Mineral Metabolism

The mineral (inorganic) elements constitute only a small proportion of the body
weight. There is a wide variation in there body content. For instance, calcium
constitutes about 2% of body weight cobalt about 0.00004%.

General functions

Minerals perform several vital functions which are absolutely essential for the very
existence of the organism. These include calcification of bone, blood coagulation,
neuromuscular irritability, acid –base equilibrium, fluid balance and osmotic
regulation.

Certain mineral are integral components of biologically important compounds such

as hemoglobin (Fe), thyroxine (I), insulin (Zn) and vitamin B12 (co). Sulfur is
present in thiamine, biotin, lipoic acid and coenzyme A. several minerals participate
as cofactors for enzymes in metabolism (e.g. Mg, Mn, Ku, Zn, k) some elements are
essential constituents of certain enzymes (e.g.Co, Mo, se).

Classification

The minerals are classified as principal elements and trace elements.

The seven principal elements (macro minerals) constitute 60-80% of the body’s
inorganic material. These are calcium, phosphorus, magnesium sodium,
potassium, chloride and sulfur.

The principal elements are required in amounts greater than 100mg/day.

The (micro minerals) are required in amounts less than 100mg/day. They are
subdivided into three categories.

1. Essential trace elements: iron, copper, iodine, manganese, zinc, molybdenum,

cobalt, fluorine, selenium and chromium.
2. Possibly essential trace element: nickel, vanadium, cadmium and barium.
3. Non-essential trace elements: aluminum, lead, mercury, boron, silver, bismuth
etc.

CALCIUM
Calcium in the most abundant among the mineral in the body. The total content of
calcium in an adult man is about 1 to 1.5 kg. as much as 99% of it is present in the
bones and teeth. A small fraction (1%) of the calcium, found out side the skeletal
tissue, performs a wide variety of functions.

Biochemical functions

1. Development of bones and teeth: calcium, along with phosphate, is required for
the formation (of hydroxyapatite) and physical strength of skeletal tissue. Bone is
regarded as a mineralized connective tissue. Bones which are in a dynamic state
serve as reservoir of Ca. Osteoblasts are responsible for bone formation while
osteoclasts result in demineralization
2. Muscle contraction: Ca2+ interacts with troponin C to trigger muscle
contraction. Calcium also activates ATPase, increases the interaction between actin
and myosin.
3. Blood coagulation: several reactions in the cascades of blood clotting process are
dependent on Ca2+ (factor IV).
4. Nerve transmission: Ca2+ is necessary for the transmission of nerve impulse.
5. Membrane integrity and permeability: Ca2+ influences the membrane structure
and transport of water and several ions across it.
6. Action on heart: ca2+ acts on myocardium and prolongs systole.

Sources
Best sources - milk and milk products
Good sources _ beans, leafy vegetables, fish, cabbage, egg yolk

Disease states
The blood Ca level in maintained within a narrow range by the homeostatic control,
most predominantly by PTH. Hence abnormalities in Ca metabolism are mainly
associated with alteration in PTH.

Hypocalcaemia

Hypocalcaemia is associated with hyperparathyroidism caused by increased activity

of parathyroid glands.

Hypocalcemia
Hypocalcemia is mostly due to hyperparathyroidism. This may happen after an
accidental surgical removal of parathyroid glands or due to autoimmune diseases.

Rickets
Rickets is a disorder of defective calcification of bones. This may be due to a low
level of vitamin D in the body an increase in the activity of alkaline phosphatase is a
characteristic feature of rickets.

Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is characterized by demineralization of bone resulting in the
progressive loss of bone mass.

PHOSPHORUS
An adult body contains about about 1 kg phosphate and it is found in every cell of
the body. Most of it (about 80%) occurs in combination with Ca in the bones and
teeth. About 10% of body P is found in muscles and blood in association with
proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. The remaining 10% is widely distributed in
various chemical compounds.

Biochemical functions
1. Phosphorus is essential for the development of bones and teeth.
2. It plays a central role for the formation and utilization of high-energy
phosphate compounds e.g. ATP, GTP, creatine phosphate etc.

3. Phosphorus is required for the formation of phospholipids, phosphoproteins and

nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).
4. It is an essential component of several nucleotide coenzymes e.g. NAD+,
NADP+, pyridoxal phosphate, ADP, AMP.
5. Several proteins and enzymes are activated by phosphorylations.
6. Phosphate buffer system is important for the maintenance of pH in the blood
(around 704) as well as in the cells.

Sources
Milk, cereals, leafy vegetables, meat, eggs.

Disease states
 1. Serum phosphate level is increased in hyperparathyroidism and decreased in
hyperparathyroidism.
2. In severe renal diseases, serum phosphate content is elevated causing acidosis.
3. Vitamin D deficient rickets in characterized by decreased serum phosphate (1-
2|dl).
4. Renal rickets in associated wit low serum phosphate levels and increased
alkaline phosphatase activity.
5. In diabetes mellitus, serum content of organic phosphate is lower while that of
inorganic phosphate is higher.

Magnesium
The adult body contains about 20 g magnesium, 70% of which in found in bones in
combination with calcium and phosphorus. The remaining 30% occurs in the soft
tissues and body fluids.

Biochemical functions
1. Magnesium is required for the formation of bones and teeth.
2. Mg2+ serves as a cofactor for several enzymes requiring ATP e.g.
hexokinase, glucokinase, phosphofructokinase, adenylate cyclase.
3. Mg2+ is necessary for proper neuromuscular function. Low Mg2+ levels lead
to neuromuscular irritability.

Souses
Cereals, nuts, beans, vegetables (cabbage, cauliflower), meat, milk, fruits.

Disease states
1. Magnesium deficiency causes neuromuscular irritation, weakness and
convulsions. These symptoms are similar to that observed in tetany (Ca
deficiency) which is relieved only by Mg. Malnutrition, alcoholism and
cirrhosis of liver may lead to deficiency.
2. Low levels of Mg may be observed in uremia, rickets and abnormal
pregnancy.

Sodium
Sodium is the chief caution of the extracellular fluid. About 50% of body sodium is
present in the bones, 40% in the extracellular fluid and the remaining (10%) in the
soft tissues.
Biochemical functions
1. In association with chloride and bicarbonate, sodium regulates the body’s acid
base balance.
2. Sodium in required for the maintenance of osmotic pressure and fluid balance.
3. It is necessary for the normal muscle irritability and cell permeability.
4. Sodium is involved in the intestinal absorption of glucose and amino acids.
5. It is necessary for initiating and maintaining heart beat.

Sources
The common salt (NaC1) used in the cooking medium is the major source of
sodium. The ingested foods also contribute to sodium. The good sources of sodium
include bread, whole grains, leafy vegetables, nuts, eggs and milk.

POTASSIUM
Potassium is the principle intracellular caution. It is equally important in the
extracellular fluid for specific functions.

Biochemical functions
1. Potassium maintains intracellular osmotic pressure.
2. It is required for the regulation of acid base balance and water balance in the
cells.
3. The enzyme pyruvate kinase (of glycolysis) is dependent on K+ for optimal
activity.
4. Potassium is required for the transmission of nerve impulse.
5. Adequate intracellular concentration K+ is necessary for proper biosynthesis
of proteins by ribosome.
6. Extracellular K+ influence cardiac muscle activity.

Sources
Banana, orange, pineapple, beans, chicken and liver. Tender coconut water is a rich
source of potassium.

Diseases states
Hypokalemia : decrease in the concentration of serum potassium is observed due to
over activity of adrenal cortex (Cushing’s syndrome), prolonged cortisone therapy,
intravenous administration of K+-free fluids, treatment of diabetic coma with
insulin, prolonged diarrhea and vomiting.

The symptoms of Hypokalemia include irritability, muscular weakness, tachycardia,

cardiomegaly and cardiac arrest. Changes in the ECG are observed (flattened waves
with inverted T wave).

Hypokalemia: increase in the concentration of serum potassium is observed in

failure, adrenocortical insufficiency (Addison’s disease) diabetic coma, severe
dehydration, intravenous administration of fluids with excessive potassium salts.

CHLORIN
Chlorine is a constituent of sodium chloride. Hence, the metabolism of chlorine and
sodium are intimately related.

Biochemical functions
1. Chloride is involved in the regulation of acid-base equilibrium. Fluid balance
and osmotic pressure. These functions are carried out by the interaction for the
formation of HCL in the gastric juice.
2. Chloride is necessary for the formation of HCL in the gastric juice.
3. Chloride shift involves the active participation of CL-
4. The enzyme salivary amylase is activated by chlorine.

Sources
Common salt as cooking medium, whole gains, leafy vegetables, eggs and milk.

Disease states
1. Hyperchloremia: A reduction in the serum C1- Level may occur due to
vomiting, diarrhea, respiratory alkalosis, Addison’s disease and excessive
sweating.
2. Hyperchloremia: An increase in serum C1- concentration may be due to
dehydration acidosis and Cushing’s syndrome.

SULFUR

Biochemical function
1. Sulfur-containing amino acids are very essential for the structural
conformation and biological functions of proteins (enzymes, hormones,
structural proteins etc.). the disulfide linkages (-s-s) and sukfhydryl groups (--
SH) are largely responsible for this.
2. The vitamins thiamine, biotin, lipoic acid, and coenzyme A of pantothenic
acid contain sulfur.
3. Heparin, chondroitin sulfate, glutathione, taurocholic acid are some other
important sulfur containing compounds.
4. phosphoadenosine phosphosulfate (PAPS) is the active sulfate
5. Utilized for several reactions e.g. Synthesis of glyconsaminoglycans,
detoxification mechanism.
6. 5 the sulfur containing amino acid methinine (as S-adenosylmethionine) is
actively involved in transmethylation reactions.

Dietary requirement and sources

There is no specific dietary requirement for sulfur. Adequate intake of sulfur-
containing essential amino acid methionine and cysteine are the sources of sulfur.
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