of mitosis, the chromosomes become attached to the equator of the
spindle. Name the stage of mitosis that follows metaphase and describe the events that
occur in this stage.

Stage ...........................................................................................................................

Events occurring ........................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................
(3)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 2


(c) Explain the significance of the stage you have named and described in (b).

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................
(1)

(d) Mitosis forms part of the cell cycle. Name one other stage of the cell cycle and state what
occurs in the stage that you have named.

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 8 marks)

4. The table below refers to three organelles commonly found in eukaryotic cells. Complete the
table by writing the name of the organelle, its description or one function, as appropriate, in
each of the five boxes provided.

Name of organelle Description One function

Golgi apparatus

Cylindrical organelles Involved in spindle


made up of microtubules Organisation during cell
division in animal cells

Rod-shaped structures
with a double membrane,
the inner one folded to
form cristae

(Total 5 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 3


5. (a) The table below describes some of the key events that occur during mitosis
Complete the table by writing the name of the stage of mitosis next to its description.

Key events Stage

Chromatids separate and move to opposite poles


of the dividing cell.

Chromosomes shorten and thicken. The nuclear


envelope breaks down and the spindle forms.

The spindle fibres break down, the nuclear


membrane re-forms and the chromosomes
elongate.

Chromosomes line up on the equator of the cell,


attached to spindle fibres by their centromeres.
(4)

(b) The graph below illustrates the change in DNA content during the cell cycle

M ass o f D N A /
a rb itra ry u n its
6
C D
5

3 A B

2
G 1
1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
T im e / h o u rs

City and Islington Sixth Form College 4


(i) Calculate the percentage of the cell cycle time spent in G1.

Answer...................................................................
(3)

(ii) At which point, A, B, C or D, does chromosome replication (the S phase) begin?


Explain your answer.

..........................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 9 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 5


6. The photomicrographs show a transverse section through a leaf of Ammophila, which is a
xerophyte. The large photomicrograph shows details of the tissues inside the box.

Describe three ways in which this leaf is adapted to reduce water loss.

1............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

2............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

City and Islington Sixth Form College 6


3............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(Total 6 marks)

7. A freshwater stream was sampled over a distance of 4.0 km to determine the abundance of an
aquatic invertebrate. The oxygen concentration of the water was measured over the same
distance. The results are shown in the graphs below.

100
N u m b e r o f o rg a n is m s fo u n d
a t e a c h s a m p lin g s ta tio n 50

0
0 1 .0 2 .0 3 .0 4 .0
D is ta n c e / k m

O x y g e n c o n c e n tr a tio n

0 1 .0 2 .0 3 .0 4 .0
D is ta n c e / k m

(a) Name one aquatic invertebrate that might show this distribution along the stream.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 7


(b) Suggest two adaptations that would enable an invertebrate to thrive between 0.2 and 1.0
km along the stream. In each case state how the adaptation assists survival.

1...................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

2...................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 5 marks)

8. The table below refers to features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. If the feature is usually
present, place a tick ( ) in the appropriate box and if the feature is absent, place a cross (X) in
the appropriate box.

Feature Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell


Cell surface membrane

Plasmids

Ribosomes

Mitochondria
(Total 4 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 8


9. The drawing below shows an animal cell, magnified × 1000, undergoing mitosis.

(a) Give two features that help to identify this as an animal cell.

1 .................................................................................................................................

2 .................................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Name the parts labelled A and B.

A ................................................................................................................................

B ................................................................................................................................
(2)

(c) Name the stage of mitosis shown in the drawing.

....................................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 9


(d) Calculate the actual maximum diameter of this cell. Show your working.

Answer ...........................................................
(2)
(Total 7 marks)

10. A procedure was carried out to separate the major organelles within liver cells. This involved
breaking up (homogenising) liver tissue in an ice-cold salt solution which had the same water
potential as the cell cytoplasm.

Ultracentrifugation was then used to separate the organelles. Ultracentrifugation is a process


that separates materials of different densities by spinning them in a tube at different speeds. The
denser materials are forced to the bottom of the tube as a pellet, while less dense materials
remain nearer to the top of the tube in liquid known as the supernatant.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 10


The flow chart below summarises the steps involved in this procedure.

L iv e r tis s u e b ro k e n u p
in ic e -c o ld s a lt s o lu tio n

C e n trifu g e d a t lo w sp e e d fo r
P e lle t A
1 0 m in u te s

S u p e rn a ta n t c e n trifu g e d a t m e d iu m
s p e e d fo r 2 0 m in u te s P e lle t B

S u p e rn a ta n t c e n tr if u g e d a t h ig h
s p e e d fo r 3 0 m in u te s P e lle t C

F in a l s u p e rn a ta n t

(a) Suggest why it was necessary for the salt solution to have the same water potential as the
cell cytoplasm.

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 11


(b) This procedure separated mitochondria, nuclei and ribosomes into the three pellets, A, B
and C. Complete the table below to show which one of these organelles would be found
in which pellet.

Pellet Organelle

(2)

(c) Suggest two components of the cell, other than water, that might be present in the final
supernatant.

1 .................................................................................................................................

2 .................................................................................................................................
(2)

(d) In the space below, draw and label a diagram to show the structure of a mitochondrion.

(4)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 12


(e) Explain why large numbers of mitochondria are found in liver cells.

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 12 marks)

11. The diagram below shows the structure of a bacterium, a typical prokaryotic cell.

B
C

(a) Name A, B and C as labelled on the diagram.

A ...............................................................................................................................

B ...............................................................................................................................

C ...............................................................................................................................
(3)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 13


(b) Complete the table below to show three differences between a prokaryotic cell and a
eukaryotic cell.

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

(3)
(Total 6 marks)

12. The diagram below shows cells from a root tip, prepared by the root tip squash method.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 14


(a) Describe how you would prepare a root tip squash so that mitosis can be studied.

………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………..
(4)

(b) State which of the cells labelled A–E is in:

(i) metaphase ...................

(ii) anaphase .....................


(2)

(c) State two events that take place during interphase.

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………..

2. ……………………………………………………………………………………..
(2)
(Total 8 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 15


13. The diagram below shows a germinating pollen grain as seen using a light microscope.

(a) Name the parts labelled A and B.

A ...............................................................................................................................

B ...............................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Describe the roles of the two male nuclei during fertilisation.

……………………………………………….……………………………………..

……………………………………………….……………………………………..

……………………………………………….……………………………………..

……………………………………………….……………………………………..

……………………………………………….……………………………………..

……………………………………………….……………………………………..

……………………………………………….……………………………………..

……………………………………………….……………………………………..
(4)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 16


(c) An investigation was carried out into the effect of sucrose concentration on the
germination of pollen grains from two species of plants, Bauhinia purpurea and Camellia
japonica. The results are shown in the graph below.

30
G e rm in a tio n
ra te (% ) 25

20 B . p u rp u re a

15 C . ja p o n ic a

10

0
0 10 20 30 40
S u c r o s e c o n c e n tr a tio n ( % )

Graph J. B. E. Summer 2001, p. 150

(i) What is the optimum concentration of sucrose for the germination of pollen grains
from both species?

………..……………………………….………………………………………
(1)

(ii) Compare the germination rate of these two species as the concentration of sucrose
increases from 20%.

………..……………………………….………………………………………

………..……………………………….………………………………………

………..……………………………….………………………………………

………..……………………………….………………………………………

………..……………………………….………………………………………

………..……………………………….………………………………………
(3)
(Total 10 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 17


14. The diagram below shows a midge larva, Chironomus. This is a species which is adapted to live
in fresh water with a low concentration of dissolved oxygen.

1 cm

Describe two ways in which invertebrates such as Chironomus are adapted to live in water with
a low concentration of dissolved oxygen.

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(Total 4 marks)

15. The diagram below shows part of a section at low magnification through the root of a
dicotyledonous plant.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 18


(a) Name the parts labelled A, B, C and D.

A ...............................................................................................................................

B ...............................................................................................................................

C ...............................................................................................................................

D ...............................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Describe how water passes from part A to part D.

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………
(4)

(c) A root takes up mineral ions in addition to water. An investigation was carried out into

the effects of aeration on the uptake of nitrate ions (NO 3 ) by plant roots.

Sections of root, including the root hairs, were immersed in a culture solution containing
6.3 mmol per dM3 of nitrate ions. The solution was aerated (air was bubbled through it).
After nine hours the root sections were removed and the concentration of nitrate ions in
the root cells was determined.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 19


The procedure was repeated with a second batch of root sections from which the root
hairs had been removed. Both procedures were then repeated without aeration. The
results are shown in the table below.

C o n c e n tr a tio n o f n itr a te io n s / m m o l d m –3

R o o t s e c tio n W ith ro o t h a ir s W ith o u t ro o t h a ir s


W ith a e r a tio n 3 7 .5 6 .2
W ith o u t a e r a tio n 7 .1 6 .3

(i) Suggest an explanation for the difference between the results with and without
aeration when the root hairs were present.

............................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................
(4)

(ii) Suggest reasons for the results obtained when no root hairs were present.

............................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 12 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 20


16. The diagram below shows part of a transverse section at high magnification through a
seminiferous tubule in human testis.

(a) Identify cells B and C.

B .............................................................................................................................….

C .............................................................................................................................….
(2)

(b) (i) Give the letter of one cell with the haploid (n) number of
chromosomes.

…………………………………………………………………………………
(1)

(ii) Explain how meiosis results in the production of haploid cells.

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………
(4)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 21


(c) Give two features of a spermatozoon that enable it to carry out fertilisation. Explain in
each case how these features assist in fertilisation.

………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………..
(2)
(Total 9 marks)

17. Some bacteria were grown in a culture with radioactive amino acids. They used the
labelled amino acids to synthesise proteins which were incorporated into their cells.

The bacteria were then washed thoroughly and mixed with some white blood cells. The
amount of radioactivity taken up by the white blood cells was measured at intervals of
two hours for 24 hours.

The white blood cells were phagocytic and engulfed (took up) the bacteria by a process
called phagocytosis. Phagocytosis is a form of endocytosis. This process is illustrated in
the diagram below.

M e m b r a n e e x te n s io n s P hag osom e
B a c te r iu m (p h a g o c y tic v a c u o le )

N u c le u s

W h ite b lo o d c e ll

City and Islington Sixth Form College 22


Lysosomes then fuse with the phagosome and release their contents into it.

The table below shows the level of radioactivity found inside and outside the white blood cells
during the 24 hour period.

Time after mixing cells Radioactivity inside white Radioactivity outside white
together/hours blood cells/arbitrary units blood cells/arbitrary units
0 0 80
2 16 64
4 48 32
6 61 19
8 70 10
10 72 8
12 72 8
14 71 9
16 43 37
18 21 59
20 10 70
22 8 72
24 5 75

(a) (i) Describe the structure of a lysosome.

………………………………….…….………………………………………

………………………………….…….………………………………………

………………………………….…….………………………………………

………………………………….…….………………………………………
(2)

(ii) Describe the roles of lysosomes.

………………………………….…….………………………………………

………………………………….…….………………………………………

………………………………….…….………………………………………

………………………………….…….………………………………………
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 23


(b) Describe the changes in the level of radioactivity found inside the white blood cells
during the period of 24 hours.

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………
(3)

(c) Suggest what is happening to the bacteria inside the phagosomes between 10 and
14 hours.

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………

(d) Explain why the amount of radioactivity increases outside the white blood cells
after 14 hours.

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………
(2)

(e) Suggest why the white blood cells did not take up all the radioactivity.

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………
(1)
(Total 11 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 24


18. Give an account of the process of meiosis and its significance in the production of gametes
in humans.

(Allow three lined pages)


(Total 10 marks)

19. (a) The flow diagram below shows the sequence in spermatogenesis leading to the
formation of spermatozoa.

C e ll A

P rim a ry s p e r m a to c y te

S e c o n d a ry s p e rm a to c y te

S p e r m a tid

S p e rm a to z o o n

(i) Name cell A.

……….……………………………….………………………………………
(1)

(ii) On the flow diagram, write the letter M to indicate where the second division of
meiosis occurs.
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 25


(b) The diagram below shows the structure of a spermatozoon.

Name the parts labelled A, B and C.

A …………………………………………….………………………………………

B …………………………………………….………………………………………

C …………………………………………….………………………………………
(2)

(c) Describe how the spermatozoa are transferred into the female.

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………………………………
(5)
(Total 9 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 26


20. The flow chart below shows the sequence in which some cells are formed during
spermatogenesis in the mammalian testes.

S p e r m a to g o n iu m

C e ll A

S e c o n d a ry s p e r m a to c y te

C e ll B

S p e rm a to z o o n

(a) State the part of the testis where spermatogenesis occurs.

................................................................................................................................
(1)

(b) Name cells A and B.

Cell A .....................................................................................................................

Cell B .....................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 27


(c) Explain the importance of meiosis in the formation of spermatozoa.

................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 6 marks)

21. The diagrams below show two invertebrates found in freshwater habitats. Rat-tailed maggots
are found in stagnant or slow moving water. Stonefly nymphs live in fast flowing streams.

1 cm
1 cm
R a t-ta ile d m a g g o t
S to n e fly n y m p h

City and Islington Sixth Form College 28


(a) Suggest how rat-tailed maggots are adapted to their habitat.

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................
(4)

(b) Suggest what adaptations stonefly nymphs might have for living in fast flowing water.

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 6 marks)

22. Distinguish between each of the following pairs of terms.

Tissues and organs

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................
(Total 2 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 29


23. The diagrams below show four stages of mitosis.

A B

C D

(a) (i) Write the letters of the stages in the sequence in which they occur
during mitosis.

........... .......... .......... ...........


(1)

(ii) Name stage D.

.................................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 30


(b) The graph below shows how the quantity of DNA varies with time in a cell cycle.

Q u a n t i t y o f D N A
/ a r b i t r a r y u n i t s
3

0
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5
T i m e / h o u r s

(i) Explain the changes in the quantity of DNA that take place:

between 10 to 15 hours

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

at 20 hours

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

(ii) What is happening- in the cell between 15 and 20 hours?

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 31


(iii) What is the minimum length of time that interphase would occupy in this cell
cycle?

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 6 marks)

24. The photograph below-shows part of an animal cell, as seen using an electron microscope. The
magnification is ×5000.

(a) Name the structures labelled A and B.

A............................................................................................................................................

B............................................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 32


(b) Calculate the actual length of the structure labelled B in µ m. Show your working.

Actual length of B .................. µ m


(3)

(c) Describe how proteins synthesised on the rough endoplasmic reticulum are processed and
transported out of the cell.

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................
(5)
(Total 10 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 33


25. (a) The diagram below shows a stage in the division of a cell taken from the testis of
an animal. The diploid number of chromosomes of the animal is 4.

Identify the stage of meiosis shown in the diagram.

...............................................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 34


(b) The life cycle of a human can be represented by the diagram below.

S p e r m

O v u m

A d u l t Z y g o t e

E m b r y o

The diploid number of chromosomes in a human cell is 46.

State the number of chromosomes present in each of the following.

i) Sperm ………...........................................................................................................

ii) Zygote ……..............................................................................................................

iii) A cell in the embryo …..…......................................................................................


(3)

(c) Describe spermatogenesis in humans.

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................
(5)
(Total 10 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 35


26. The photograph below shows a group of cacti, plants which are adapted to living in hot deserts.

Suggest how each of the following features helps a cactus to survive in desert conditions.

(a) A shallow, extensive root system.

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Fleshy stems, containing large, thin-walled cells.

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 36


(c) Leaves reduced to spines.

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 7 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 37


27. The siting of a new sewage treatment works and the discharge of its effluent need careful
consideration in order to minimise ecological damage. Figure 1 shows two possible sites for a
new sewage works near to the coast in North Devon.

Figure 1 – Plan of proposed sites for sewage treatment works, underground


pipelines and marine discharge pipelines

Site 2 p = field Site 1 a = field


q = field b = conservation area
r = field
s = cliff grassland
t = rocky shore

This development would involve the permanent siting of the buildings for the main sewage
treatment plant, an underground pipeline and a marine discharge pipe. A strip of land 10 metres
wide would need to be removed during the laying of the underground pipeline. The land would
be returned to its previous condition after the work is completed.

An ecological assessment must be carried out before any development can go ahead. The
assessment compares the possible effects of the development on the terrestrial areas of the two
sites. The first stage is to assign each area to a particular ecological category, using the criteria
in Figure 2.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 38


Figure 2 – Criteria for assigning ecological categories to an area

Criteria
Very high species diversity and Very low species diversity and
highest number of different
habitats or rare habitats
——— ► lowest number of different
habitats or rare habitats

Ecological category
5 ———► 1

The second stage is to calculate the impact of the proposed development within each area using
the following formula:
2
area (m ) × ecological category = units of damage

Finally, consideration is given to whether the damage is reversible or irreversible. Figure 3


shows the results of this ecological assessment survey for Site 1 and Site 2.

Figure 3 – A comparison of the results of the ecological assessment survey for Site 1 and Site 2

Site 1

Area Type of 2 Ecological Units of Reversible Irreversible


Area/m
development category damage damage damage
a Building 10 500 2 21 000 – 21 000
b* Pipeline 150 000 5 750 000 750 000 –
Totals 771 000 750 000 21 000

Site 2

Area Type of 2 Ecological Units of Reversible Irreversible


Area/m
development category damage damage damage
p Building 21 000 2
q* Pipeline 2 500 1
r* Pipeline 3 000 1
s* Pipeline 500 5
t* Pipeline 2 000 5 10 000
Totals

* involves laying of underground pipeline only.

Data adapted from JBE Vol 32 Number 2 Summer 1998

(a) Suggest why some damage is considered to be reversible and some damage is considered
to be irreversible.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 39


............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Complete the data for Site 2 in Figure 3.


(3)

(c) Using the data in Figure 3, compare the ecological effect that the development of the
sewage treatment works would have at Site 1 and Site 2.

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................
(3)

(d) State what is meant by species diversity.

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 40


(e) The ecological impact on the marine environment also needs to be considered. Using
information from Figure 1, suggest three factors affecting the marine environment that
should be considered when comparing Site 1 with Site 2.

1 ………………………………………………………………………………………...

2 ………………………………………………………………………………………...

3 ………………………………………………………………………………………...
(3)

(f) Suggest why an accidental discharge of raw sewage from the treatment works might lead
to an increase in the numbers of carnivorous fish around the discharge pipe.

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 16 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 41


28. The electronmicrograph below shows part of a cell.

(a) (i) Give one piece of evidence that this is a eukaryotic cell.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) Name one type of organism that is a prokaryotic cell.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(b) (i) Name the structure labelled A.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) State the function of the structure labelled A.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 42


(c) Name the parts of the mitochondrion labelled B and C.

B ..................................................................................................................................

C ..................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 6 marks)

29. (a) Describe two features of a human sperm cell and explain how they allow it to carry
out Leave its role in fertilisation. blank

Feature 1 ......................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

Explanation..................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

Feature 2 ......................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

Explanation..................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(4)

(b) Name the type of nuclear division by which sperm cells are produced, and which
introduces variation through random assortment.

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 43


(c) In his lifetime a man produces many millions of sperm cells and yet he is most unlikely to
have more than ten children. Suggest a biological advantage of producing such vast
numbers of sperms.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 7 marks)

30. Plant cells have a cell wall made of cellulose, whereas animal cells do not have a cell wall.

(a) State three other structural features found in plant cells but not in animal cells.

1 ..................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

2 ..................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

3 ..................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(3)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 44


(b) The photograph below shows a transverse section through the stem of a stinging nettle
(Urtica dioica), as seen through a light microscope. Diagrams P and Q show some cells
from two regions of the section.

Alfred Pasieka /Science Photo Library

(i) Name the type of cell found at P and at Q.

P ........................................................................................................................

Q ........................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 45


(ii) Explain how the structure of the cell walls found at P and Q provides the strength
to help support the whole plant.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(3)

(c) Stinging nettles can be grown on land unsuitable for crops.

(i) Suggest one possible use of harvested nettle stems.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) Explain how crops of nettles could be used as a sustainable resource.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 11 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 46


31. The following table refers to organelles found in eukaryotic cells. Complete the table by writing
the name of the organelle, two features of its structure or one function of the organelle in each
of the four empty boxes as appropriate.

Name of organelle Two features of structure One function


1. Stack of curved cisternae
Modification
of proteins

2. Surrounded by many vesicles

1.

Rough endoplasmic
reticulum

2.

1.
Site of
photosynthesis
Chloroplast

2.

(Total 6 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 47


32. The flow diagram below shows a method for preparing and staining cells in order to study
stages of mitosis.

T r e a t p l a n t m a t e r i a l w i t h h y d r o c h l o r

P l a c e i n s t a i n a n d w a r m

B r e a k o p e n p l a n t m a t e r i a l

M o u n t o n s l i d e

S q u a s h g e n t l y

(a) Name a suitable part of a plant to use, giving a reason for your choice.

……………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………
(2)

(b) (i) Explain why staining is necessary in this preparation.

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………
(1)

(ii) Name a suitable stain for this technique.

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 48


(c) Explain why it is necessary to squash the preparation.

……………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………
(1)
(Total 5 marks)

33. The table below refers to some features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Complete the table by writing a tick if the feature is present or a cross if the feature is absent.
Do not leave any boxes empty. The first line has been done for you.

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Ribosomes present

Cell diameter usually more than


20 µ m

Cells may contain plasmids

DNA combined with protein into


chromosomes

Nuclear membranes present

Cell wall always present


(Total 5 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 49


34. Read through the following account relating to some carbohydrates in plants, then write on the
dotted lines the most appropriate word or words to complete the account.

Starch is made from the monosaccharide ....................................... whereas cellulose is

made from the monosaccharide ....................................... . Polysaccharides are formed

when ....................................... monosaccharides join together using .......................................

bonds.

Starch is ....................................... in water and can therefore be used to store

....................................... . Cellulose molecules are held together in parallel groups by

....................................... bonds.
(Total 7 marks)

35. (a) Describe how the structure of a xylem vessel helps it to carry out the function of
water transport in plants.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 50


(b) Explain how water moves through xylem vessels in the transpiration stream.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(4)

(c) Mineral ions are carried in the transpiration stream. State the importance of each of the
following ions for plant growth.

(i) Calcium ions

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

(ii) Magnesium ions

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

(iii) Nitrate ions

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 9 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 51


36. (a) The diagram below shows the results of two different types of cell division, A and
B, in an animal cell with six chromosomes.

N e w s k i n
c e l l
A

A n i m a l
c e l l
B

G a m e t e

Name the types of cell division indicated by A and B.

A ..................................................................................................................................

B ..................................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) The diagram below shows the fusion of two gametes.

G a m e t e

G a m e t e

(i) Name the process by which gametes fuse.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 52


(ii) Name the type of cell formed by this process.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(c) The diagram below shows a sperm cell.

X Y Z

Name the organelles labelled X, Y, and Z.

X ..................................................................................................................................

Y ..................................................................................................................................

Z ..................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 7 marks)

37. Garlic is known to contain an antibacterial substance called allicin.

(a) Suggest an advantage to a plant in producing antibacterial substances in its cells.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 53


(b) The presence of antibacterial substances in garlic can be demonstrated by grinding garlic
in ethanol to produce an extract. A sample of this extract is then applied to a small disc of
filter paper.

(i) Describe how you would demonstrate that this disc contained an antibacterial
substance.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(4)

(ii) A newly discovered rainforest plant is thought to contain a powerful antibacterial


substance. Explain how you would compare the effectiveness of this new substance
with allicin in garlic.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(3)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 54


(c) Suggest how this newly discovered plant substance might have a useful application which
does not involve genetic modification.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 9 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 55


38. One of the roles of zoos is to conserve endangered animals. For example, some populations of
tigers are under threat of extinction and a group of zoos in the USA is developing breeding
programmes to maintain the species.

Renee Lynn/Science Photo Library

These zoos have an overall population of around 150 tigers, and the animals are regularly
moved between zoos for breeding. It is estimated that one new pair of tigers will need to be
introduced to the programme every seven years in order to maintain 90% of the genetic
diversity of the tiger population in these zoos.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 56


(a) Suggest two factors which might lead to the extinction of tigers in the wild.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Suggest why it is necessary to introduce new tigers to the breeding programme.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(3)

(c) Explain the importance of maintaining at least 90% of the genetic diversity in the zoo
population for the successful reintroduction of tigers into the wild.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 9 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 57


39. Read through the following account of mitosis in an animal cell, then write on the dotted lines
the most appropriate word or words to complete the account.

During prophase, the ................................................ breaks down and the

................................................ migrate to opposite poles of the cell.

During ................................................, the chromosomes are visible as pairs of

chromatids, lined up along the equator of the cell. Spindle fibres extend from the poles

of the cell and attach to the ................................................ .

In ................................................, the spindle fibres contract, pulling the chromatids

apart.
(Total 5 marks)

40. The diagram below shows the structure of a bacterial cell as seen using an electron
microscope.

C e l l w a l lS t o r a g e g r a n Bu l e

X Y

(a) (i) Name the parts labelled A and B.

A ............................................................................................................................

B ............................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 58


(ii) Name the carbohydrate present in the storage granules.

...............................................................................................................................
(1)

(iii) Describe how the cell wall in this bacterial cell differs from that in a plant cell.

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................
(1)

(b) The diagram has been magnified 6000 times. Calculate the actual length of the
bacterial cell between X and Y. Show your working, and give your answer in
micrometres.

Answer ............................. µm
(3)
(Total 7 marks)

41. Eukaryotic cells contain organelles, many of which are bound by a membrane. Some organelles
have a double membrane, often called an envelope.

(a) (i) Describe two structural differences between the double membrane
surrounding a mitochondrion and the double membrane surrounding a nucleus.

................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 59


(ii) Name one other organelle that has a double membrane.

................................................................................................................................
(1)

(b) Centrioles are an example of organelles that are not membrane-bound. Describe the
structure and function of centrioles.

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 6 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 60


42. The diagram below shows the sequence of stages in meiosis.

P r o p h a s e I

M e t a p h a s e I

A n a p h a s e I

T e l o p h a s e I

P r o p h a s e I I

M e t a p h a s e I I

A n a p h a s e I I

T e l o p h a s e I I

(a) Describe what is happening to the chromosomes during the following stages.

(i) Prophase I

................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 61


(ii) Metaphase I

................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................
(2)

(iii) Anaphase II

................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Meiosis in humans results in the production of gametes. Name the type of cell produced
by each of the following stages.

(i) Meiosis I in oogenesis.

................................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) Meiosis I in spermatogenesis.

................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 8 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 62


43. The photograph below shows a transverse section through part of a leaf of Nymphaea, as seen
using a light microscope. Nymphaea is a hydrophyte (a plant which lives in water).
The upper epidermis and air spaces are labelled.

(a) Suggest one function of the tissue labelled A, giving an explanation for your answer.

Function ........................................................................................................................

Explanation ...................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................
(3)

(b) Suggest two functions of the large air spaces in this leaf.

1 ...................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................

2 ...................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 63


(c) Suggest why stomata are found only in the upper epidermis of this leaf.

......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 7 marks)

44. The biodiversity of tropical rainforests in the Central American country of Honduras is being
investigated, and changes in the use of land are being recorded.

(a) Explain what is meant by biodiversity.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Describe two ways in which a taxonomy of living organisms is of benefit to the process
of measuring biodiversity.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 64


(c) The table below gives estimates of the total rainforest cover in Honduras over a period of
eight years.

2
Year Area of cover / km
1992 56250
1994 55660
1996 55080
1998 54480
2000 53820

Calculate the percentage change in forest cover between 1992 and 2000. Show your
working.

Answer ............................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 65


(d) Lack of adequate regulations in Honduras has encouraged traditional slash-and-burn
farming, extensive grazing, forest fires and illegal clearance of the rainforest.
Suggest reasons why the government of Honduras might not want to introduce
regulations for the control of changes in land use, and suggest reasons why conserving
the rainforests should be encouraged.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(5)
(Total 11 marks)

45. Agrostis tenuis is a grass that grows near old copper mines in North Wales. Copper is usually
very toxic to plants, but some Agrostis plants can tolerate copper in the soil and grow on the
waste tips from the copper mines.

(a) Suggest a method for measuring tolerance to copper in a sample of Agrostis plants.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 66


(b) Agrostis plants were sampled from three sites close to a copper mine. Site B was on the
waste tip from the mine, Site Awas up-wind of the tip and Site C was down-wind, as
shown below. The tolerance to copper of each of the samples was measured and the
results are shown in the graph below.

U p - w i n d s C i t oe p p e r m i n e Dw oa ws t en - t wi p i n d s i t e
N o c o p p e r p r C e os e p n p t e i r n p s r oe si N l e on t c i o n p s p o e i r l p r e s e n t i

S i t e A S i t e B S i t e C

M a i n w i n d d i r e c t i o n

H i g h

T o l e r a n c e
t o
C o p p e r

L o w
S i t e A S i t e B

Suggest an explanation for the difference in tolerance between plants in the up-wind site
(A) and plants in the down-wind site (C).

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(3)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 67


(c) Samples of tolerant and non-tolerant plants were grown in three trays of soil that
contained no copper. Tray 1 contained only tolerant plants, Tray 3 contained only non-
tolerant plants and Tray 2 had a mixture of equal numbers of both types. The total dry
mass of the plants in each tray was measured. The arrangement of the plants and the
results are summarised below.

T r a y 1 T r a y 2 T r a y 3
A l l t o l e r a n t p M l a i n x t es d t o l e r a n A t la l n n d o n - t o l e r a n t
n o n - t o l e r a n t p l a pn l t as n t s

Total dry mass


of tolerant plants 46 g 12 g ___

Total dry mass


of non-tolerant ___ 30 g 47 g
plants

Suggest an explanation for the results obtained in Tray 2.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(4)

(d) Suggest and explain how the abundance of copper-tolerant Agrostis plants would be
likely to change if the copper were removed from the soil on the mine waste tip (Site B).

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

City and Islington Sixth Form College 68


.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 11 marks)

46. The diagrams below show the structures of a leaf palisade cell and a bacterial cell, as seen
using an electron microscope.

Leaf palisade cell Bacterial cell


(Magnification × 100000) (Magnification × 18000)

(a) Name the parts labelled A, B and C.

A ...................................................................................................................................

B ...................................................................................................................................

C ...................................................................................................................................
(3)

(b) Give one difference between the cell wall of a leaf palisade cell and the cell wall of a
bacterial cell.

......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................
(1)

(c) Describe the function of part D.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 69


......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 6 marks)

47. An investigation was performed to determine the length of time that a cell in an onion root tip
spends in each stage of mitosis.

A growing root from an onion was selected and a root tip squash was made. This was examined
under a light microscope and the percentage of cells in each stage of mitosis was determined.

The results are shown in the table below.

Percentage of cells in this


Stage of mitosis
stage
Prophase 2.43
Metaphase 1.40
Anaphase 0.70
Telophase 2.78

City and Islington Sixth Form College 70


(a) Describe how you would prepare a root tip squash so that mitosis could be studied.

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................
(4)

(b) The percentage of cells in a stage of mitosis is proportional to the duration of that stage.
Use this information to compare the duration of each stage of mitosis in these root tip
cells.

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................
(3)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 71


(c) The duration of each stage of mitosis can be calculated using the equation below.

Percentage of cells in that stage × cell cycle time


Duration of a stage = 100

The cell cycle time for these cells is 1200 minutes.


Describe how you would use this data to determine the total duration of mitosis.

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 9 marks)

48. (a) Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of the Golgi apparatus as seen
using an electron microscope.

(3)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 72


(b) The process of protein synthesis in cells and the secretion of proteins from the cells was
investigated using radioactively labelled amino acids.

The cells were incubated with radioactive amino acids for 30 minutes. The cells were
then removed and washed thoroughly to remove any radioactive amino acids on the cell
surfaces.

The washed cells were then incubated with non-radioactive amino acids for 120 minutes.
Every 20 minutes a sample of cells was removed and the level of radioactivity in the
rough endoplasmic reticulum and in the secretory vesicles was determined.

The graph below shows the levels of radioactivity in the rough endoplasmic reticulum
and the secretory vesicles.

8 0

7 0 S e c r e t o r y
v e s i c l e s
6 0

L e v e l5 0o f
r a d i o a c t i v i t y
/ a r b i 4t r 0 a r y
u n i t s
3 0

2 0 R o u g h
e n d o p l a s m i c
r e t i c u l u m
1 0

0
0 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0 1 0 0 1 2 0
I n c u b a t i o n t i m e / m i n

(i) Describe and explain the changes in the level of radioactivity in the rough
endoplasmic reticulum during the first 40 minutes of the incubation period.

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 73


(ii) Explain the shape of the curve for the secretory vesicles between 0 and 40 minutes.

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 8 marks)

49. The diagram below shows a stage in the division of a cell from the male part of a flower.
The diploid number of chromosomes for this plant is 14.

(a) State the exact location of such a cell in the male part of a flower.

......................................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 74


(b) Identify the stage of meiosis shown in the diagram.

......................................................................................................................................
(2)

(c) Fertilisation in a plant involves different types of cells and nuclei.


State the number of chromosomes present in each of the following in this plant.

A pollen tube nucleus ..........................

A female gamete (egg cell) .................

A zygote nucleus .................................

An endosperm cell ...............................


(4)
(Total 7 marks)

50. (a) The diagram below shows some of the stages during the development of a human
ovum.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 75


(i) On the diagram, write the letter M to show when the first division of meiosis is
complete.
(1)

(ii) Name structure Q, shown in the diagram.

...............................................................................................................................
(1)

(iii) After ovulation, structure Q develops to form a corpus luteum. Name two
hormones that are secreted by the corpus luteum.

1 .............................................................................................................................

2 .............................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Describe the process of fertilisation in humans.

......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 7 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 76


51. Cell A in the diagram below has two pairs of chromosomes. Cell B is one of four cells that were
produced from cell A by cell division.

(a) State the type of cell division which has occurred to produce cell B, and give a reason for
your answer.

Type of cell division .....................................................................................................

Reason ..........................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Explain what happened during this cell division which resulted in the different
appearance of chromosome P.

......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................
(3)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 77


(c) Give the exact location in a human male where this type of cell division occurs.

......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 6 marks)

52. Write an essay on the following topic:

The uptake, transport and roles of mineral ions in flowering plants.

Marks will be awarded for scientific content, coverage of the topic, and the quality of written
communication. You should include in your answers any relevant information from the whole
of your course. You may include diagrams if you wish, but make sure that they are relevant to
your essay and add extra information to it.
(Total 15 marks)

53. The table below lists some features of a typical plant cell and a typical animal cell.

Complete the table with a tick ( ) if you would expect the feature to be usually present or a
cross ( ) if you would expect it to be absent.
Do not leave any boxes empty.
The first line has been done for you.

Typical plant cell Typical animal cell


Cellulose cell wall
Chloroplasts
Cell membrane
Large central vacuole
Chromosomes
Centrioles
Cytoplasm
Stored starch
(Total 7 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 78


54. The diagrams below show cells from a garlic plant at five different stages of mitosis as seen
using a light microscope. These stages are in the wrong order.

A B C D E

(a) Give the correct order in which the five stages take place by using the letters A–E.

1st stage ............ 2nd stage ............ 3rd stage ............

4th stage ............ 5th stage ............


(2)

(b) (i) Name the part of a garlic plant which is used to prepare a slide
showing the stages of mitosis.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) Name a stain which is used to make the chromosomes easy to see.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(c) Name the process which must occur in the genetic material before the chromosomes
become visible.

(i) Name of the process .........................................................................................


(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 79


(ii) State what happens to the genetic material during this process.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 6 marks)

55. Complete the following by filling in the spaces with the most appropriate word or words.

Plant cell walls are largely made up of cellulose. Cellulose molecules consist of

β .................................... molecules joined together in very long chains. These

cellulose molecules lie parallel, bound together by .................................... bonds

making up ..................................... A xylem vessel is a tube which forms when a

long row of cells dies and the end walls of the cells break down. As well as

containing cellulose the walls of xylem vessels contain lignin, which makes them

.................................... and .....................................


(Total 5 marks)

56. The diagrams below show some cells in different stages of mitosis.

A
B

City and Islington Sixth Form College 80


(a) Name the stages of mitosis shown by the cells labelled A, B and C.

A .................................................................................................................................

B .................................................................................................................................

C .................................................................................................................................
(3)

(b) Describe the events that occur in the stage of mitosis shown by cell D.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

(c) Explain the significance of the stage shown by cell D.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 6 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 81


57. The table below refers to the first and second divisions of meiosis.

If the statement is correct, place a tick ( ) in the appropriate box and if the statement is
incorrect, place a cross ( ) in the appropriate box.

First division of Second division of


Statement
meiosis meiosis
Pairing of homologous
chromosomes occurs.

Each chromosome consists


of a pair of chromatids
during prophase.

Crossing over occurs and


chiasmata are formed.

Independent assortment of
chromosomes occurs.
(Total 4 marks)

58. The diagram below shows a mayfly nymph, an invertebrate which lives in freshwater streams.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 82


(a) Give two features, visible in the diagram, which show how mayfly nymphs are adapted
for living in an aquatic habitat. In each case, explain how the feature helps the mayfly
nymphs to live in water.

1 ..................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

2 ..................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(4)

(b) Freshwater streams may be polluted with organic effluents. One of the effects of an
organic effluent is to reduce the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the water.
The graph below shows the distribution of larvae of Chironomus, a freshwater
invertebrate, at increasing distances downstream from the source of an organic effluent.

P o i n t a t w h i c h e f f l u e n t
e n t e r s t h e s t r e a m

N mu b e r s o f
C h i r o n o m u s
l a r v a e

D i s t a n c e d o w n s t r e a m f r o m e f f l u e n t

City and Islington Sixth Form College 83


(i) Suggest and explain two ways in which Chironomus larvae could be adapted to
living in water with a low concentration of dissolved oxygen.

1 ........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

2 ........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(4)

(ii) Immediately after the point at which the effluent enters the stream, numbers of
Chironomus larvae decrease and then increase.

Suggest an explanation for this increase in the numbers of Chironomus larvae.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 10 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 84


59. Although zoos have changed considerably since London Zoo first showed imported animals to
the public, their role in animal conservation is criticised by some.

(a) Describe two activities of zoos which can be used to justify keeping animals in captivity.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(4)

(b) The small numbers of animals typically found in zoos can be a problem for maintaining
populations of healthy captive animals over several generations.
Describe and explain steps taken to avoid such problems.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 6 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 85


60. In the space below, draw a diagram to show the structure of the bacterium Escherichia coli. On
your diagram label three structures not found in a liver cell.

(Total 4 marks)

61. The photograph below shows a chloroplast as seen using an electron microscope. It has been
magnified 5000 times.

Magnification × 5000

City and Islington Sixth Form College 86


(a) Name the parts labelled A, B and C.

A ..................................................................................................................................

B ..................................................................................................................................

C ..................................................................................................................................
(3)

(b) The magnification of this chloroplast is ×5000. Measure the width of the chloroplast
between points X and Y on the photograph.

Calculate the actual width of the chloroplast, expressing the answer in µ m


(micrometres). Show your working.

Answer ............................. µ m
(3)

(c) Name two types of cells which contain chloroplasts and are found in a leaf.

1 ...................................................................................................................................

2 ...................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 8 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 87


62. The diagram below shows the stages in the cell cycle of a plant root cell.

C y t o k i n e s i s

T e l o p h a s e I n t e r p h a s e
A n a p h a s e
M e t a p h a s e

P r o p h a s e

(a) The cell had 2 arbitrary units of DNA at the start of interphase. State the number of
arbitrary units of DNA in this cell in each of the following stages.

(i) at the end of prophase

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) during anaphase

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 88


(b) Describe how you would prepare a root tip squash to observe the stages of mitosis.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(5)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 89


(c) Two onion bulbs were grown to obtain some roots. One onion bulb was grown in water,
the other in a solution of a drug called vincristine, as shown below.

O n i o n b u l b

R o o t s

W a t e r S o l u t i o n o f
v i n c r i s t i n e

Vincristine is a drug used in the treatment of cancer. It prevents spindle formation during
mitosis. The result of a root tip squash on the roots grown in a solution of vincristine
showed an increase in the percentage of cells found in one of the phases compared with
roots grown in water.

(i) Suggest in which phase of mitosis this increase occurs.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 90


(ii) Give an explanation for your answer.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 10 marks)

63. The photograph below shows four germinating pollen grains, as seen using a light microscope.

Maginification ×100

(a) Name the part labelled A.

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 91


(b) Part A contains a tube nucleus and two male nuclei. Describe the roles of the two male
nuclei in the process of fertilisation in a flowering plant.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(4)

(c) An experiment was carried out to investigate the effect of sucrose concentration on the
germination of pollen grains from Camellia flowers. The results graph below.

P e r c e 3n 0t a g e
g e r m i n a t i o n
o f p o l2l e5 n
g r a i n s ( % )
2 0

1 5

1 0

0
0 5 1 0 1
S u c r o s e c o n c e n t r a t

City and Islington Sixth Form College 92


(i) From the graph, find the expected percentage germination in a 16% sucrose
concentration.

……………………… %
(1)

(ii) Describe the relationship between the percentage germination and the sucrose
concentration, as shown in the graph.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 8 marks)

64. The photograph below shows a cell from an insect testis, undergoing meiosis.

Magnification ×1000

City and Islington Sixth Form College 93


(a) Name the stage of meiosis shown in the photograph and give a reason for your answer.

Name of stage .............................................................................................................

Reason ........................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(3)

(b) In a species of butterfly, the diploid (2n) number of chromosomes is 360. State the
number of chromosomes present in each of the following cells.

(i) A butterfly sperm ...........................................................

(ii) A butterfly zygote ..........................................................


(2)

(c) Explain the importance of meiosis in the formation of gametes.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 7 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 94


65. The diagrams below show some of the stages of meiosis I in an animal cell.

(a) State the diploid (2n) number of this cell.

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)

(b) Write the letters in the correct order to show the sequence of stages in meiosis I.

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 95


(c) Explain the importance of meiosis in spermatogenesis.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(4)

3
(d) Semen contains about 100 million sperm per cm . Suggest why the chances of
3
fertilisation are significantly reduced if this number falls below about 30 million per cm .

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 9 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 96


66. (a) Distinguish between the terms gene and allele.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Marfan’s Syndrome is a rare genetic disease which affects the eyes, heart and bones. The
family tree below shows how this disease was inherited through three generations of a
family.

A B

C D E F

J K

u n a f f e c t e d f e m a l e

u n a f f e c t e d m a l e

f e m a l e w i t h M a r f a
S y n d r o m e
m a l e w i t h M a r f a n
S y n d r o m e

City and Islington Sixth Form College 97


(i) Male A is an unaffected homozygous individual. State whether the allele for
Marfan’s Syndrome is dominant or recessive. Explain your answer.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(ii) Using the symbols of D for dominant allele and d for recessive allele, show the
genotype for the following individuals.

B ......................................................

F ......................................................

J ......................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 98


(iii) Individuals C and D have one affected child. Use a genetic diagram to determine
the probability of their next child being affected.

(3)

(c) A genetic disease can suddenly appear in a family with no previous history of the disease.
Suggest how this could be possible.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 11 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 99


67. The table below refers to starch and cellulose molecules. Complete the table by placing a tick (
) in the appropriate box if the statement is correct or a cross ( ) if the statement is incorrect.
Do not leave any boxes empty.
The first line has been done for you.

Starch Cellulose
Molecule with branches
attached by 1-6 linkages
Molecules always long
and straight
Formed from α glucose
molecules
Form microfibrils by
hydrogen bonding
Major component of
plant cell walls

Stored in amyloplasts
(Total 5 marks)

68. Read through the following account relating to sexual reproduction. Write on each dotted line
the most appropriate word to complete the account.

A sperm is produced by a special kind of nuclear division called......................................

In this type of division the chromosome number of the normal body cell is

..................................... The chromosomes are .................................... assorted which

increases genetic variation.

A sperm can only fertilise an egg by penetrating the jelly surrounding the egg

membrane. The head of the sperm releases .................................... which allow the

sperm to reach the egg membrane. This process is called the ....................................

reaction. Fertilisation produces a diploid cell called a .................................... which

divides by ..................................... to form an embryo.


(Total 7 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 100


69. (a) Identify the organelles (structures inside a cell) which fit the descriptions given in
the table below. The first one has been done for you.

Description Name of organelle


Where photosynthesis takes place and carbon dioxide
i
is converted into sugar chloroplast

ii Where aerobic respiration takes place

Where amino acids are joined together to form


iii
proteins
Packages proteins into vesicles so that they can be
iv
released from the cell by exocytosis
A large space inside a plant cell surrounded by a
v
tonoplast and helping to maintain cell turgidity
Divides and organises a spindle in an animal cell as it
vi
starts to undergo mitosis
(5)

(b) Describe the structure of pits in plant cells and explain their function.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

(c) Give two ways in which the structure of a prokaryotic cell differs from a eukaryotic cell.

1 ..................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

2 ..................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 9 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 101


70. Many plants are grown for their fibres for use in making cloth. For example, nettle fibres can be
used for this purpose. In the future nettle fibres may be developed in the United Kingdom as an
alternative to imported cotton plant fibres.

A student investigated the strength of plant fibres to find out if they could be made into cloth.

The following method was used.

Step 1. Harvest nettle plants and remove leaves from stems

Step 2. Place stems in buckets and cover with water. Leave for ten days

Step 3. Remove stems and wash fibres under running water

(a) Suggest and explain the changes that take place in the nettle stems during Step 2.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Describe a reliable method for measuring the strength of these plant fibres.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(4)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 102


(c) Suggest why, in the United Kingdom, cloth made from nettle fibres could be made more
cheaply than cloth made from cotton.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 8 marks)

71. A newspaper recently published the following report.

‘Scientists find gene to halt ovarian cancer’


A gene that can stop the development of cancer of the ovary has been identified. This
gene acts as a tumour suppressor. If the gene is switched off then a tumour develops.
Scientists have switched the gene back on in mice and the cancer cells stopped
developing.

Scientists hope to be able to find a drug to turn this gene back on. This could provide a
means of treating ovarian cancer in humans.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 103


(a) (i) If a suitable drug is found it will have to be carefully tested in clinical
trials.
Describe the methods that would be used to trial a new drug to treat ovarian cancer.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(4)

(ii) William Withering carried out trials of the digitalis soup which he used to treat
patients. Explain why his methods could not be used as part of a modern clinical
trial.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 104


(b) In the future, it may be possible to treat ovarian cancer by transplanting healthy stem cells
into a diseased ovary. Some people think that stem cell research should not be carried out.

State whether you are for or against the use of stem cells to treat ovarian cancer.

For or against? ........................

Present an argument to explain why you hold this point of view (for or against) using
your biological knowledge of stem cell research and the ethical issues connected with it.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 9 marks)

72. A study of mammals in West Africa has found that populations have decreased by up to 76% in
41 different species. Some species have become extinct in the area, reducing the biodiversity.

I s l a n d o f A g a d i r
M A U R I T A N I A
A t l a n t i c
O c e a n

Source: www.news.bbc.co.uk

City and Islington Sixth Form College 105


(a) Explain why extinction of species reduces biodiversity.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) It is thought that this loss of biodiversity is an indirect result of European legislation
which limits fishing in European waters. Rather than lose their way of life, European
fishermen now fish off the West African coast, and this has reduced fish stocks
dramatically. The highest density of human populations in West Africa is along the coast.

(i) Suggest one reason why fish stocks are important for the human population in
West Africa.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) Suggest reasons why changes in European legislation have had an effect on the
wild mammal populations of West Africa.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(c) With reference to the information given, describe the importance of considering cultural
issues when using legislation for conservation of organisms.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 106


(d) Explain why local legislation is likely to be less effective than international agreements
for major conservation projects.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 10 marks)

73. The table below describes some structures found in eukaryotic cells.

Complete the table below by writing the name of the structure in the box next to its description.

Description Name of structure

Cylindrical organelle made up of microtubules,


involved in spindle organisation.

Site where ribosomal RNA is made and the


subunits of the ribosomes are assembled.

Organelle consisting of stacks of cisternae and


vesicles, concerned with the modification of
proteins.

Small spherical structures surrounded by a single


membrane, containing hydrolytic enzymes.
(Total 4 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 107


74. (a) Describe the structure of a plant cell wall.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(3)

(b) An experiment was carried out to determine the effect of two enzymes, enzyme A and
enzyme B, on the yield of apple juice.

An apple was cut into small pieces and blended in a food processor to produce apple
pulp.

Four samples of apple pulp of equal mass were mixed with various combinations of
enzyme A, enzyme B and water, as detailed in the table below. Both enzyme solutions
were at the same concentration.

Sample number Mixture


3 3
1 Apple pulp + 5 cm enzyme A + 5 cm water
3 3
2 Apple pulp + 5 cm enzyme B + 5 cm water
3 3
3 Apple pulp + 5 cm enzyme A + 5 cm enzyme B
3
4 Apple pulp + 10 cm water

City and Islington Sixth Form College 108


The samples were incubated at 30 °C for 15 minutes.

Each sample was then placed in a separate filter funnel and the apple juice collected into
a measuring cylinder. The volumes of the apple juice collected from each sample are
shown in the bar chart below.

4 0
3
V o lu m e o f a p p le ju ic e c o lle c te d / c m

3 0

2 0

1 0

0
1 2 3
S a m p l e n u m b e r

(i) Suggest why the apple pulp incubated with water only (sample 4) yielded some
apple juice.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 109


(ii) Describe the effect that enzymes A and B have on the yield of apple juice in
samples 1, 2 and 3.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(iii) Suggest how these enzymes increase the yield of apple juice.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 10 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 110


75. The table below refers to structures that may be found in bacterial cells or liver cells.
Place a tick ( ) in the box if the structure is found in the cell and a cross ( ) in the box if it is
not.

Structure Bacterial cell Liver cell


Ribosomes
Centrioles
Starch grains
Nucleus
(Total 4 marks)

76. The diagram below shows some of the organelles found in a eukaryotic cell.

R i b o s o m e s A
B

G o l g i
a p p a r a t u s

N u c l e a r
m e m b r a n e

(a) Name the parts of the Golgi apparatus labelled A and B.

A ........................................................................

B ........................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 111


(b) Some of the proteins synthesised by ribosomes are transported to the Golgi apparatus.

Describe what happens to these proteins in the Golgi apparatus.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 5 marks)

77. The tips of three onion roots were cut off and each was used to make a root tip squash.

(a) Name a suitable stain that can be used to show chromosomes in a root tip squash.

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 112


(b) The number of cells observed in each phase of mitosis was counted and these results are
shown in the table below.

Root tip Number of cells observed


Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase
1 15 5 3 5
2 23 5 4 9
3 17 6 2 8

The number of cells observed in a phase is directly proportional to the length of that
phase. Using these results, put the phases in order starting with the longest phase and
ending with the shortest phase.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)

(c) The appearance of the chromosomes from part of a root tip squash is shown below.

P 2 P 1

City and Islington Sixth Form College 113


(i) The cells labelled P1 and P2 are both in prophase. Suggest an explanation for the
difference in appearance between the two cells.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(3)

(ii) Write the letter A on the illustration to label a cell that is undergoing anaphase.
(1)

(iii) Describe what happens during anaphase.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 8 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 114


78. (a) The diagram below shows some of the stages and cells involved in the process of
spermatogenesis.

S p e r m a t o g o n i a

P r i m a r y
s p e r m a t o c y t e s

S e c o n d a r y
s p e r m a t o c y t e s

C e l l s A

S p e r m a t o z o a

(i) Name Cells A shown in the diagram above.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) State which of the cells named in the diagram are diploid (2n).

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 115


(b) The graph below shows the changes in the DNA content of cells in the testes, during the
formation of spermatozoa.

4 n

D N A
c o n t e2 nn t
p e r c e l l

T i m e

Name the type of nuclear division shown by the graph and explain why it is important to
reduce the DNA content from diploid (2n) to haploid (n), during the formation of
spermatozoa.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 6 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 116


79. The photograph below shows a transverse section through a leaf of Ammophila, as seen using a
light microscope. Ammophila is an example of a plant with xeromorphic adaptations.

(a) Explain what is meant by the term xeromorphic adaptations.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 117


(b) Describe and explain two features, visible in the photograph, that show how Ammophila
is adapted to its environment.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 5 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 118


80. (a) Some people take garlic extracts as they believe that these contain natural
chemicals capable of reducing infection.

An experiment was carried out to study the effect of garlic extracts on the growth of
Gram negative and Gram positive bacteria.

The 100% extract was obtained by crushing the garlic. This extract was diluted with
water to give 4 different concentrations (80%, 60%, 40% and 20%). Small discs of filter
paper were then soaked in the 100% extract and the diluted extracts, removed and dried.

A suspension of Gram negative bacteria was spread evenly over a solid medium in a petri
dish. One disc from each dilution of the garlic extract was placed on the surface of the
medium. The culture was incubated for 48 hours.

This procedure was repeated with a suspension of Gram positive bacteria.

The appearance of the cultures after 48 hours is shown below. The numbers show the
percentage concentration of garlic extract used.

D i s c s s o a k e d i n
g a r l i c e x t r a c t

Z o n e o f n o
G r a m n e g a t bi v a e c tc e u r l i t a u l r gGe r r o a w m t h p o s i t i v e c u l t u r
a f t e r 4 8 h o u r s a f t e r 4 8 h o u r s

City and Islington Sixth Form College 119


The diameter of the zone of no bacterial growth was measured for each disc on each
plate.
The graph below shows these results.

1 2

1 0
D ia m e te r o f z o n e o f n o b a c te ria l g ro w th / m m

E f f e c t o f g a r l i c e x t
G r a m n e g a t i v e b a c
2 E f f e c t o f g a r l i c e x t
G r a m p o s i t i v e b a c

0
0 2 0 4 0 6 0
C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f g a r l i c e x t r a c t ( % )

Describe the effect of diluting the garlic extract on the growth of Gram negative bacteria.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 120


(b) Suggest how the information shown in the graph supports the following conclusions
drawn from this experiment.

(i) The chemicals in the garlic extract do not interfere with the cell wall.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) The cell wall of Gram negative bacteria is more permeable to the chemicals
contained in the garlic extract than the cell wall of Gram positive bacteria.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 4 marks)

81. Write an essay on the following topic.

Genetic variation and natural selection.

Marks will be awarded for scientific content, coverage of the topic, and the quality of written
communication. You should include in your answer any relevant information from the whole of
your course. You may include diagrams if you wish, but make sure that they are relevant to your
essay and add extra information to it.
(Total 15 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 121


82. Complete the table below by placing in each box a tick ( ) if you would expect the feature to
be present or a cross ( ) if you would expect it to be absent.
The first row has been done for you.

Feature Sperm Egg


Tail
Haploid nucleus
Acrosome present
Mitochondria present
Cytoplasm containing
many lipid droplets
Use ATP for movement
(Total 5 marks)

83. This question is about the preparation of a microscope slide that would enable you to see the
stages of mitosis.

(a) Name a suitable organism and tissue which could be used to study mitosis.

(i) organism .................................................................................................................


(1)

(ii) tissue .......................................................................................................................


(1)

(b) Name a stain you might use to make the chromosomes visible.

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)

(c) Explain why the cells are warmed in acid during the preparation of the slide.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 122


(d) The diagram below shows a chromosome during an early stage of mitosis. Write the
names of the parts labelled A and B on the lines provided.

A B

A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(2)
(Total 6 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 123


84. The diagram below shows the steps needed to produce human tissues from embryonic stem
cells. This procedure has not yet been successfully carried out although some scientists hope
that it will soon be possible. Perhaps one day new nervous tissue will be produced that will
enable people with spinal injuries to walk again.

S t e p 1 f e r t i l i s a t i o n

S t e p 2 ‘ s p a r e ’ e m b r y o

S t e p 3 g r o w n t o f o r m b l a s t o c y s t

s t e m c e l l s i s o l a t e d , r e m a i n s
S t e p 4
o f b l a s t o c y s t d i s c a r d e d

S t e p 5 s t e m c e l l s c u l t u r e d

S t e p 6 c e l l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n

h u m a n t i s s u e s f o r
S t e p 7
t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n

(a) (i) Describe how scientists might obtain a supply of ‘spare embryos’
(Step 2) to produce tissues.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 124


(ii) After fertilisation, cells are totipotent but by the time a blastocyst has formed the
cells are pluripotent. Explain what is meant by the terms totipotent and
pluripotent.

totipotent ..........................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

pluripotent .......................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Explain why the following are important in producing tissues from stem cells.

(i) stem cells cultured (Step 5)

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(ii) cell differentiation (Step 6)

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 125


(c) The use of embryonic stem cells to produce tissues in this way is controversial. Some
people think that it should be banned, whilst other people think that it would be wrong
not to try this technique. State whether you are for or against using embryonic stem cells
to produce new tissues.

For or against?.............................................

Use your knowledge of stem cell research issues to justify your view.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 11 marks)

85. The tolerance of plants to copper ions in the soil is under genetic control. The frequency of an
allele, which causes a plant to be more tolerant of copper, was measured at two different sites A
and B.

The table below shows the percentage frequencies of the tolerance and non-tolerance alleles in
plant populations at the two sites.

Site Percentage frequencies of


Tolerance allele Non-tolerance allele
A 30 70
B 80 20

City and Islington Sixth Form College 126


(a) Explain what is meant by the frequency of an allele in a population.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Describe how natural selection could have brought about the different allele frequencies
at the two sites.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(4)

(c) Suggest why bacteria often adapt to changing conditions much more quickly than plants.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 8 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 127


86. Answer the following essay question.

You are expected to answer in continuous prose. You should use examples from the biology
course you have studied but need not restrict yourself to the course content.

You should spend approximately 45 minutes answering this question including planning time.

Marks will be awarded for the following areas:

Breadth: selection of a range of relevant examples (up to 6 marks)

Depth: Further description and discussion of the examples (up to 8 marks)

Balance: Have you answered the question asked; for example have you recognised the
advantages and disadvantages or benefits and risks (up to 6 marks)

Style: Coherence, clarity and expression (up to 4 marks)

Some people claim that many medical problems, such as the shortage of suitable organs needed
for transplant surgery, may become a thing of the past. The use of stem cells, which may have
had a specific gene or genes inserted, could give rise to many new treatments.

Write an essay on: ‘Manipulating stem cells: a miracle cure or a dangerous development?’
(Total 20 marks)

87. (a) The cell cycle includes interphase and mitosis. Mitosis has four phases: prophase,
metaphase, anaphase and telophase. The photograph below shows plant root cells at
various stages of the cell cycle.

(i) Draw a line to indicate a cell in the photograph that is undergoing anaphase and
label this line A.
(1)

(ii) Draw a line to indicate a cell in the photograph that is undergoing telophase and
label this line T.
(1)

(iii) How many of the cells shown in the photograph are in telophase?

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 128


(b) Give an account of the events that take place during prophase and metaphase of mitosis.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(5)
(Total 8 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 129


88. (a) In the space below, draw and label a diagram to show the structure of a chloroplast,
as seen using an electron microscope.

(4)

(b) The photograph below shows a group of mitochondria in a liver cell, as seen using an
electron microscope. The magnification is ×50 000.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 130


(i) Measure the length of the mitochondrion labelled A between X and Y. Calculate
the actual length of this mitochondrion in μm. Show your working.

Actual length of A ......................µm.


(3)

(ii) Suggest one other structure that might be visible in the cytoplasm of this liver cell
if the magnification used was higher.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(iii) Suggest one reason why the double membrane is not clearly visible all around the
mitochondrion labelled A.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 9 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 131


89. (a) Some invertebrates, such as insect larvae, show various adaptations to living in
freshwater with a low concentration of dissolved oxygen. Some other invertebrates are
adapted to living in fast-flowing water.

(i) Describe and explain two ways in which invertebrates are adapted to living in fresh
water with a low concentration of dissolved oxygen.

1 ........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

2 ........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(4)

(ii) Suggest and explain one way in which an invertebrate might be adapted to living in
fast-flowing water.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 132


(b) An experiment was carried out to investigate the relationship between temperature and
the concentration of dissolved oxygen in freshwater. The results are shown in the table
below.

Temperature / °C –3
Concentration of dissolved oxygen / mg dm
5 12.8
10 11.3
15 10.2
20 9.2
25 8.2
30 7.5

Describe the relationship between temperature and the concentration of dissolved oxygen,
as shown by the data.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 8 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 133


90. (a) The diagrams below show some of the stages of meiosis I in an animal cell. The
diploid number (2n) of this cell is 4.

A B

D E

Write the letters in the correct order to show the sequence of stages in meiosis I.

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) The diploid number of chromosomes in a human cell is 46. State the number of
chromosomes present in each of the following.

(i) A spermatogonium ...................

(ii) A spermatid ..............................


(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 134


(c) Describe the process of oogenesis.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 8 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 135


91. The table below refers to some cell structures. Complete the table by inserting the correct word,
words or diagram in the appropriate boxes. Leave the shaded grey boxes empty.

Name of cell structure Description of cell structure Diagram of cell structure

1. Darkly-stained region in the


nucleus.

2. Where ribosomal RNA is


made.
(1)

Centriole

(2)

1.

Lysosome
2.

(2)

1. Hollow cylinders made of


protein.

2. Form spindle fibres.


(1)
(Total 6 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 136


92. The graphs below show changes in the DNA content of cells during the cell cycle in two
different plants, A and B.

P l a n t A

6
D N A c o n te n t in e a c h
c e ll / a rb itra ry u n its

0 2 4 6 8 1 0 1 2 1 4 1 6 1 8 2 0 2 2 2 4 2 6 2 8 3 0 3 2 3 4 3 6

T i m e / h o u r s

P l a n t B

6
D N A c o n te n t in e a c h
c e ll / a rb itra ry u n its

0 2 4 6 8 1 0 1 2 1 4 1 6 1 8 2 0 2 2 2 4 2 6 2 8 3 0 3 2 3 4 3 6

T i m e / h o u r s

City and Islington Sixth Form College 137


(a) Compare the cell cycle of plant A with the cell cycle of plant B.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(3)

(b) The DNA content of the cells of plant A doubles between 4 and 8 hours. Give an
explanation for this change in DNA content.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 138


(c) Describe the events that are occurring inside the cells of plant A between 11 and 13
hours.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 7 marks)

93. The photograph below shows a transverse section through part of a leaf of Ammophila, as seen
using a light microscope. Ammophila is a plant which is adapted to living in a dry environment.

Magnification ×100

City and Islington Sixth Form College 139


(a) Describe and explain three ways in which the leaves of plants, such as Ammophila, are
adapted to their environment.

1 ..................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

2 ..................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

3 ..................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(6)

(b) Suggest one way in which the structure of a leaf of a hydrophyte might differ from the
structure of a leaf of Ammophila.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 7 marks)

94. Write an essay on the following topic.

Sexual reproduction and genetic variation in flowering plants.

Marks will be awarded for scientific content, coverage of the topic, and the quality of written
communication. You should include in your answer any relevant information from the whole of
your course. You may include diagrams if you wish, but make sure that they are relevant to your
essay and add extra information to it.
(Total 15 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 140


95. The table below compares the features of typical plant, animal and bacterial cells.
Complete the table by placing a tick ( ) in the appropriate box if the feature is usually present
or a cross ( ) if the feature is usually absent.
Do not leave any boxes empty.

The first line has been done for you.

Plant Animal Bacterial


(eukaryotic) cell (eukaryotic) cell (prokaryotic) cell
Cell wall
Chloroplasts
Nuclear membrane
Cell (unit) membrane
Ribosomes
Centrioles
(Total 5 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 141


96. The hormone insulin is a protein. It is produced in certain cells in the human pancreas.
Once insulin molecules have been produced they are secreted through the cell membrane into
the blood. Describe the sequence of events from when an insulin molecule has been formed
until it passes through the cell membrane.

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................
(Total 5 marks)

97. Cellulose and starch are both polysaccharides, made up of glucose molecules condensed
together.

(a) Describe how the molecular structure of a cellulose molecule differs from that of a starch
molecule.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(3)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 142


(b) In the cell walls of plants, the cellulose molecules are arranged so that they make up
cellulose microfibrils. Explain how the arrangement of cellulose molecules in a
microfibril give it great strength.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

(c) Xylem vessels are tubes formed when columns of cells die. Their walls are made of
cellulose strengthened with other substances, such as lignin. In addition to providing
support, xylem vessels also transport water from the roots to the leaves with the help of
cohesion. Explain what is meant by cohesion.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 7 marks)

98. (a) Mammalian gametes are formed by meiosis and have the ability to fuse to form a
zygote. Explain why it is important that gametes are produced by meiosis.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 143


(b) Explain how the genetic material from a mammalian sperm cell is able to enter an ovum
to bring about the process of fertilisation.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

(c) (i) Calculate the number of cells that will be present in the embryo after
the first four mitotic divisions of the zygote.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) Suggest why, during the first four mitotic divisions, the embryo does not increase
in volume even though the total number of cells increases.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 144


(iii) Outline the events that occur in mitosis from the start of prophase up to the end of
metaphase.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 9 marks)

99. (a) A single stem cell can give rise to many genetically identical cells of different
types.
There are, for example, adult stem cells in the human brain which are capable of
producing the different types of brain cells including nerve cells (neurones).

Scientists are trying to find ways of growing such adult brain stem cells in the laboratory.

(i) Name the type of cell division by which a stem cell can give rise to many
genetically identical cells.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) Explain how cells produced from stem cells can have the same genes yet be of
different types.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 145


(iii) Suggest why it might be useful to keep a supply of live stem cells from your brain
in a laboratory.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Much research remains to be done and so it will be some time before adult stem cell
treatments will be available to those who might benefit from them. However, research
using embryonic stem cells is much further advanced.

(i) Suggest why research with embryonic stem cells is further advanced than research
with adult stem cells.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 146


(ii) Some people hold the view that research into and the medical use of embryonic
stem cells is unethical and that we should await the results of research on adult
stem cells.

Are you for or against embryonic stem cell research? .....................................

Using your scientific knowledge and your understanding of the ethical issues
associated with embryonic stem cell research, explain why you hold this view.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 11 marks)

100. SMALL WORLD

It’s probably not a good idea to take too personal an interest in your microbes. Louis Pasteur,
the great French chemist and bacteriologist, became so preoccupied with his that he took to
peering critically at every dish placed before him with a magnifying glass, a habit that
presumably did not win him many repeat invitations to dinner.

In fact, there is no point in trying to hide from your bacteria, for they are on and around you
always, in numbers you can’t conceive of. If you are in good health and averagely diligent about
hygiene, you will have a herd of about one trillion bacteria grazing on your fleshy plains – about
a hundred thousand of them on every square centimetre of skin. They are there to dine off the
ten billion or so flakes of skin you shed every day, plus all the tasty oils and fortifying minerals
that seep out from every pore and tissue. You are for them the ultimate buffet, with the
convenience of warmth and constant mobility thrown in. By way of thanks, they give you B.O.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 147


And those are just the bacteria that inhabit your skin. There are trillions more tucked away in
your gut and nasal passages, clinging to your hair and eyelashes, swimming over the surface of
your eyes, drilling through the enamel of your teeth. Your digestive system alone is host to
more than a hundred trillion microbes, of at least four hundred types. Some deal with sugars,
some with starches, some attack other bacteria. A surprising number, like the ubiquitous
intestinal spirochetes, have no detectable function at all. They just seem to like to be with you.
Every human body consists of about ten quadrillion cells, but is host to about a hundred
quadrillion bacterial cells. They are, in short, a big part of us. From the bacteria’s point of view,
of course, we are a rather small part of them.

Because we humans are big and clever enough to produce and use antibiotics and disinfectants,
it is easy to convince ourselves that we have banished bacteria to the fringes of existence. Don’t
you believe it. Bacteria may not build cities or have interesting social lives, but they will be here
when the Sun explodes. This is their planet, and we are on it only because they allow us to be.

Bacteria, never forget, got along for billions of years without us. We couldn’t survive a day
without them. They process our wastes and make them usable again; without their diligent
munching nothing would rot. They purify our water and keep our soils productive. Bacteria
synthesize vitamins in our gut, convert the things we eat into useful sugars and polysaccharides,
and go to war on alien microbes that slip down our gullet.

We depend totally on bacteria to pluck nitrogen from the air and convert it into useful
nucleotides and amino acids for us. It is a prodigious and gratifying feat. As Margulis and Sagan
note, to do the same thing industrially (as when making fertilizers) manufacturers must heat the
source materials to 500 degrees Celsius and squeeze them to 300 times normal pressures.
Bacteria do the same thing all the time without fuss, and thank goodness, for no larger organism
could survive without the nitrogen they pass on. Above all, microbes continue to provide us
with the air we breathe and to keep the atmosphere stable. Microbes, including the modern
versions of cyanobacteria, supply the greater part of the planet’s breathable oxygen. Algae and
other tiny organisms bubbling away in the sea blow out about 150 billion kilograms of the stuff
every year.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 148


And they are amazingly prolific. The more frantic among them can yield a new generation in
less than ten minutes; Clostridium perfringens the disagreeable little organism that causes
gangrene, can reproduce in nine minutes and then begin at once to split again. At such a rate, a
single bacterium could theoretically produce more offspring in two days than there are protons
in the universe. ‘Given an adequate supply of nutrients, a single bacterial cell can generate
280,000 billion individuals in a single day’, according to the Belgian biochemist and Nobel
laureate Christian de Duve. In the same period, a human cell can just about manage a single
division.

About once every million divisions, they produce a mutant. Usually this is bad luck for the
mutant – for an organism, change is always risky – but just occasionally the new bacterium is
endowed with some accidental advantage, such as the ability to elude or shrug off an attack of
antibiotics. With this ability to evolve rapidly goes another, even scarier advantage. Bacteria
share information. Any bacterium can take pieces of genetic coding from any other. Essentially,
as Margulis and Sagan put it, all bacteria swim in a single gene pool. Any adaptive change that
occurs in one area of the bacterial universe can spread to any other. It’s rather as if a human
could go to an insect to get the necessary genetic coding to sprout wings or walk on ceilings. It
means that from a genetic point of view bacteria have become a single super-organism – tiny,
dispersed, but invincible.

They will live and thrive on almost anything you spill, dribble or shake loose. Just give them a
little moisture – as when you run a damp cloth over a counter – and they will bloom as if
created from nothing. They will eat wood, the glue in wallpaper, the metals in hardened paint.
Scientists in Australia found microbes known as Thiobacillus concretivorans which lived in –
indeed, could not live without – concentrations of sulphuric acid strong enough to dissolve
metal. A species called Micrococcus radiophilus was found living happily in the waste tanks of
nuclear reactors, gorging itself on plutonium and whatever else was there. Some bacteria break
down chemical materials from which, as far as we can tell, they gain no benefit at all.

They have been found living in boiling mud pots and lakes of caustic soda, deep inside rocks, at
the bottom of the sea, in hidden pools of icy water in the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica,
and 11 kilometres down in the Pacific Ocean where pressures are more than a thousand times
greater than at the surface, or equivalent to being squashed beneath fifty jumbo jets. Some of
them seem to be practically indestructible. Deinococcus radiodurans is, according to The
Economist, ‘almost immune to radioactivity’. Blast its DNA with radiation and the pieces
immediately re-form ‘like the scuttling limbs of an undead creature from a horror movie’.

Perhaps the most extraordinary survival yet found was that of a Streptococcus bacterium that
was recovered from the sealed lens of a camera that had stood on the Moon for two years. In
short, there are few environments in which bacteria aren’t prepared to live. ‘They are finding
now that when they push probes into ocean vents so hot that the probes actually start to melt,
there are bacteria even there’, Victoria Bennett told me.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 149


In the 1920s two scientists at the University of Chicago, Edson Bastin and Frank Greer,
announced that they had isolated from oil wells strains of bacteria that had been living at depths
of 600 metres. The notion was dismissed as fundamentally preposterous – there was nothing to
live on at 600 metres – and for fifty years it was assumed that their samples had been
contaminated with surface microbes. We now know that there are a lot of microbes living deep
within the Earth, many of which have nothing at all to do with the conventionally organic
world. They eat rocks or, rather, the stuff that’s in rocks – iron, sulphur, manganese and so on.
And they breathe odd things too – iron, chromium, cobalt, even uranium. Such processes may
be instrumental in concentrating gold, copper and other precious metals, and possibly deposits
of oil and natural gas. It has even been sug gested that their tireless nibblings created the Earth’s
crust.

Some scientists now think that there could be as much as 100 trillion tonnes of bacteria living
beneath our feet in what are known as subsurface lithoautotrophic microbial ecosystems –
SLiME for short. Thomas Gold of Cornell University has estimated that if you took all the
bacteria out of the Earth’s interior and dumped them on the surface, they would cover the planet
to a depth of 15 metres – the height of a four-storey building. If the estimates are correct, there
could be more life under the Earth than on top of it.

At depth, microbes shrink in size and become extremely sluggish. The liveliest of them may
divide no more than once a century, some no more than perhaps once in five hundred years. As
The Economist has put it: ‘The key to long life, it seems, is not to do too much.’ When things
are really tough, bacteria are prepared to shut down all systems and wait for better times. In
1997 scientists successfully activated some anthrax spores that had lain dormant for eighty years
in a museum display in Trondheim, Norway. Other microorganisms have leaped back to life
after being released from a 118-year-old can of meat and a 166-year-old bottle of beer. In 1996,
scientists at the Russian Academy of Science claimed to have revived bacteria frozen in
Siberian permafrost for three million years. But the record claim for durability so far is one
made by Russell Vreeland and colleagues at West Chester University in Pennsylvania in 2000,
when they announced that they had resuscitated 250 million-year-old bacteria called Bacillus
permians that had been trapped in salt deposits 600 metres underground in Carlsbad, New
Mexico. If so, this microbe is older than the continents.

The report met with some understandable dubiousness. Many biochemists maintained that over
such a span the microbe’s components would have become uselessly degraded unless the
bacterium roused itself from time to time. However, if the bacterium did stir occasionally, there
was no plausible internal source of energy that could have lasted so long. The more doubtful
scientists suggested that the sample might have been contaminated, if not during its retrieval
then perhaps while still buried. In 2001, a team from Tel Aviv University argued that B.
permians was almost identical to a strain of modern bacteria, Bacillus marismortui, found in the
Dead Sea. Only two of its genetic sequences differed, and then only slightly.

‘Are we to believe’, the Israeli researchers wrote, ‘that in 250 million years B. permians has
accumulated the same amount of genetic differences that could be achieved in just 3–7 days in
the laboratory?’ In reply, Vreeland suggested that ‘bacteria evolve faster in the lab than they do
in the wild.’

Maybe.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 150


It is a remarkable fact that well into the space age, most school textbooks divided the world of
the living into just two categories – plant and animal. Micro-organisms hardly featured.
Amoebas and similar single-celled organisms were treated as proto-animals and algae as proto-
plants. Bacteria were usually lumped in with plants, too, even though everyone knew they didn’t
belong there. As far back as the late nineteenth century the German naturalist Ernst Haeckel had
suggested that bacteria deserved to be placed in a separate kingdom, which he called Monera,
but the idea didn’t begin to catch on among biologists until the 1960s, and then only among
some of them. (I note that my trusty American Heritage desk dictionary from 1969 doesn’t
recognize the term.)

Many organisms in the visible world were also poorly served by the traditional division. Fungi,
the group that includes mushrooms, moulds, mildews, yeasts and puffballs, were nearly always
treated as botanical objects, though in fact almost nothing about them – how they reproduce and
respire, how they build themselves – matches anything in the plant world. Structurally, they
have more in common with animals in that they build their cells from chitin, a material that
gives them their distinctive texture. The same substance is used to make the shells of insects and
the claws of mammals, though it isn’t nearly so tasty in a stag beetle as in a Portobello
mushroom. Above all, unlike all plants, fungi don’t photosynthesize, so they have no
chlorophyll and thus are not green. Instead they grow directly on their food source, which can
be almost anything. Fungi will eat the sulphur off a concrete wall or the decaying matter
between your toes – two things no plant will do. Almost the only plant-like quality they have is
that they root.

Even less comfortably susceptible to categorization was the peculiar group of organisms
formally called myxomycetes but more commonly known as slime moulds. The name no doubt
has much to do with their obscurity. An appellation that sounded a little more dynamic –
‘ambulant self-activating protoplasm’, say – and less like the stuff you find when you reach
deep into a clogged drain would almost certainly have earned these extraordinary entities a
more immediate share of the attention they deserve, for slime moulds are, make no mistake,
among the most interesting organisms in nature. When times are good, they exist as one-celled
individuals, much like amoebas. But when conditions grow tough, they crawl to a central
gathering place and become, almost miraculously, a slug. The slug is not a thing of beauty and it
doesn’t go terribly far – usually just from the bottom of a pile of leaf litter to the top, where it is
in a slightly more exposed position – but for millions of years this may well have been the
niftiest trick in the universe.

And it doesn’t stop there. Having hauled itself up to a more favourable locale, the slime mould
transforms itself yet again, taking on the form of a plant. By some curious orderly process the
cells reconfigure, like the members of a tiny marching band, to make a stalk atop of which
forms a bulb known as a fruiting body. Inside the fruiting body are millions of spores which, at
the appropriate moment, are released to the wind to blow away to become single-celled
organisms that can start the process again.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 151


For years, slime moulds were claimed as protozoa by zoologists and as fungi by mycologists,
though most people could see they didn’t really belong anywhere. When genetic testing arrived,
people in lab coats were surprised to find that slime moulds were so distinctive and peculiar that
they weren’t directly related to anything else in nature, and sometimes not even to each other.

In 1969, in an attempt to bring some order to the growing inadequacies of classification, an


ecologist from Cornell named R. H. Whittaker unveiled in the journal Science a proposal to
divide life into five principal branches – kingdoms, as they are known – called Animalia,
Plantae, Fungi, Protista and Monera. Protista was a modification of an earlier term, Protoctista,
which had been suggested a century earlier by a Scottish biologist named John Hogg, and was
meant to describe any organisms that were neither plant nor animal.

Though Whittaker’s new scheme was a great improvement, Protista remained ill defined. Some
taxonomists reserved the term for large unicellular organisms – the eukaryotes – but others
treated it as the kind of odd-sock drawer of biology, putting into it anything that didn’t fit
anywhere else. It included (depending on which text you consulted) slime moulds, amoebas,
even seaweed, among much else. By one calculation it contained as many as two hundred
thousand different species of organism all told. That’s a lot of odd socks.

Ironically, just as Whittaker’s five-kingdom classification was beginning to find its way into
textbooks, an unassuming academic at the University of Illinois was groping his way towards a
discovery that would challenge everything. His name was Carl Woese (rhymes with rose) and
since the mid-1960s – or about as early as it was possible to do so – he had been quietly
studying genetic sequences in bacteria. In the early days, this was an exceedingly painstaking
process. Work on a single bacterium could easily consume a year. At that time, according to
Woese, only about five hundred species of bacteria were known, which is fewer than the
number of species you have in your mouth. Today the number is about ten times that, though
that is still far short of the 26,900 species of algae, 70,000 of fungi, and 30,800 of amoebas and
related organisms whose biographies fill the annals of biology.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 152


It isn’t simple indifference that keeps the total low. Bacteria can be exasperatingly difficult to
isolate and study. Only about 1 per cent will grow in culture. Considering how wildly adaptable
they are in nature, it is an odd fact that the one place they seem not to wish to live is a petri dish.
Plop them on a bed of agar and pamper them as you will, and most will just lie there, declining
every inducement to bloom. Any bacterium that thrives in a lab is by definition exceptional, and
yet these were, almost exclusively, the organisms studied by microbiologists. It was, said
Woese, ‘like learning about animals from visiting zoos’.

Genes, however, allowed Woese to approach micro organisms from another angle. As he
worked, Woese realized that there were more fundamental divisions in the microbial world than
anyone suspected. A lot of little organisms that looked like bacteria and behaved like bacteria
were actually something else altogether – something that had branched off from bacteria a long
time ago. Woese called these organisms archaebacteria, later shortened to archaea.

It has to be said that the attributes that distinguish archaea from bacteria are not the sort that
would quicken the pulse of any but a biologist. They are mostly differences in their lipids and
an absence of something called peptidoglycan. But in practice they make a world of difference.
Archaea are more different from bacteria than you and I are from a crab or spider.
Singlehandedly, Woese had discovered an unsuspected division of life, so fundamental that it
stood above the level of kingdom at the apogee of the Universal Tree of Life, as it is rather
reverentially known.

In 1976 he startled the world – or at least the little bit of it that was paying attention – by
redrawing the Tree of Life to incorporate not five main divisions, but twenty-three. These he
grouped under three new principal categories – Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya (sometimes
spelled Eucarya) – which he called domains. The new arrangement was as follows:

• Bacteria: cyanobacteria, purple bacteria, gram-positive bacteria, green non-sulphur


bacteria, flavobacteria and thermotogales
• Archaea: halophilic archaeans, methanosarcina, methanobacterium, methanoncoccus,
thermoceler, thermoproteus and pyrodictium
• Eukarya: diplomads, microsporidia, trichomonads, flagellates, entameba, slime moulds,
ciliates, plants, fungi and animals

City and Islington Sixth Form College 153


Woese’s new divisions did not take the biological world by storm. Some dismissed his system
as much too heavily weighted towards the microbial. Many just ignored it. Woese, according to
Frances Ashcroft, ‘felt bitterly disappointed’. But slowly his new scheme began to catch on
among microbiologists. Botanists and zoologists were much slower to appreciate its virtues. It’s
not hard to see why. In Woese’s model, the worlds of botany and zoology are relegated to a few
twigs on the outermost branch of the Eukaryan limb. Everything else belongs to unicellular
beings.

‘These folks were brought up to classify in terms of gross morphological similarities and
differences,’ Woese told an interviewer in 1996. ‘The idea of doing so in terms of molecular
sequence is a bit hard for many of them to swallow.’ In short, if they couldn’t see a difference
with their own eyes, they didn’t like it. And so they persisted with the more conventional five-
kingdom division – an arrangement that Woese called ‘not very useful’ in his milder moments
and ‘positively misleading’ much of the rest of the time. ‘Biology, like physics before it,’
Woese wrote, ‘has moved to a level where the objects of interest and their interactions often
cannot be perceived through direct observation.’

In 1998 the great and ancient Harvard zoologist Ernst Mayr (who then was in his ninety-fourth
year and at the time of my writing is nearing one hundred and still going strong) stirred the pot
further by declaring that there should be just two prime divisions of life – ‘empires’ he called
them. In a paper published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Mayr said
that Woese’s findings were interesting but ultimately misguided, noting that ‘Woese was not
trained as a biologist and quite naturally does not have an extensive familiarity with the
principles of classification,’ which is perhaps as close as one distinguished scientist can come to
saying of another that he doesn’t know what he is talking about.

The specifics of Mayr’s criticisms are highly technical – they involve issues of meiotic
sexuality, Hennigian cladification and controversial interpretations of the genome of
Methanobacterium thermoautrophicum, among rather a lot else – but essentially he argues that
Woese’s arrangement unbalances the Tree of Life. The bacterial realm, Mayr notes, consists of
no more than a few thousand species while the archaean has a mere 175 named specimens, with
perhaps a few thousand more to be found – ‘but hardly more than that’. By contrast, the
eukaryotic realm – that is, the complicated organisms with nucleated cells, like us – numbers
already in the millions of species. For the sake of ‘the principle of balance’, Mayr argues for
combining the simple bacterial organisms in a single category, Prokaryota, while placing the
more complex and ‘highly evolved’ remainder in the empire Eukaryota, which would stand
alongside as an equal. Put another way, he argues for keeping things much as they were before.
This division between simple cells and complex cells ‘is where the great break is in the living
world’.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 154


If Woese’s new arrangement teaches us anything it is that life really is various and that most of
that variety is small, unicellular and unfamiliar. It is a natural human impulse to think of
evolution as a long chain of improvements, of a never-ending advance towards largeness and
complexity – in a word, towards us. We flatter ourselves. Most of the real diversity in evolution
has been small-scale. We large things are just flukes – an interesting side branch. Of the twenty-
three main divisions of life, only three – plants, animals and fungi – are large enough to be seen
by the human eye, and even they contain species that are microscopic. Indeed, according to
Woese, if you totalled up all the biomass of the planet – every living thing, plants included –
microbes would account for at least 80 per cent of all there is, perhaps more. The world belongs
to the very small – and it has done for a very long time.

So why, you are bound to ask at some point in your life, do microbes so often want to hurt us?
What possible satisfaction could there be to a microbe in having us grow feverish or chilled, or
disfigured with sores, or above all deceased? A dead host, after all, is hardly going to provide
long-term hospitality.

To begin with, it is worth remembering that most micro organisms are neutral or even beneficial
to human well-being. The most rampantly infectious organism on Earth, a bacterium called
Wolbachia, doesn’t hurt humans at all – or, come to that, any other vertebrates – but if you are a
shrimp or worm or fruit fly, it can make you wish you had never been born. Altogether, only
about one microbe in a thousand is a pathogen for humans, according to the National
Geographic – though, knowing what some of them can do, we could be forgiven for thinking
that that is quite enough. Even if most of them are benign, microbes are still the number three
killer in the Western world – and even many that don’t kill us make us deeply rue their
existence.

Making a host unwell has certain benefits for the microbe. The symptoms of an illness often
help to spread the disease. Vomiting, sneezing and diarrhoea are excellent methods of getting
out of one host and into position for boarding another. The most effective strategy of all is to
enlist the help of a mobile third party. Infectious organisms love mosquitoes because the
mosquito’s sting delivers them directly into a bloodstream where they can get straight to work
before the victim’s defence mechanisms can figure out what’s hit them. This is why so many
grade A diseases – malaria, yellow fever, dengue fever, encephalitis and a hundred or so other
less celebrated but often rapacious maladies – begin with a mosquito bite. It is a fortunate fluke
for us that HIV, the AIDS agent, isn’t among them – at least not yet. Any HIV the mosquito
sucks up on its travels is dissolved by the mosquito’s own metabolism. When the day comes
that the virus mutates its way around this, we may be in real trouble.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 155


It is a mistake, however, to consider the matter too carefully from the position of logic because
microorganisms clearly are not calculating entities. They don’t care what they do to you any
more than you care what distress you cause when you slaughter them by the millions with a
soapy shower or a swipe of deodorant. The only time your continuing well-being is of
consequence to a pathogen is when it kills you too well. If they eliminate you before they can
move on, then they may well die out themselves. History, Jared Diamond notes, is full of
diseases that ‘once caused terrifying epidemics and then disappeared as mysteriously as they
had come’. He cites the robust but mercifully transient English sweating sickness, which raged
from 1485 to 1552, killing tens of thousands as it went, before burning itself out. Too much
efficiency is not a good thing for any infectious organism.

A great deal of sickness arises not because of what the organism has done to you but because of
what your body is trying to do to the organism. In its quest to rid the body of pathogens, the
immune system sometimes destroys cells or damages critical tissues, so often when you are
unwell what you are feeling is not the pathogens but your own immune responses. Anyway,
getting sick is a sensible response to infection. Sick people retire to their beds and thus are less
of a threat to the wider community.

Because there are so many things out there with the potential to hurt you, your body holds lots
of different varieties of defensive white blood cells – some ten million types in all, each
designed to identify and destroy a particular sort of invader. It would be impossibly inefficient
to maintain ten million separate standing armies, so each variety of white blood cell keeps only
a few scouts on active duty.

When an infectious agent – what’s known as an antigen – invades, relevant scouts identify the
attacker and put out a call for reinforcements of the right type. While your body is
manufacturing these forces, you are likely to feel wretched. The onset of recovery begins when
the troops finally swing into action.

White cells are merciless and will hunt down and kill every last pathogen they can find. To
avoid extinction, attackers have evolved two elemental strategies. Either they strike quickly and
move on to a new host, as with common infectious illnesses like flu, or they disguise themselves
so that the white cells fail to spot them, as with HIV, the virus responsible for AIDS, which can
sit harmlessly and unnoticed in the nuclei of cells for years before springing into action.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 156


One of the odder aspects of infection is that microbes that normally do no harm at all sometimes
get into the wrong parts of the body and ‘go kind of crazy’, in the words of Dr Bryan Marsh, an
infectious diseases specialist at Dartmouth–Hitchcock Medical Center in Lebanon, New
Hampshire. ‘It happens all the time with car accidents when people suffer internal injuries.
Microbes that are normally benign in the gut get into other parts of the body – the bloodstream,
for instance – and cause terrible havoc.’

The scariest, most out-of-control bacterial disorder of the moment is a disease called necrotizing
fasciitis in which bacteria essentially eat the victim from the inside out, devouring internal tissue
and leaving behind a pulpy, noxious residue. Patients often come in with comparatively mild
complaints – a skin rash and fever, typically – but then dramatically deteriorate. When they are
opened up it is often found that they are simply being consumed. The only treatment is what is
known as ‘radical excisional surgery’ – cutting out every bit of infected area. Seventy per cent
of victims die; many of the rest are left terribly disfigured. The source of the infection is a
mundane family of bacteria called Group A Streptococcus, which normally do no more than
cause strep throat. Very occasionally, for reasons unknown, some of these bacteria get through
the lining of the throat and into the body proper, where they wreak the most devastating havoc.
They are completely resistant to antibiotics. About a thousand cases a year occur in the United
States and no-one can say that it won’t get worse.

Precisely the same thing happens with meningitis. At least 10 per cent of young adults, and
perhaps 30 per cent of teenagers, carry the deadly meningococcal bacterium, but it lives quite
harmlessly in the throat. Just occasionally – in about one young person in a hundred thousand –
it gets into the bloodstream and makes them very ill indeed. In the worst cases, death can come
in twelve hours. That’s shockingly quick. ‘You can have a person who’s in perfect health at
breakfast and dead by evening,’ says Marsh.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 157


We would have much more success with bacteria if we weren’t so profligate with our best
weapon against them: antibiotics. Remarkably, by one estimate some 70 per cent of the
antibiotics used in the developed world are given to farm animals, often routinely in stock feed,
simply to promote growth or as a precaution against infection. Such applications give bacteria
every opportunity to evolve a resistance to them. It is an opportunity that they have
enthusiastically seized.

In 1952, penicillin was fully effective against all strains of staphylococcus bacteria, to such an
extent that by the early 1960s the US surgeon-general, William Stewart, felt confident enough
to declare: ‘The time has come to close the book on infectious diseases. We have basically
wiped out infection in the United States.’ Even as he spoke, however, some 90 per cent of those
strains were in the process of developing immunity to penicillin. Soon one of these new strains,
called methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus, began to show up in hospitals. Only one type
of antibiotic, vanomycin, remained effective against it, but in 1997 a hospital in Tokyo reported
the appearance of a strain that could resist even that. Within months it had spread to six other
Japanese hospitals. All over, the microbes are beginning to win the war again: in US hospitals
alone, some fourteen thousand people a year die from infections they pick up there. As James
Surowiecki noted in a New Yorker article, given a choice between developing antibiotics that
people will take every day for two weeks and antidepressants that people will take every day for
ever, drug companies not surprisingly opt for the latter. Although a few antibiotics have been
toughened up a bit, the pharmaceutical industry hasn’t given us an entirely new antibiotic since
the 1970s.

Our carelessness is all the more alarming since the discovery that many other ailments may be
bacterial in origin. The process of discovery began in 1983 when Barry Marshall, a doctor in
Perth, Western Australia, found that many stomach cancers and most stomach ulcers are caused
by a bacterium called Helicobacter pylori. Even though his findings were easily tested, the
notion was so radical that more than a decade would pass before they were generally accepted.
America’s National Institutes of Health, for instance, didn’t officially endorse the idea until
1994. ‘Hundreds, even thousands of people must have died from ulcers who wouldn’t have,’
Marshall told a reporter from Forbes in 1999.

Since then, further research has shown that there is or may well be a bacterial component in all
kinds of other disorders – heart disease, asthma, arthritis, multiple sclerosis, several types of
mental disorders, many cancers, even, it has been suggested (in Science no less), obesity. The
day may not be far off when we desperately require an effective antibiotic and haven’t got one
to call on.

It may come as a slight comfort to know that bacteria can themselves get sick. They are
sometimes infected by bacteriophages (or simply phages), a type of virus. A virus is a strange
and unlovely entity – ‘a piece of nucleic acid surrounded by bad news’ in the memorable phrase
of the Nobel laureate Peter Medawar. Smaller and simpler than bacteria, viruses aren’t
themselves alive. In isolation they are inert and harmless. But introduce them into a suitable
host and they burst into busyness – into life. About five thousand types of virus are known, and
between them they afflict us with many hundreds of diseases, ranging from the flu and common
cold to those that are most invidious to human well-being: smallpox, rabies, yellow fever,
Ebola, polio and AIDS.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 158


Viruses prosper by hijacking the genetic material of a living cell, and using it to produce more
virus. They reproduce in a fanatical manner, then burst out in search of more cells to invade.
Not being living organisms themselves, they can afford to be very simple. Many, including
HIV, have ten genes or fewer, whereas even the simplest bacteria require several thousand.
They are also very tiny, much too small to be seen with a conventional microscope. It wasn’t
until 1943 and the invention of the electron microscope that science got its first look at them.
But they can do immense damage. Smallpox in the twentieth century alone killed an estimated
300 million people.

They also have an unnerving capacity to burst upon the world in some new and startling form
and then to vanish again as quickly as they came. In 1916, in one such case, people in Europe
and America began to come down with a strange sleeping sickness, which became known as
encephalitis lethargica. Victims would go to sleep and not wake up. They could be roused
without great difficulty to take food or go to the lavatory, and would answer questions sensibly
– they knew who and where they were – though their manner was always apathetic. However,
the moment they were permitted to rest, they would at once sink back into deepest slumber and
remain in that state for as long as they were left. Some went on in this manner for months before
dying. A very few survived and regained consciousness but not their former liveliness. They
existed in a state of profound apathy, ‘like extinct volcanoes’, in the words of one doctor. In ten
years the disease killed some five million people and then quietly went away. It didn’t get much
lasting attention because in the meantime an even worse epidemic – indeed, the worst in history
– swept across the world.

It is sometimes called the Great Swine Flu epidemic and sometimes the Great Spanish Flu
epidemic, but in either case it was ferocious. The First World War killed 21 million people in
four years; swine flu did the same in its first four months. Almost 80 per cent of American
casualties in the First World War came not from enemy fire, but from flu. In some units the
mortality rate was as high as 80 per cent.

Swine flu arose as a normal, non-lethal flu in the spring of 1918, but somehow, over the
following months – no-one knows how or where – it mutated into something more severe. A
fifth of victims suffered only mild symptoms, but the rest became gravely ill and many died.
Some succumbed within hours; others held on for a few days.

In the United States, the first deaths were recorded among sailors in Boston in late August 1918,
but the epidemic quickly spread to all parts of the country. Schools closed, public
entertainments were shut down, people everywhere wore masks. It did little good. Between
autumn 1918 and spring the following year, 548,452 people died of the flu in America. The toll
in Britain was 220,000, with similar numbers in France and Germany. No-one knows the global
toll, as records in the third world were often poor, but it was not less than twenty million and
probably more like fifty million. Some estimates have put the global total as high as a hundred
million.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 159


In an attempt to devise a vaccine, medical authorities conducted experiments on volunteers at a
military prison on Deer Island in Boston Harbor. The prisoners were promised pardons if they
survived a battery of tests. These tests were rigorous to say the least. First, the subjects were
injected with infected lung tissue taken from the dead and then sprayed in the eyes, nose and
mouth with infectious aerosols. If they still failed to succumb, they had their throats swabbed
with discharges taken straight from the sick and dying. If all else failed, they were required to sit
open-mouthed while a gravely ill victim was sat up slightly and made to cough into their faces.

Out of – somewhat amazingly – three hundred men who volunteered, the doctors chose sixty-
two for the tests. None contracted the flu – not one. The only person who did grow ill was the
ward doctor, who swiftly died. The probable explanation for this is that the epidemic had passed
through the prison a few weeks earlier and the volunteers, all of whom had survived that
visitation, had a natural immunity.

Much about the 1918 flu epidemic is understood poorly or not at all. One mystery is how it
erupted suddenly, all over, in places separated by oceans, mountain ranges and other earthly
impediments. A virus can survive for no more than a few hours outside a host body, so how
could it appear in Madrid, Bombay and Philadelphia all in the same week?

The probable answer is that it was incubated and spread by people who had only slight
symptoms or none at all. Even in normal outbreaks, about 10 per cent of people in any given
population have the flu but are unaware of it because they experience no ill effects. And because
they remain in circulation they tend to be the great spreaders of the disease.

That would account for the 1918 outbreak’s widespread distribution, but it still doesn’t explain
how it managed to lie low for several months before erupting so explosively at more or less the
same time all over. Even more mysterious is that it was most devastating to people in the prime
of life. Flu normally is hardest on infants and the elderly, but in the 1918 outbreak deaths were
overwhelmingly among people in their twenties and thirties. Older people may have benefited
from resistance gained from an earlier exposure to the same strain, but why the very young were
similarly spared is unknown. The greatest mystery of all is why the 1918 flu was so ferociously
deadly when most flus are not. We still have no idea.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 160


From time to time certain strains of virus return. A disagreeable Russian virus known as H1N1
caused severe outbreaks over wide areas in 1933, then again in the 1950s and yet again in the
1970s. Where it went in the meantime each time is uncertain. One suggestion is that viruses
hide out unnoticed in populations of wild animals before trying their hand at a new generation
of humans. No-one can rule out the possibility that the great swine flu epidemic might once
again rear its head.

And if it doesn’t, others well might. New and frightening viruses crop up all the time. Ebola,
Lassa and Marburg fevers all have tended to flare up and die down again, but no-one can say
that they aren’t quietly mutating away somewhere, or simply awaiting the right opportunity to
burst forth in a catastrophic manner. It is now apparent that AIDS has been among us much
longer than anyone originally suspected. Researchers at the Manchester Royal Infirmary
discovered that a sailor who had died of mysterious, untreatable causes in 1959 in fact had
AIDS. Yet, for whatever reasons, the disease remained generally quiescent for another twenty
years.

The miracle is that other such diseases haven’t gone rampant. Lassa fever, which wasn’t first
detected until 1969 in West Africa, is extremely virulent and little understood. In 1969, a doctor
at a Yale University lab in New Haven, Connecticut, who was studying Lassa fever came down
with it. He survived, but, more alarmingly, a technician in a nearby lab, with no direct exposure,
also contracted the disease and died.

Happily the outbreak stopped there, but we can’t count on always being so fortunate. Our
lifestyles invite epidemics. Air travel makes it possible to spread infectious agents across the
planet with amazing ease. An Ebola virus could begin the day in, say, Benin, and finish it in
New York or Hamburg or Nairobi, or all three. It means also that medical authorities
increasingly need to be acquainted with pretty much every malady that exists everywhere, but of
course they are not. In 1990, a Nigerian living in Chicago was exposed to Lassa fever on a visit
to his homeland, but didn’t develop symptoms until he had returned to the United States. He
died in a Chicago hospital without diagnosis and without anyone taking any special precautions
in treating him, unaware that he had one of the most lethal and infectious diseases on the planet.
Miraculously, no-one else was infected. We may not be so lucky next time.

And on that sobering note, it’s time to return to the world of the visibly living.

© Bill Bryson, published by Black Swan, a division of Transworld Publishers. All rights reserved. Reprinted by
permission of Random House Group Ltd.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 161


Use the information from the article, and your own knowledge, to answer the following
questions.

(a) With reference to evidence in the article, explain why it can be argued that bacteria
represent the most dominant group of organisms in the world.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(4)

(b) (i) Outline the principles underlying Woese’s three domain system of
taxonomy: Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 162


(ii) Suggest why the three domain system proposed by Woese has not been adopted by
all biologists.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(c) Give two key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

(d) Explain what Margulis and Sagan meant by ‘all bacteria swim in a single gene pool’.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 163


(e) Explain why it is often your immune system that makes you ‘feel wretched’ rather than
the disease.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(3)

(f) Explain why methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has developed so


quickly.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(4)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 164


(g) Suggest why the Ebola virus has not yet caused a global epidemic.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 20 marks)

101. Data for use with the questions that follow.

Figure 1. Microscopic phytoplankton.


Phytoplankton are microscopic single-celled plant-like organisms which live in
vast numbers in the sea floating just below the surface where they carry out
photosynthesis.
Marine phytoplankton account for over 50% of the world’s primary
productivity.

Figure 2. Calanus is a herbivorous small animal which makes up most of the zooplankton
of the North Sea and feeds on phytoplankton. Calanus appears in the North Sea
in March and starts to breed, but its numbers do not reach a maximum until
July. Between late August to early October they leave the North Sea and return
to the deep waters of the North Atlantic Ocean to spend the winter. Calanus are
the main food source of many small fish as well as the young of larger fish such
as herring and cod.

City and Islington Sixth Form College 165


Figure 3. Sandeels.
Sandeels are small fish which make up almost a half of the mass of fish in the
North Sea. They feed on zooplankton, particularly Calanus. They are an
important part of the diet of many of the larger fish such as cod and herrings
caught for human food. Sandeels are also important in the diet of many sea
birds such as puffins and kittiwakes. Sandeels are caught in vast numbers to
make fish-meal food used for farm animals.

Figure 4. Productivity due to phytoplankton in North Sea over a twelve month


period.

3 5

3 0
–2
P rim a ry p ro d u c tiv ity / g C m

2 5
m o n th ly to ta l

2 0

1 5

1 0

0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
M o n t h

City and Islington Sixth Form College 166


Figure 5. Mean sea surface temperature of the North Sea over a twelve month
period.

2 0

1 8

1 6
M e a n m o n th ly s e a te m p e ra tu re

1 4

1 2
d e g re e s C

1 0

0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
M o n t h

Figure 6. Breeding stock biomass of two species of fish in the North Sea. Herring stocks
fell so low that from 1978 until 1982, fishing for this species in the North Sea
was banned. In 2000 the EU negotiated a reduction in fishing for cod but
scientists believed that the ‘fishing quotas’ agreed by the EU were too high to
allow cod to recover to a sustainable level.

2 , 5 0 0 C o d
H e r r i n g
2 , 0 0 0
b io m a s s / to n n e s
T o ta l b re e d in g

1 , 5 0 0

1 , 0 0 0

5 0 0

0
1 9 61 39 6 1 99 7 1 5 9 81 19 8 1 7 9 91 39 9 2 90 0 5
Y e a r

City and Islington Sixth Form College 167


Figure 7. Location map.

ay
rw
No
N o r t h
S e a

U K

Acknowledgements

Based on data in ‘Phytoplankton, biomass and production in the southern North Sea’.
Joint, I. and Pomroy, A. (1993) Marine Ecology Progress Series. 99: 169–182.

Based on Zhihong Li, Holt M. and Osborne, J. (2000) ‘A baroclinic model of the NW European
shelf seas’. http://www.google.co.uk/search?sourceid=navclient&ie=UTF-
8&rls=GGLG,GGLG:2006-16,GGLG:en&q=north+sea+temperature+annual+cycle

http://www.aslo.org/photopost/showphoto.php?photo=1007&papass=&sort=1&thecat=500

http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=367

City and Islington Sixth Form College 168


Read and use the data above, and your own knowledge, to answer the following questions.

(a) (i) Construct an appropriate food web diagram to show the feeding
relationships between the organisms referred to in the data booklet and which
shows the trophic levels each organism occupies.

(3)

(ii) Explain why the total biomass of cod in the North Sea is normally much less than
the total biomass of sand eels.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) (i) Suggest two advantages to the phytoplankton of being concentrated


just below the sea surface (Figures 1 and 4).

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 169


(ii) Like land plants, phytoplankton require mineral salts. Suggest why phosphates are
essential for the growth of phytoplankton.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(c) (i) In Figure 4, the units used to express primary productivity are
abbreviated as
gCm–2. Given that ‘C’ stands for organic carbon and the other letters are common
–2
metric units, suggest what gCm stands for by writing it out in full.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) With reference to Figures 4 and 5, discuss the extent to which mean sea surface
temperature controls the primary productivity of phytoplankton.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(3)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 170


(iii) Measurements show that the mean light intensity for the months May and July is
the same, but the mean sea surface temperature is 8oC higher in July than in May.
Suggest why, in spite of this, primary productivity is similar in these two months.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(d) The numbers of Calanus in the North Sea have been decreasing since 1960 and there is
some evidence that this may be due to climate change. The distribution of Calanus
finmarchicus, one of the most abundant species, seems to be shifting northwards,
becoming more common off the coast of Norway. Suggest why Calanus may not succeed
so well in warmer water.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 171


(e) (i) There are several reasons why commercially important stocks of fish,
such as cod and herring, are under threat in the North Sea. Using information in
Figure 6 explain why over-fishing by humans is almost certainly part of the
problem.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(ii) Nets used by fishermen in the North Sea are required to have a mesh size which
catches larger fish but allows the smaller (younger) fish to escape. This acts as a
selection pressure on the cod population. Explain the effects this selection pressure
might have on the phenotypes of these cod in future generations.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 20 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 172


102. (a) The diagrams A and B below show cells from the same organism. Both cells are in
the same stage of nuclear division. One cell is undergoing mitosis and the other cell is
undergoing meiosis.

(i) Which cell is undergoing mitosis? Put a cross in the correct box.

A B
(1)

(ii) Give the name of the structure labelled Z.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(iii) Name the stage of mitosis shown.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 173


(b) Describe how you would prepare cells in order to observe mitosis.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 7 marks)

103. (a) Independent assortment and crossing over both result in genetic variation.

(i) Explain how independent assortment leads to genetic variation.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(ii) Describe how crossing over further increases genetic variation.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 174


(b) The graph below shows changes in mean height of men in Japan from 1950 to 1980.

1 7 3

1 7 2
M e a n h e i g h t
o f m e n 1a 7g 1e d 2 0
/ c m
1 7 0

1 6 9

1 6 8

1 6 7

1 6 6

1 6 5

1 6 4

1 6 3
1 9 4 5 1 9 5 0 1 9 5 5 1 9 6 0
Y e a r

Describe the changes in height between 1950 and 1980.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 175


(c) The graph below shows changes in the major components of the diet of men in Japan
over the same period.

R e la tiv e p r o p o r tio n o f d ie ta r y c o m p o n e n t /
8 0

7 0

6 0

5 0
c a r b o h y d r a t e
4 0 f a t
3 0 a n i m a l p r o t e i n
a r b itr a r y u n its

2 0

1 0

0
1 9 5 0 1 9 6 0 1 9 7 0 1 9 8 0
Y e a r

The evidence from both graphs suggests that a combination of genetic and environmental
factors influence the height of men in Japan. Give an explanation for this.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 10 marks)

104. (a) The diagram below shows a view through a typical animal cell.

The table below lists three organelles. Put a cross in the box to match each organelle with
the correct letter shown on the diagram.

Organelle A B C D E

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Mitochondrion

Golgi apparatus
(3)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 176


(b) For some time after the Golgi apparatus was identified, there was doubt as to whether it
was a new and separate organelle. Explain how the Golgi apparatus could be confused
with other organelles within a cell.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(3)

(c) In an experiment to investigate the role of organelles in protein transport, cells were given
radioactively-labelled amino acids for a fixed period of time. The percentage of the
radioactivity found in four different organelles was then measured at different time
intervals. The table below shows the results.

Time after adding Radioactivity present / %


radioactively-labelled Rough
amino acid / min Golgi Secretory
endoplasmic Mitochondria
apparatus vesicles
reticulum
4 67 27 1 3
6 53 39 2 1
20 11 73 10 3
240 11 10 73 2

(i) The data provide evidence that the Golgi apparatus is a separate organelle.
Suggest an explanation for this.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 177


(ii) Explain how the data provide evidence for the sequence of events in the process of
protein transport in these cells.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(4)

(iii) Suggest one reason for the presence of some radioactivity detected in the
mitochondria.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 13 marks)

105. (a) Three structures found in mammalian sperm cells are described in the table below.
Give the name of each structure being described.

Description Structure
Releases digestive enzymes to penetrate egg
Allows the sperm to swim to the egg cell
Provides the energy required for swimming
(3)

(b) Give the term that describes the ability of a stem cell from an embryo to produce all cell
types.

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 178


(c) Describe how a cell loses the ability to produce other cell types and becomes specialised.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(3)

(d) Embryos have been produced from human egg cells which have not been fertilised by
sperm. These embryos never survive past a few days. This is because some of the genes
needed for development are only active in chromosomes from the sperm.

It has been suggested that there will be less opposition to the medical use of stem cells
from these embryos than from normal embryos. Suggest reasons for this.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 10 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 179


106. Taxonomy is the branch of biology concerned with the classification of organisms. In the
taxonomic system first developed by Linnaeus, organisms are given a two-part Latin name.

(a) State one advantage of the binomial system developed by Linnaeus.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)

(b) The table below shows the classification of the blue whale, Balaenoptera musculus
together with some of the classification of the fin whale, Balaenoptera physalus.

Complete the table by suggesting appropriate names for the class, order and family of the
fin whale.

Classification taxon Blue whale Fin whale


Kingdom Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordata Chordata
Class Mammalia
Order Cetacea
Family Balaenopteridae
Genus Balaenoptera Balaenoptera
Species Balaenoptera musculus Balaenoptera physalus
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 180


(c) Below are four features, A, B, C and D, used in the classification of organisms. Put a
cross in the box or boxes next to the features which are shared by both blue whales and
fin whales.

A – feed by heterotrophism on organic material

B – multicellular

C – cells surrounded by cell wall

D – cytoplasm of cells contain circular DNA


(2)

(d) Suggest reasons for the classification of the blue whale and the fin whale within the same
genus, Balaenoptera, but as different species.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 7 marks)

107. (a) State what is meant by the term species richness.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 181


(b) In a survey, the mean species richness for the vegetation found in roadside verges and
hedgerows in England and Wales was measured in 1990 and again in 1998. The results of
this survey are shown in the graphs below.

1 7 . 5

1 7 . 0

1 6 . 5
S p ec ie s r ic h n ess

1 6 . 0

1 5 . 5

1 5 . 0

1 4 . 5

1 4 . 0
1 9 9 0
R o a d s i d e v e r g e s

1 4 . 5

1 4 . 0

1 3 . 5
S p ecie s r ich n ess

1 3 . 0

1 2 . 5

1 2 . 0

1 1 . 5
1 9 9 0
H e d g e r o w s

City and Islington Sixth Form College 182


Compare the species richness shown by the survey for the vegetation in the roadside
verges with that of the hedgerows over this study period.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(3)

(c) Other information would be needed, in addition to species richness, to measure the
biodiversity of the vegetation in the two types of habitat. Give an explanation for this.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(3)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 183


(d) Seed banks, such as the Millennium Seed Bank Project (MSBP), are an effective means
of conserving plant species.

Write a short briefing, intended for a government committee, describing how seed banks
work and why their funding should be continued.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(5)
(Total 12 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 184


108. Sisal is a material used to make rope. It is made from the sclerenchyma fibres found in the
leaves of the plant, Agave sisalana.

After extraction of the fibres, the waste leaf material can be used in the production of organic
fertiliser.

The four countries that produce most of the world’s sisal are Brazil, Kenya, Tanzania and
Madagascar. The table below shows the annual harvest of freshly-cut Agave sisalana leaves
together with the total annual production of sisal.

Annual harvest of freshly- Annual production of sisal /


Country 3 3
cut leaves / tonnes × 10 tonnes × 10
Brazil 995 199
Kenya 196 40
Tanzania 145 28
Madagascar 96 20
TOTAL 1432

(a) (i) Complete the table to show the total annual production of sisal.
(1)

(ii) Calculate the total percentage of sisal produced from freshly-cut leaves. Show your
working.

Answer ..................... %
(2)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 185


(b) Nylon is a synthetic (man-made) fibre which can be used to make ropes. Nylon ropes are
lighter and stronger than those made using sisal. Suggest two advantages of using sisal
rather than nylon to make ropes.

1 ..................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

2 ..................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

(c) (i) Explain what is meant by the term tensile strength of a fibre.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) Suggest how you could carry out a practical investigation to compare the tensile
strength of sisal and nylon fibres.

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
(4)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 186


(d) Describe two ways in which the structure of xylem vessels is similar to that of
sclerenchyma fibres.

1 ..................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

2 ..................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 12 marks)

109. (a) Below are four cell structures A, B, C and D. Place a cross in the box next to each
structure found only in plant cells.

A plasmodesmata

B ribosome

C tonoplast

D chromosome
(2)

(b) The list below shows some organelles found in eukaryotic cells.

amyloplast centriole chloroplast

lysosome mitochondrion nucleus ribosome

Complete the table by choosing the correct organelle to match each description.

Organelle Description
Has a smooth outer membrane and a
folded inner membrane
Contains a starch granule enclosed by a
membrane
Spherical sac formed from a single
membrane and containing enzymes
(3)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 187


(c) Describe the structure of a cellulose microfibril.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 9 marks)

City and Islington Sixth Form College 188

You might also like