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Although in many aerobic cultures, gas sparging provides the method for both
mixing and aeration - it is important that these two aspects of fermenter design
be considered separately. The following diagram shows the major resistances for
transfer of oxygen from a gas bubble to the cell.
i. Transfer from the interior of the gas bubble to the gas-liquid interface
ii. Movement across the gas-liquid interface
iii. Diffusion through the relatively stagnant liquid film surrounding the bubble
iv. Transport through the bulk liquid
v. Diffusion through the relatively stagnant liquid film surrounding the cells
vi. Movement across the liquid-cell interface
vii. If the cells are a floc, clump or solid particle – Diffusion through the solid to
the individual cell
viii. Transport through the cell wall, membrane and cytoplasm to the site of
reaction
These resistances occur in series and the largest of them will be rate controlling.
Thus the entire mass transfer pathway may be modelled using a single mass
transfer correlation.
NP = P / (n3 D5 ρ )
Where :
NRe = D2 N ρ / µ
Where:
The Power Number allows for the calculation of the power required for and
“degree of mixing” characterized by the Reynolds Number.
Laminar Region:
The laminar region corresponds to NRe < 10 for many impellers. For stirrers with
very small wall clearance, such as an anchor and helical ribbon mixer, laminar
flow persists until NRe = 100 or greater
In this region:
NP ∝ I / NRe
or
P = k1 ( D3 N2 µ )
The Power requirement for laminar flow is independent of the density of the
fluid but directly proportional to the fluid viscosity.
Turbulent Region
NP = Constant
and
P = NP ρ N3 D5
The NP for turbines is much higher than for most other impellers, indicating that
impellers transmit more power to the fluid than other designs. The Power
required for turbulent flow is independent of the viscosity of the fluid but
proportional to the fluid density. The turbulent region is fully developed at
NRe > 103 - 104 for most small impellers in baffled vessels. Without baffles,
turbulence is not fully developed until NRe > 105. Even at this Reynolds Number,
the value of NP (non-baffled) is reduced to between half to one tenth of the NP
(baffled).
Transition Region:
Between laminar and turbulent flow lies the transition region. Both fluid density
and fluid viscosity affect Power requirements in this region. There is
normally a gradual transition from laminar to fully-developed turbulent flow
pattern and the Reynolds Number range for the transition region depends on the
system geometry.
Hence, depending on the operating regime, the density and viscosity of the fluid
may exert considerable influence on the system behaviour.
Impeller Types
There are many different impeller types and each will have a different effect with
respect to two important concepts in mixing:
Axial Impeller
In addition, each will have a viscosity range over which they are efficient.
The rheological properties of microbial broths are primarily determined by the cell
concentration and cell morphology. High cell concentrations tend to produce
viscous broths. Filamentous morphology often leads to non-Newtonian
behaviour. Metabolic products such as polysaccharides, extracellular proteins
and solid substrates may also lead to non-Newtonian behaviour.
Pseudoplastic and dilatant fluids follow the Ostwald-de Waele or Power Law:
n
τ=Kγ
where:
τ = Shear Stress
K = Consistency Index
γ = Shear Rate
n = Flow Behaviour Index
When n < 1, the fluid exhibits pseudoplastic behaviour. When n > 1, the fluid is
dilatant and when n = 1, the fluid exhibits Newtonian behaviour.
Apparent viscosity decreases (shear thinning) with increasing shear rate for
pseudoplastic fluids and increases with shear rate (shear thickening)for dilatant
fluids. Some fluids do not produce motion until some finite shear stress has been
exceeded and flow initiated. Once they yield stress has been exceeded, Bingham
plastics behave like Newtonian Fluids; a constant ratio KP exists between the
shear stress and change in shear rate:
τ = τo + KP γ
Once the yield stress has been exceeded, the behaviour of the Casson fluid is
pseudoplastic.
Yeast and bacterial cultures exhibit this behavior and this behavior may be
represented by:
µS = µL (1 + f (J,φ))
where:
µS = µL ( 1 + 2.5 φ )
µS = µL ( 1 + 2.5 φ + 7.52φ2 )
As the cell concentration increases, the apparent viscosity increases in a non-
linear manner. Various correlations have been proposed, typically of the form:
η ≈ xM
where:
η = apparent viscosity
= rate of stress / rate of strain (this relationship is linear
for Newtonian fluids)
X = Biomass Concentration
M = Exponent
= 1.0-2.65 Filamentous Molds
= 0.3-3.0 for Pellets
Here, the mass transfer coefficient kLa (min-1) is introduced which describes the
combined mass transfer rate ( kL ) and the interfacial area through which the
mass transfer occurs ( a ).
Since there is no accumulation of oxygen at steady state at any place within the
fermenter (including the solid (cell) / liquid interface) :
where:
1) Steady-State Method
2) Non Steady-State Method
3) Sulfite Method
Steady-State Method
The first method assumes steady state and no holdup of gases in the fermenter.
Hence:
The specific oxygen uptake rate is estimated using gas phase measurements of
the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the exit steam and using the
known volumetric flow rate entering the fermenter , the known composition of air
entering the fermenter and a nitrogen balance to estimate the volumetric flow
exiting the fermenter.
The cell concentration, the actual dissolved oxygen concentration and the
fermenter volume are known or can be measured. Fully aerated sterile media ia
used to estimate CSAT.
This method involves turning off the air supply and then turning it back on again
after he dissolved oxygen level has appreciably fallen.
In the unsteady-state equation:
The specific rate of oxygen uptake and the cell concentration are assumed to
remain constant over the relatively short period of the test.
Hence:
For example:
0 0.52
0.5 0.70
1.0 0.93
2.0 1.23
3.0 1.55
4.0 1.80
5.0 2.00
Sulfide Method
This reaction is very fast and it assumed that the rate limiting step is the transfer
of oxygen from the gas phase to the liquid phase and that the dissolved oxygen
concentration is zero.
The inherent assumption is that the sulfite solution has the same rheological
properties as fermentation broth is clearly not accurate. Thus, this method should
be considered to give the maximum capacity for oxygen transfer for a given
aeration system.
1. Temperature
2. Salts
3. Organics
An empirical correlation exists for correcting values of oxygen solubility in water
for the effects of cations, anions and sugars:
where:
Hence, this is a major variable from fermentation to fermentation and within a
particular fermentation. There are correlations available for these effects.
P = Power ( W )
V = Fluid Volume ( m3 )
uG = Superficial Gas Velocity ( m /s )
λ = ( ν3 / ε ) 0.25
where:
Hence, the greater the power input, the smaller the eddy. λ is also dependent on
viscosity and smaller eddies are produced in less viscous liquids. For low
viscosity liquids, λ is normally in the range of 30-100µm. This is the smallest
scale of mixing that can be achieved by dispersion. To achieve a smaller scale,
we must rely on diffusion. Although slower, within eddies of 30 - 100 µm, this is
achieved in I sec.