This article examines structures and interaction patterns in the classroom which promote the utilization and development of student resources within the peer-group setting. Socialization entails social learning which prepares the individual for membership in society and in groups within the society. It facilitates transitions from one status to another by conditioning behavior for the new requirements of specific roles and group life.
This article examines structures and interaction patterns in the classroom which promote the utilization and development of student resources within the peer-group setting. Socialization entails social learning which prepares the individual for membership in society and in groups within the society. It facilitates transitions from one status to another by conditioning behavior for the new requirements of specific roles and group life.
This article examines structures and interaction patterns in the classroom which promote the utilization and development of student resources within the peer-group setting. Socialization entails social learning which prepares the individual for membership in society and in groups within the society. It facilitates transitions from one status to another by conditioning behavior for the new requirements of specific roles and group life.
AiALTHOUGH the student group anee through processes of social exchange,
is a valuable educational resource, it remains observational learning, and social reinforce- an untapped potential in the curriculum of ment. most primary and secondary schools. Recog- The first part of the article—on sociali- nition of this potential is frequently obscured zation as a transactional process—establishes by concern over the peer group's contra- a perspective for the analysis of classroom influence on student achievement and con- socialization.* This section is followed by an duct. Considering the influence of peer examination of the learning experiences af- groups on the social development of youth, forded by inter-age and interracial relation- Bronfenbrenner concludes that it is ships. The article is primarily restricted to . .. questionable whether any society, what- children in elementary school for reasons ever its social system, can afford largely to of available data and brevity. chance the direction of this influence, and reali- zation of its high potential for fostering con- structive development both for the child and Socialization as a society.! Transactional Process The primary objective of this article is Socialization entails social learning to examine structures and interaction pat- which prepares the individual for member- terns in the classroom which promote the ship in society and in groups within the utilization and development of student re- society; it facilitates transitions from one sources within the peer-group setting.^ Un- status to another by conditioning behavior like the stress on social adjustment and for the new requirements of specific roles conformity in earlier writings in education, and group life. Such learning is influenced the following discussion emphasizes the de- velopment of individual talents as well as * Glen H. Elder, Jr., Associate Professor of Soci- social responsibility, cooperation, and tôler- ology, University of North Carolina at Chapel ie Urie Bronfenbrenner. "Responses to Pres- Hill sure from Peers vs. Adults Among Soviet and Ameri- 3 For a recent review of peer socialization in can School Children." International Journal of the elementary schools see: John C. Glidewell, Psychology 2: 206; 1967. Mildred B. Kantor, Louis M. Smith, and Lorene H. Stringer. "Socialization and Social Structure in the 2 A longer version of this paper has been writ- Classroom." In: Martin and Lois Hoffman. Review ten by the author: Department of Sociology, Alumni of Research in Child Development 2: 221-56; 1966. Building, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Russell Sage Foundation.
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by the degree of coordination among socializ- Other, as well as to the influence of teacher ing agents in goals and practices, and by on students." Student and teacher are de- particular training techniques and ecological fined in terms of each other and behavior is contexts. a consequence of the reciprocal influence of There are three time emphases in the each person on the other in a particular situ- socialization of children: (a) on the past— ation. A satisfying social exchange in this molding the young in the image of the older relationship generally creates conditions fa- generation by transmitting the cultural her- vorable to similar transactions among stu- itage and by reinforcing traditional behavior; dents in the classroom. Elementary school (b) on the present—orienting the child to- classrooms, in which the teacher encourages ward the standards of membership and role student participation in problem solving and performance in his current groups, such as decision making, are generally distinguished the family, age-group, and classroom; and (c) by a high level of interaction and cooperation on the future—preparing the child for the among students, minimal conflicts, tolerance anticipated requirements of future roles, for divergent opinions, and responsible ini- groups, and transitions. tiative in school work.'^ Socialization agencies are concerned to In a teaching relationship that is truly some extent with all three emphases, espe- reciprocal, the teacher at times is also a stu- cially the contemporary demands of group dent, and the student—especially in adoles- membership, but schools in particular have cence—is also an instructor. The teaching major responsibilities in the preparatory task. role of the child is especially relevant to the In American society, the dominant time- situation of youth in a rapidly changing perspective—toward the future—is most society, for as Erikson observes, characteristic of the middle class, while an . . . no longer is it merely for the old to emphasis on the past and present is found teach the young the meaning of life, whether in the upper and lower classes respectively.* individual or collective. It is the young who, by The influences to which a child is ex- their responses and actions, tell the old whether posed include explicit training and a broad life as represented by the old and as presented range of social conditioning which might be to the young has meaning.^ described as the unconscious patterning of Teaching becomes eflective when the behavior. Instruction and learning through materials presented possess or acquire such observation are potential examples of these meaning for the learner. Since teachers two types of influences. typically have relatively limited authority, Socialization is most commonly viewed this restricts the authority which they can as a one-way process which stresses the effect reinvest in their students and contributes to of the social agent on the child. Reliance on the negligible control which students exercise this framework has had the unfortunate over their education.'-^ This handicap to efl'ect of obscuring a basic source of sociali- meaningful teacher-student exchange is seen zation for authority figures—the young. Like on all levels of formal education. parents, teachers partly learn their role, de- Up to mid-adolescence, the presence of velop teaching skills, and acquire language children in school is a compulsory require- patterns from the young.""' A transactional perspective is sensitive to the way in which Ö For a thoughtful analysis of classroom he- students socialize their teachers and each havior from a transactional perspective, see: Ira J. Gordon. Studying the Child in School. New York: * See: Florence R. Kluckhohn and Fred L. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1966. Strodtbeck. Variations in Value Orientations. Evans- ' Glidewell et al, op. cit., p. 232. ton, Illinois: Row Peterson and Company, 1961. 8 Erik H. Erikson. "Youth: Fidelity and Di- pp. 27-28. versity." Daedalus 91: 24; Winter 1962. 5 On language patterns, see; Emil J. Haller. 9 James G. Anderson. "The Authority Struc- "Pupil Influence in Teacher Socialization: A Socio- ture of the School: System of Social Exchange." Linguistic Study." Sociology of Education 40: 316- Educational Administration Quarterly 3: 145; 33; Fall 1967. Spring 1967.
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ment, and thus the principles which govern Socialization in the Ciassroom social exchange in a voluntary relationship are not entirely applicable to teacher-student Socialization is a continuing process for transactions." the individual. Thus an understanding of Nevertheless, it is apparent that social peer inñuences and learning at one point in exchange with teachers is not a profitable time requires an examination of the student's experience for many students, and al- past, especially of his reinforcement history though restraints may keep their bodies in in family and classroom experiences. school, aggressive or passive responses to One of the first tasks the child faces injustice and relative deprivation diminish as he enters a new classroom in elementary the value of classroom experiences for other school is to gain an understanding of his role, students. These consequences suggest that of where he stands in relation to classmates an equitable exchange of services, knowl- and the teacher. This cognitive map or per- edge, and rewards should be an intrinsic spective is associated with the child's develop- objective in teacher-student transactions. ing status as defined by his peers. Teaching opportunities provide a basis In the first few days or weeks of class, for social exchange among students. The students tend to sort themselves out on three child who excels in a particular subject has status dimensions: (a) liking or social ac- the opportunity to gain competence and a ceptance, (b) the ability to influence other sense of social responsibility by tutoring a students, and (c) competence in school- slower student. Thus the slower student work.i2 One should note here the resem- gains encouragement, understanding, and blance between these status dimensions academic assistance from a person who is among children in the classroom and those not socially removed by a large age differ- in the larger society, such as prestige, power, ence and evaluative authority. The learning and wealth or accomplishment. Accuracy of benefits achieved by students in the teaching the student's perception of his classroom role generally affirm the principle that status is generally greater among children of teaching is a valuable developmental experi- high versus low status (defense mechanisms ence. Student tutors gain as much or even are a factor here) and in classrooms with more in academic learning than the students a clear status hierarchy. This determinant they work with.^^ When students are used of status perception is likewise operative in as instructors of other students, aptitude the larger community. heterogeneity within the classroom may be In the elementary school, a child's status transformed from a teaching handicap to an on these dimensions remains moderately educational asset. Both age and ability stable from one grade to another. Although groupings can be viewed as consequences of a causal sequence among these status factors a teacher-centered model of instruction. Such cannot be confidently determined, the suc- groupings facilitate the instructional task for cess of a child in working out friendships or the adult teacher, but hmit teaching-learning accepting relationships with other students possibilities within the student group. Sys- appears to have a very significant effect on tematic incorporation of tutoring relation- his perceived ability to influence his class- ships in the curriculum may help to reduce mates and to achieve. student indifference associated with the pas- The peer system in most elementary sive role of the learner. school classrooms includes several subgroups, some dyads, and a few isolates. While there 10 On social behavior as exchange, see: George is little need to recite the widely recognized C. Homans. Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1961. consequences of social rejection, studies of 11 Robert D. Cloward. "Studies in Tutoring." peer-group socialization have found that Journal of Experimental Education 36: 14-25; Fall these efPects vary in relation to the status 1967; and Glen H. Elder, Jr. "Age Integration and Socialization in an Educational Setting." Harvard 12 This paragraph and the next are indebted Educational Review 37: 594-619; Fall 1967. to a review of research by GlideweU et al., op. cit. February 1969 469 structure of the classroom. Possession of of the classroom resembles that of the larger low status in the eyes of classmates is most community and society, children have the strongly correlated with negative attitudes opportunity to acquire an understanding and toward school, low self-esteem, and under- appreciation of social and cultural variation utilization of mental ability when this status through observation, exchange, and instruc- is correctly perceived by the student.''* As tion. Instead of reinforcing uniformity in noted earlier, clarity of the status structure the children of diverse groups in society, increases the accuracy of this perception. schools could utilize this diversity for broad- More detailed information on the determi- ening the knowledge and understanding of nants and content of social exchange in the students. Age-heterogeneous and inter- elementary school classrooms is needed. racial relationships are two examples of such Conditions which foster beneficial ex- diversity. The educational and social rele- change and learning among students are also vance of these experiences are suggested by those which lessen prejudice: equal status in the results of several recent studies. the situation, pursuit of common goals, co- operative interdependence, and support from Cross-Age Relations the main authorities, structures, and norms.^* As individuals interact with one another un- At the University of Michigan's Institute der favorable conditions, they are likely to for Social Research, a series of exploratory acquire common perspectives and more posi- investigations have been conducted on rela- tive feelings toward each other. tionships between children of difFerent ages While status equality and similarity in in two elementary schools and in a summer values, background, or skin color are signifi- camp for children from 4 to 14 years of age.^^ cant bases of interpersonal attraction, there The main objectives of the project are to are tasks within the classroom which bring develop and implement a constructive pro- together children who would not ordinarily gram of cross-age interaction, and to assess choose each other—such as the bright and the impact of inter-age perceptions and atti- dull, or older and younger students. The tudes on both younger and older children. tutoring relationship is a good example. Re- The inter-age program among elemen- wards for tutor and learner are contingent tary school children included the following on cooperative rather than competitive inter- elements. Children in the sixth grades were dependence. Relatively equal rewards for assigned as academic assistants in the first progress on the teaching-learning task serve four grades, where they helped the children to reinforce cooperative behavior. with their course work. The effectiveness of the older students and the response of the School Composition, younger children were contingent on the Student Relationships, Learning following training procedures. The teachers were first oriented to the Social stratification and segregation in potential of cross-age interaction among stu- a complex society limit a child's knowledge dents and teachers. The use of academic and understanding of himself and of others assistants was described as requiring the from different life situations. In schools, the teacher to "lend the resources" of his chil- composition of the student body on sex, race, dren. At several points during the school and family status specifies a particular type day, older children were given special train- of learning environment, as do age-grades i'> Peggy Lippitt and John E. Lohman. "Cross- and ability groups. If the social composition Age Relationships: An Educational Resource." Children 12: 113-17; 1965; Jeffery W. Eiseman and 13 Richard G. Schmuck. "Some Relationships Peggy Lippitt. "Olders-Youngers Project Evalua- of Peer Liking Patterns in the Classroom to Pupil tion." Report prepared for the Stern Family Fund Attitudes and Achievement." School Review 71: and the Detroit Board of Education, 1966; and 337-59; 1963. Ronald Lippitt et al., "Implementation of Positive 1* Gordon W. Allport. The Nature of Preju- Cross-Age Relationships." Chapter 5 in unpublished dice. New York: Doubleday Anchor, 1958. p. 267. manuscript, 1966.
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ing in relating to younger children, and in ers from low-status families, whose desire teaching content material. In order to coun- to learn and relation to authority figures in ter peer-group norms which did not reward the school generally improved. The older interaction with younger children, the in- children were given a chance to assume vestigators asked a small group of seventh responsibility; to test and evaluate their graders, who had high status among their knowledge, teaching, and social skills; and peers and were experienced in working as to work through personal problems encoun- helpers, to talk to the sixth graders about tbe tered vdth age-mates and siblings." In a benefits of the helping relationship. number of cases, attitudes and skills acquired The importance of these training pro- in the cross-age experience were transferred cedures was reinforced many times in initial to relationships in the family. sessions with the older helpers. When asked, Similar opportunities for cross-age inter- "What sorts of things have you observed at action and exchange are available in non- school or at home between youngers and graded elementary schools, but competent olders?" tbe cbildren reported few construc- research on these processes is sadly lacking.^* tive encounters. It was commonly that "some One searches in vain among countless reports bigger kids" were taking something away on the nongraded school for any sophisti- from, bossing, or shoving "little kids." One cated examination of cross-age interaction, potential source of this dominance pattern or even for any recognition of its educational is the process by wbicb children learn age- potential. Reliable evidence on the academic norms in the family. The behavior of efPects is also lacking. In view of the so- younger children is frequently derogated cial learning potential of age-heterogeneous when adults attempt to reinforce age-appro- groups, the need for well-designed research priate behavior in their offspring.i" "Don't on cross-age interaction in this setting is act like your little brother" is a mild example compelling. of this practice. The results of this experiment in cross- Interracial Friendships and Learning age interaction show that younger boys and girls perceive older children positively when The accumulation of research findings the latter include them in activities, display on interracial contact provides a preliminary friendliness, or offer help and recognition. appraisal of the social and academic efFects The younger children tended to learn how of desegregated schools and classrooms. In to cope with adults and older children; be- the nationwide Coleman study,^'' academic came aware of the abilities, freedoms, and performance and a sense of mastery among limitations of older children; developed con- Negro students were related to the propor- ceptions of the meaning of different levels tion of white students in their schools. Much of "grown-upness"; and gained an opportu- of this efFect is a consequence of the higher nity for greater reciprocity and autonomy social class background and scholastic am- than is possible in relations with an adult bitions of the white students. More recently, teacher. 17 The results of this research are similar in The ability of the older children to com- many respects to the findings of a study of cross- municate with younger children, coupled age interaction in an adult-adolescent school. See: Glen H. Elder, Jr. "Age Integration and Socializa- with their other services, greatly enriched tion in an Educational Setting," op. cit. the educational experience of both groups. 18 John I. Goodlad and Rohert H. Anderson. Most of the older students were enthusiastic The Non-Graded Elementary School. Revised Edi- about the program, especially the low-achiev- tion. Nevsf York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1963; and Frank R. Dufay. Ungrading the Elemen- iß For a more detailed discussion of this point, tary School. New York: Parker Puhlishing Com- see: Glen H. Elder, Jr. "Age Groups, Status Transi- pany, 1966. tions, and Socialization." Prepared for the Task I" James S. Coleman et al. Equality of Educa- Force on Environmental Aspects of Psycho-Social tional Opportunity. Washington, D.C: Superin- Deprivation, National Institute of Child Health and tendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Human Development, June 19, 1968. Ofiice, 1966.