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What is Discourse Home

Analysis?
By Eamon Fulcher

The method of discourse analysis is complex and cannot be properly understood

without extensive reading. The aim of this web page is to provide you with
an outline of the approach so that if you haven't read much about it you
can, among other things, decide whether you would like to learn more
about the method or whether you would like to carry out an investigation
using this approach. An example is provided further down the page to
illustrate a popular kind of discourse analysis, whihc is known as thematic
analysis. It includes some examples of transcription symbols.

Discourse analysis is a qualitative method that has been adopted and developed by social
constructionists. Although discourse analysis can and is used by a handful of cognitive
psychologists, it is based on a view that is largely anti-scientific, though not anti-research.
Social constructionism is not easy to define in a single sentence, but it is possible to
outline some basic assumptions of the approach:

• Psychologists cannot be objective when studying human behaviour. In the scientific

approach there is the belief that knowledge can be gained by objectivity (observations
made as though the investigator is an alien from another planet and has no preconceived
notion of what is being observed). However, this has been disputed – people, including
researchers, cannot be objective. A researcher is very likely to hold some position
(expectation, belief, or set of cultural values) when they are conducting their research.
The result is that people can construct their own versions of reality.

• Reality is socially constructed. In the scientific approach it is assumed that it is possible

to categorise reality, and that constructs psychologists use, such as personality and
intelligence, are naturally occurring categories. However, this ignores the fact that
language shapes the categories and constructs we use. Since language is a social and
cultural thing, our sense of reality is socially and culturally constructed.

• People are the products of social interaction. In the scientific approach it is assumed
that many of the constructs used are ‘inner essences'. That is to say that personality,
anxiety, drives, and so on exist somewhere within our heads and our bodies. However, it
may be the case that many of these so-called essences are actually the products of social
interaction.

In order to understand these assumptions, let's look at the example provided by Burr
(1995) on the issue of personality.
The traditional view of personality

Personality consists of a number of traits such as generosity, shyness, charm, and so on.
What makes people different is that they can be high on some traits and low on others. A
further assumption is that, by and large, personality is stable over time – although a
generous person may have one or two lapses, they are generous most of the time. Another
assumption is that personality influences out behaviour – we ascribe the inner essence
‘generosity' to someone acting very generously. This view of personality is not just
common sense but makes sense in our everyday understanding of people.

The social constructionist critique of the traditional view of personality

Personality, it is argued, is a socially constructed concept and that traits do not exist as
inner essences but are rather in the interactions between people. When you think about
the traits we use to describe people, virtually all of them involve actions that can only
take place with reference to other people. For example, if a shy, extraverted, and
generous person were stranded alone on an island for the rest of her life, could she ever
again call herself shy, extraverted, and generous?

Social constructionists remind us that since personality can be observed directly its
existence has to be inferred, and it is inferred from behaviour. However, someone's
behaviour can be very different depending on the context or situation they are in.
Furthermore, people can be both nice and nasty, i.e., behave in opposite ways to the traits
they are commonly described as having.

So, who am I?

By now you may be completely confused, as I was when I first encountered this
viewpoint. If personality and inner essences do not exist then we must ask ourselves who
we are and what makes us who we are? According to social constructionism each version
of ‘you' is a product of your relationships with others. The word ‘identity' is preferred and
it refers to a person's purpose within a social relationship. In other words, we have
different identities based on who we are with, where we are, the situation we our in, and
so on. The creation and use of such identities can be understood by psychologists by
trying to study the language that people use. Furthermore, by studying conversations and
all forms of communication we can understand how people and society ‘construct' their
own versions of reality.

Why discourse analysis?

Discourse analysis is a way of understanding social interactions. The researcher

acknowledges their own bias and position on the issue, known as reflexivity. The aims of
research vary: The aim of one investigator might be to understand power relationships in
society in order to bring about change; but another investigator may be interested in an
interaction or conversation simply for its own sake (in terms of not knowing what the
study might uncover). The research begins with a research question (and not a hypothesis
in the formal sense) that is aimed at a theoretical position. A conversation or piece of text
is transcribed and then deconstructed. This involves attempting to identify features in the
text, such as discourses. A discourse is a particular theme in the text, especially those that
relate to identities, for example such as a statement that reiterates a view or claim that
men find weddings dull, and so on. Topics that have been studied include men's
friendships, family conversations of the royal family, an interview with Princess Diana,
media constructions of racism, gender categories in discourse, conversations about
marriage, men's talk about fatherhood, and so on.

How to do a discourse analysis

The first point to note is that in order to do a discourse analysis you need to have read a
handful yourself first. By reading published articles that use the method, you will have a
better understanding of (1) how to do an analysis and (2) some of the theoretical
orientations that you will need to know to do your own analysis. Having identified a
theory and a chosen item (text or recorded conversation) to analyse, you need to
transcribe it in one of the accepted/published ways. The transcript must always appear in
the appendices. There are many different forms of discourse analysis, so here we will
focus on thematic analysis as an example.

What is thematic analysis?

Thematic analysis is about trying to identify meaningful categories or themes in a body of

data. By looking at the text, the researcher asks whether a number of recurring themes
can be abstracted about what is being said. For example, on one level you might find an
inconsistency, an attempt to assign blame, an attempt to cite others to support one's
views, a regular interruption of other people, an attempt to make one's account of some
event sound more authentic, and so on. On another level, you might idenitify a regulalry
occurring attribution of blame or the repeated reference to some specific cause of an
event. The reference might take slightly different forms but refers to the same cause. An
example might be football fans blaming various aspects of a player's motivation for the
failure of their team (e.g., "he gets so much money, doesn't need to try", "he looked as
though he wasn't bothered", "he didn't want the ball", and so on).

In the results section of the report, the themes abstracted are collated and reported on. In
doing so, it is usual to cite from the transcription examples of the points you are trying to
make. A summary of the findings can be offered but also a critique of the authro's own
interpretations – this refers to the concept of 'reflexivity', that the author's is only one
interpretation of the text.

Dependent Clauses: Adverbial,

Adjectival, Nominal
Dependent clauses may work like adverbs, adjectives, or nouns in complex
sentences.

Adverbial clauses

Like a single-word adverb, an adverbial clause describes a verb (in the

sentence's main clause) and answers one of these questions

where? why? how? when? to what

degree?

An adverbial clause begins with a subordinating conjunction, which makes the

clause subordinate (dependent).

Common subordinating conjunctions:

after in order (that) unless

although insofar as until
as in that when
as far as lest whenever
as soon as no matter how where
as if now that wherever
as though once whether
because provided (that) while
before since why
even if so that
even though supposing (that)
how than
if that
inasmuch as though
in case (that) till

Example of adverbial clause answering when?

 When will the flowers bloom? Answer: when spring arrives

Example of adverbial clause answering why?

Why didn't the poor woman have money? Answer: because she had lost
her job

Example of adverbial clause answering where?

Where is there fire? Answer: where there is smoke

Example of adverbial clause answering how?

 How did he answer the question? Answer: as if he knew the subject quite
well

Example of adverbial clause answering to what degree?

To what degree of lateness will Jones arrive? Answer: (later) than Smith
(will arrive)

Another example of an adverbial clause answering to what degree?

 To what degree is he young? Answer: (younger) than his brother (is)

Comma use with adverbial clauses

Comma use with adverbial clauses depends upon placement of the adverbial
clause.

If the adverbial clause introduces the sentence, place a comma between it and
the main clause.

If the adverbial clause follows the main clause in a sentence, do not place a
comma between the two.

Adjectival clauses

Like a single-word adjective, an adjectival clause describes a noun (in the

sentence's main clause) and answers one of these questions

which one? what kind?

An adjectival clause usually begins with a relative pronoun, which makes the
clause subordinate (dependent).
Common relative pronouns:

that which who whom whose

NOTE: Use who, whom, and whose to describe people.

Use that and which to describe things.

Adjectival clauses always follow the person, place, or thing they describe, usually
immediately.

Example of adjectival clause answering which one?

Which book did Joe read? Answer: the one that I gave him

Example of adjectival clause answering what kind?

What kind of politician has the support of the people? Answer: one who is
trustworthy

Adjectival clauses may also begin with selected subordinating conjunctions:

 when - to describe a time

where - to describe a place

why - to describe a reason

Comma use with adjectival clauses

Comma use with adjectival clauses depends upon essentiality of the adjectival
clause.
If the adjectival clause is essential (or "needed"), no commas should be used to
separate it from the main clause.

Generally, essential adjectival clauses should not begin with which.

Examples

Since the adjectival clauses in the above examples are needed to clarify the
noun that they describe, they are essential and should not be separated from
the rest of the sentence with commas.

If the adjectival clause is nonessential (or "not needed"), commas should

separate it from the main clause.

Nonessential adjectival clauses should not begin with that.

Examples
 Since the adjectival clauses in the above examples are not needed to clarify
the noun that they describe, they are nonessential and should be separated
from the rest of the sentence with commas.

Note the difference between the sentences in each pair:

Nominal Clauses

Like a noun, a nominal clause names a person, place, thing, or idea. A nominal
clause may function in a sentence as any of the following:

subject subjective complement appositive

object of preposition direct object indirect
object retained object

Nominal clauses may begin with interrogatives:

who whom what which whoever whomever whatever

when where how why

An interrogative beginning a nominal clause, has a function within the nominal

clause.

Each of the following examples illustrates

• a nominal clause
• the function of the nominal clause within the sentence
 • the function of the interrogative within the nominal clause

Nominal clause as subject in sentence

Nominal clause as subjective complement in sentence

Nominal clause as object of preposition in sentence

 Nominal clause as direct object in sentence

Nominal clause as indirect object in sentence

Nominal clause as retained object in sentence

Nominal clauses may also begin with expletives:

 that whether if

An expletive beginning a nominal clause has no function within the nominal

clause.

Nominal clause beginning with expletive that

Nominal clause beginning with expletive whether

Nominal clause beginning with expletive if

The textual metafunction

"The textual metafunction creates discourse"

"Of the various structures which, when mapped on to each other, make up a
clause, we will consider first the one which gives the clause its character as a
message. This is known as thematic structure.

We may assume that in all languages the clause has the character of a message: it
has some form of organization giving it the status of a communicative event. But
there are different ways in which this may be achieved. In English, as in many
other languages, the clause is organized as a message by having a special status
assigned to one part of it. One element in the clause is enunciated as the theme;
this then combines with the remainder so that the two parts together constitute a
message." (Halliday, p 37)

• creates discourse
• clause as message
• the linguistic expression of the other two metafunctions (ideational, interpersonal)
• theme vs. rheme

Subject – grammatical function

Actor – doer of the action
Theme – ‘what the sentence is about’

1. The chef is preparing dinner in the kitchen.

2. Dinner is being prepared in the kitchen.
3. In the kitchen the chef is preparing dinner.
4. In the kitchen dinner is being prepared by the chef.
Definitions of Theme

• the starting point of the clause message

• realized in English by first position in a clause
• must contain a participant, process or circumstance
• includes any element preceding the first participant, process or circumstance

Theme. Textual clause function: the point of departure of the clause as message.
It sets up the local context for each clause. This local context often relates to the
method of development of the text: the Theme is selected in such a way that it
indicates how the clause relates to this method and contributes to the
identification of the current step in the development. The term theme has an
entirely different meaning in formal grammars (as does the term thematic roles),
which has nothing to do with the long tradition of work on theme in Prague
School linguistics and other functional traditions. => IFG Chapter 3. => LexCart
Section 6.2. (From Christian Matthiessen: Glossary of systemic-functional terms.
http://minerva.ling.mq.edu.au/)

Topic. The subject matter of a clause; what it is about – often as one member of
the pair topic + comment. Topic corresponds roughly to the experiential part of
Theme, Topical theme, in Halliday's analysis of English, but it typically excludes
textual and interpersonal Themes. (Sometimes the notion of given or known is
also included in topic, but never in Halliday's Theme.) Cf. IFG p. 39. (From
Christian Matthiessen: Glossary of systemic-functional terms.
http://minerva.ling.mq.edu.au/)

Theme in declarative sentences

Unmarked (Theme = Subject):

a. The two Indians stood waiting.

b. Nick and his father went into the stern of the boat.
c. The Indian who was rowing them was working very hard.
d. But I will have some photographs taken.
e. Oh, you’re a great man.
f. No, I think it’s pretty easy.
g. There was no need of that.
h. Of course it’s an accident.

Marked (Theme ≠ Subject):

a. Across the bay they found the other boat.

b. In February 1979 he was awarded the George Cross posthumously.
c. And when you get down there you find he hasn’t actually got any.
 d. Inside him was rising an urge to do something, take some action.
e. That I don’t know.
f. What she had felt he never knew.
g. Most troubling of all to some social scientists is the message men get that being
a good father means learning how to mother.

Theme in interrogative sentences

1. Polarity (yes/no) questions: unmarked Theme = finite + Subject

a. Are you interested in syntax?

b. Would you like a cup of tea?
c. Oh, so is that your plan?
d. But don't any of the artist-folk fancy children?
e. By the way, were you serious about moving to Milton Keynes?

1. Wh-questions: unmarked Theme = Wh-word

a. What are you doing here?

b. Where are we going?
c. Then, in the name of goodness, why does she bother?
d. If it's true that contented cows give more milk, why shouldn't happy ball
players produce more base hits?

Theme in imperative sentences

a. Wake me up before the coffee break.

b. Don’t disturb me while I’m taking a nap.
c. Let’s have a look at this recipe.
d. Oh please stop it.

Theme
point of departure of clause as message;
local context of clause as piece of text.
initial position in the clause
(table from Martin et al)
Rheme
Non-Theme – where the presentation
moves after the point of departure; what is
presented in the local context set up by
Theme.
position following initial position

What elements go into the Theme?

1. The first experiential element in the clause (participant/process/circumstance)

2. Any element preceding the first experiential element in the clause
(modal/connective adjuncts, conjunctions, finite, vocative,
Thematic equative

a. What he meant by this was that he was no longer an apprentice.

b. What they did was go into the stern of the boat.
c. The reason he asked you where you were going is because he hoped you would
be visiting other areas.

Theme in clause complexes

When Philippa reached number 41 she stopped

Theme Rheme
structural topical Rheme Theme Rheme
Theme

1. As soon as she had pressed the doorbell – it let out a musical jingle – Philippa
sensed that the house was empty.
2. Resisting the temptation to peer through the letter-box, she decided to try next
door.
3. At least they would know whether Ducton still lived at 41 or where he had gone.

Week 7 (14+16. March): "More on thematic analysis": Multiple Theme; Predicated

Theme; Theme and given/new; Theme in texts (article by P. Fries)
Theme–Rheme analysis of some sentences (Underlined: downranked themes):

Newspaper article (from The Daily Telegraph, Feb 10, 1999)

Theme Rheme
Parts of Northern Britain were brought to a standstill by heavy snow
and ice yesterday with roads closed and
dangerous driving conditions.
Scotland was worst hit.
Two hundred schools were closed in Aberdeenshire, where
roadswere impassable,
and more than seven inches of snow was recorded at Aberdeen airport.
An injured climber survived 18 hours in sub-zero temperatures
clinging to an ice-covered ledge after falling
400ft in Glencoe.
Lawrence Reeve, 40, a computer operator was recovering in hospital yesterday after
from Chessington, Surrey, suffering severe facial injuries, a punctured
 lung and frostbite.
The lone walker was making his way along a ridge when he
fell into Glen Cam, striking a boulder which
saved him from a further drop of 300ft.

From A.A. Milne: Winnie-the-Pooh:

Theme Rheme
Once upon a time, a very long time ago Winnie-the-Pooh lived in a forest all by
now, about last Friday himself under the name of Sanders.
One day when he was out walking he came to an open place in the middle of the
forest
and in the middle of this place was a very large oak tree
and from the top of the tree there came a large buzzing noise.
Winnie-the-Pooh sat down at the foot of the tree,
put his head between his paws
and began to think.
First of all he said to himself
"That buzzing noise means something.
You don’t get a buzzing noise like that, just
buzzing and buzzing, without its meaning
something.
If there’s a buzzing noise, somebody’s making a buzzing noise
and the only reason for making a buzzing is because you’re a bee."
noise that I know of
Then he thought for another long time
and said
"And the only reason for being a bee that I is making honey."
know of
And then he got up,
and said
"And the only reason for making honey is so as I can eat it."
So he began to climb the tree.