RETC2003.

book Page 697 Friday, April 11, 2003 9:37 AM

Chapter 62

SEGMENT DESIGN FOR TUNNELING PRODUCTIVITY

G.J.E. Kramer
Hatch Mott MacDonald

T. Gregor
Hatch Mott MacDonald

M. Ghazi
Traylor-Shea-Ghazi Precast

C.D. Hebert
Traylor-Shea-Ghazi Precast

ABSTRACT
This paper describes the recent application of gasketed, precast concrete
segmental lining design that has improved tunneling productivity and quality. The
specific segment arrangement includes:

six-piece ring with equal 60 degree gasketed segments,

juxtaposed key and counter-key segments,

trapezoidal and parallelogram shaped segments,

inclined and skewed radial joints and

plastic circumferential joint connectors.
This allows rapid, but accurate ring erection, reducing mine cycle times. The design
avoids cruciform joints, minimizes potential gasket damage and eliminates the need for
separate left and right ring molds. The implementation on the Los Angeles ECIS and
NEIS sewer projects is described.

BACKGROUND
Very often, the speed of support installation affects the progress of shielded soft
ground tunneling operations. Consequently, the tunneling industry has seen a
continual improvement in the development of segmental lining systems from brick to
cast iron and steel to the precast concrete systems that are in common use today
(McBean et al., 1970 and Bartlett et al. 1971). These developments, combined with
advances in tunnel boring machines (TBM) such as the development of Earth
Pressure Balance (EPB) and slurry tunnel boring machines have made the safe
construction of tunnels in soft ground beneath the water table both technically and
economically feasible.
In response to the high capital costs for such tunnel boring machines and ever-
increasing labor costs, the trend for improvements in segment quality and tunneling
697
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Table 1. Details of NOS-ECIS and NEIS projects

Mined Excavated Lining Segment Carrier
Tunnel Length Diameter I.D. Lining Thickness Lengths Pipe I.D.
ECIS 8.5 km 4714 mm 4150 mm 200 mm 1372 & 1524 mm 3350 mm
(5.3 miles) (15´6˝) (13´7˝) (8˝) (4´6˝ & 5´0˝) (11´0˝)
NEIS 18.5 km 3924mm 3300 mm 200 mm 1219 & 1372 mm 2400 mm
(11.5 miles) (12´10˝) (10´10˝) (8˝) (4´0˝ & 4´6˝) (7´10˝)

productivity continues. Advancements have been made in materials (gasket, concrete,

reinforcing, and inserts), geometric design (longer rings, taper systems, segment shape),
erection sequence, construction tolerances, analytical capability (geomechanical software)
and overall segment quality.
This paper describes aspects of the design, manufacture and implementation of
an innovative segmental precast concrete lining system that can be efficiently
assembled within the tail shield of a TBM. This efficiency minimizes the time required
for the ring erection activity in the mining cycle; increasing machine utilization and
hence reducing tunneling costs. The system, jointly developed by the tunneling
contractor, segment manufacturer and their designer is currently being used on two
sewer projects in Los Angeles, California.

City of Los Angeles ECIS and NEIS Projects

The original North Outfall Sewer (NOS), constructed of clay tile-lined concrete
pipe in the 1920s still serves the Los Angeles area. The City of Los Angeles has
developed and is currently implementing a plan to relieve the NOS which includes two
tunnel projects currently under construction; the East-Central Interceptor Sewer
(ECIS) and the Northeast Interceptor Sewer (NEIS). The locations of both of these
projects are shown in Figure 1 and involve the construction of deep tunnels initially
supported by a gasketed, precast concrete segmental lining. After completion of
tunneling, a permanent carrier pipe will be installed into the tunnels and the annulus
between the initial segmental lining and the pre-cast pipes will be backfill grouted to
complete the permanent structure. In addition to the tunnels, both projects include a
number of drop structures for maintenance holes and junction structures. Reference is
made to Hanks et al. (1999) and Table 1 for more details of these projects.
The horizontal and vertical alignments of these sewers require tunneling beneath
the water table in varying soft ground (mostly alluvial) soils in an urban environment. In
order to minimize the potential for surface settlements and to limit groundwater inflows,
the bid documents have specified the use of EPB machines and gasketed, precast
concrete segmental initial lining systems with schedule deadlines calling for ECIS
construction to be completed by November, 2003 and NEIS by November, 2004. To
meet these targets, the contracts require the simultaneous use of 4 TBMs on ECIS and
3 machines on NEIS.
The ECIS construction contractor is the Kenny Shea Traylor Frontier-Kemper,
Joint Venture and NEIS will be constructed by the Traylor Shea Frontier-Kemper Kenny
joint venture. Segment manufacture for both ECIS and NEIS is being carried out by the
Traylor Shea Ghazi Precast (TSGP) who retained Hatch Mott MacDonald (HMM) to
undertake the design of both lining systems.
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SEGMENT DESIGN FOR TUNNELING PRODUCTIVITY 699

Figure 1. Location map for ECIS and NEIS Projects

DESIGN
For both ECIS and NEIS projects, the lining design process consisted of:

Development of a practical geometrical arrangement for the segments

Review and synthesis of geotechnical conditions from owner provided geotech-
nical data and baseline reports,

Establishment of appropriate ground constitutive behavior and appropriate
parameters

Development and execution of numerical models to establish ground-lining
interaction and corresponding lining stresses,

Confirmation of segment thickness and concrete strength,

Selection of gasket and lining connection devices,

Design and detailing of segment reinforcement and

Preparation of detailed fabrication drawings.

Geometric Design
Contract documents provided a lining design for bidding, but the contractor was to
augment and detail the design to be compatible with planned means and methods
using structural and geotechnical design information in a performance based
specification, structural drawings and geotechnical reports. Consequently, the
contractor’s design differs significantly from the bid design.
The diameter of each lining system was selected on the basis of contract
requirements and construction tolerances for installation of the permanent carrier pipe.
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Figure 2. Cross section view of ECIS and NEIS segment designs

Figure 3. Developed view along Intrados of NEIS segment designs

Segment geometry including joint orientations and length was largely based on
compatibility with the TBM tail shield and desired efficiencies with respect to ring
erection. The thickness and internal diameter of both lining systems were selected on
the basis of the owner’s bid design, tolerances on mined tunnel alignment and
installation of the carrier pipe. The NEIS contract documents specified a minimum
lining thickness of 200mm (8˝). Despite differing diameters, the segment geometry was
similar for both projects (see Figures 2 and 3) and features of the segment ring
arrangement include:

six equal 60 degree gasketed segments

juxtaposed trapezoidal shaped key and counter-key segments,

parallelogram shaped sidewall segments

tapered rings for alignment adjustment

inclined radial joints at the key and counter-key segments and

circumferential joint connectors and bolted radial joints.
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SEGMENT DESIGN FOR TUNNELING PRODUCTIVITY 701

Figure 4. Typical segment joint connection details

On ECIS, three different ring configurations were developed:

Straight 1524mm constant length rings (measured parallel to tunnel axis) for
tangent alignments,

Nominal 1524mm, tapered ±7mm (i.e. 1531 to 1517mm rings) for 500m curve
radii and

Nominal 1372mm, tapered, ±23mm (i.e. 1349 to 1395mm rings) for 130 to
500m curve radii.
Two segment lengths were developed for the NEIS project:

Nominal 1372mm, tapered ±7mm (i.e. 1365 to 1379mm long rings) for tangent
sections and

Nominal 1219mm, tapered ±20mm (i.e. 1199 to 1239mm long rings) intended
for curves.
With the exception of the 1372mm long rings, all of the ECIS segments have a
formed invert channel on the counter-key intrados and threaded inserts to allow direct
fixation of construction rails. The ECIS 1372mm long rings and all of the NEIS
segments have a circular intrados to allow for ring “rolling.” The taper direction may be
changed by a relative rotation of the key segment position between adjacent rings (in
15o increments) that steers the installed lining position to follow the TBM along the
tunnel alignment. The position of the key is selected by measuring offsets between the
shield and the previously installed ring (springlines, crown and invert) with allowance
for the look-ahead position of the shield cylinder.
An advantage of using trapezoidal and parallelogram shaped segments is the
avoidance of cruciform joints for all ring-to-ring combinations (see Figure 3). The lining
must also contain EPB, tail void grouting and hydrostatic pressures. Consequently,
each segment incorporates an EPDM gasket (M 385 72 Phoenix gasket) installed in a
formed groove on the circumferential and radial joints near the extrados of the
segment (see Figure 4). Specific details were provided for segment edge stress relief,
chamfers, packing, bolt pockets, alignment indicators, gasket grooves and lifting and
grouting pockets. The contractors elected to grout through the segments and
consequently, threaded grout inserts were incorporated. Additional inserts have been
provided to allow quick suspension of construction utilities.

Numerical Modeling
Recent practice within the industry for the design of tunnel lining systems is to
consider the ground-structure interaction. This must consider the previous stress
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history of the ground, in-situ pressures, tunneling excavation effects (including EPB)
and timing of support installation. Consequently, a series of ground-structure
interaction numerical models were developed to simulate the tunnel construction
process. For these analyses, the following geotechnical parameters for each major soil
group were required:

Soil Strength Failure Criteria (e.g. Mohr-Coulomb) for each major soil group
— Undrained (total) shear strength (su)
— Effective Cohesion (c´)
— Effective angle of internal friction (f´)

Soil unit weights
— In situ moist unit weight (gwet)
— Effective unit weight (g´)

In situ lateral earth pressure coefficient (Ko, which establishes the insitu ground
stresses)

Soil Stiffness parameters
— Secant modulus (Es)
— Poisson’s ratio (m)
— Shear Modulus (Gs)
The available geotechnical information for each of the contracts was reviewed to
identify combinations of overburden depth, water table depth and soil strength and
stiffness parameters that would control the lining design. The collection of this
information represented the Geotechnical Design Basis for the Lining Design. In the
opinion of the authors, geotechnical investigations and reports should be structured to
provide direct measurements and design values of the above parameters. However,
experience has shown that this is not always the case and engineering judgment often
needs to be applied.

Modeling Earth Pressure Balance Effects

The main purpose of the Earth Pressure Balance (EPB) method of excavation is
to exert a counter-balancing pressure on the tunnel face that reduces excavation
induced ground movements by limiting the amount of stress redistribution. While this
has the beneficial effect of reducing surface settlements, it results in increased lining
loads in comparison to open mode tunneling methods. Consequently, information such
as planned EPB target pressures, annulus grout injection pressures and machine
over-cut (gap between excavated diameter and shield) is required to include the
construction sequence within the model.
To model the EPB effects, it was assumed that the ground was supported at the
tunnel face due to the effects of the EPB pressure and beyond the TBM tail shield by
the concrete lining and hardened grout. The actual amount of convergence is related
to the soil strength and stiffness and controls the portion of stress redistribution carried
by the ground mass and the lining. However, along the TBM shield, it was assumed
that a maximum convergence equal to the TBM over-cut gap could occur.
From this information, two-dimensional finite difference models were generated
that provided a design envelope of the anticipated conditions. The models were
analyzed using finite difference software developed by Itasca Consulting Group
(FLAC). Analysis results included ground stress plots, plasticity zones, lining axial
loads, bending moments, shears and deformed shape (see Figure 5).
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SEGMENT DESIGN FOR TUNNELING PRODUCTIVITY 703

Figures 5. Typical FLAC analysis stress contour plot

Figures 6. Typical NEIS segment axial force-bending moment interaction diagram

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Structural Design
The primary loading source is gravity earth loading with well-known unit weights
and overburden heights. Consequently, the loading was considered a dead load in
accordance with the City of Los Angeles Bureau of Engineering Structural Design
Manual (H 320) and a load factor of 1.4 was applied to the results obtained from FLAC
analyses for structural design. Provisions in the ACI 318–95 code were used for the
structural lining design with the lining considered to be a “wall” or “shell” for calculation
of capacity and minimum reinforcement requirements. A minimum concrete strength of
41.4 MPa (6000 psi) was selected for the design with reinforcement consisting of
deformed wire A496 steel with a minimum yield strength of 485 MPa (70 ksi).

Effect of Skewed Radial Joints

As the ground and hydrostatic loads develop on the lining, the internal forces will
be primarily axial loads due to the lining shape and relatively low radial joint stiffness.
As a consequence, relative radial joint rotations will occur producing torsional
moments within the segment due to the skewed radial joints. To estimate these effects,
a separate FE plate/shell analysis (STAAD Model software) was performed by
imposing the joint rotations obtained from the two-dimensional FLAC analyses on the
segments. These torque moments were then combined with the effects of joint thrust
eccentricity (due to joint detailing) and other segment bending moments obtained from
the FLAC analysis to estimate the maximum possible segment bending moment. For
the joint skews selected (1:5.4 for NOS-ECIS and 1:4 for NEIS) the torsional
resistance had a significant effect, producing large moments in the lining segments.
This analysis is conservative as observed joint rotations would be less due to
skewed joint stiffness, segment thrust, surrounding ground, friction and contact
between adjacent segments. For design, the maximum moments and thrusts from the
analyses were compared to the capacity of the section and selected reinforcement.
C-SECT software developed by Softek was used to obtain axial force-moment
interaction capacity curve. This is shown in Figure 6.

Other Analyses
Separate FLAC analyses of radial joints were performed by modeling two short
portions of segments meeting at the radial joint in order to verify that the joints are
capable withstand rotations calculated from other FLAC models. Strut-and-tie models
were used to size reinforcement along the radial joints and strength checks were
performed for segment handling, ring erection and TBM thrust loading conditions.

MANUFACTURE

Plant
Traylor Shea Ghazi Precast (TSGP) set up a dedicated manufacturing plant in
Littlerock, CA (northeast of Los Angeles) to produce nearly 40km (25 miles) of precast
concrete segmental tunnel liners in the L.A. area including the ECIS (18,126m or
59,470´) and NEIS (8,421m or 27,630´) tunnel projects. Additional segments will be
made for the MWD Arrowhead Tunnels to be constructed near San Bernardino, CA.
The precast concrete facility consists of two production lines housed in separate
structures, each approximately 1860 m2 (20,000 ft2). The plant is equipped with a twin-
mixer concrete batch plant and has 6.9 hectares (17 acres) of storage area (see
Figure 7). Figure 8 illustrates the flow of plant production. ECIS segment production
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SEGMENT DESIGN FOR TUNNELING PRODUCTIVITY 705

Figure 7. Segment plant, Littlerock, CA

Figure 8. Segment plant production flow diagram

commenced in November, 2001 and will be completed in February, 2003. Following

this, the plant will be modified for NEIS and Arrowhead production.

Molds
TSGP has procured 144 segment molds representing 24 complete rings for ECIS
and 84 molds representing 14 rings for NEIS. All molds were supplied by CBE of
Tours, France and were precision fabricated to tolerances of ±0.3mm on the width and
±0.4mm along the arc. To facilitate concrete consolidation, each mold includes
pneumatic vibrators mounted to the underside of the mold skin. Vibrators are activated
and controlled by the carousel operator during concrete placement. The side rails, end
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Figure 9. Segment handling in plant

Figure 10. Assembly of ECIS demonstration ring

rails, and top doors are all secured and can be opened or closed with the built-in screw
jacks or bolts.

Plant Equipment
The two production lines each have a dedicated concrete batch plant supplied by
Kabag Wiggert of Germany. CBE supplied all necessary equipment for two carousels
including the vacuum de-molding device, a segment turning rig and a machine to hold
the gasket in the precast groove during adhesive setting. Figure 9 shows segment
handling within the plant and Figure 10 shows assembly of demonstration rings for
ECIS. Both production carousels and batch plants are computer-controlled, so, at the
press of a button, the required volume and concrete mix can be prepared for each mold.
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SEGMENT DESIGN FOR TUNNELING PRODUCTIVITY 707

Segment Production
The segment production for NOS-ECIS Tunnel Project commenced November
2001 operating at a rate of 48 rings per day or 72m (237´) of tunnel and will be
completed in February 2003. The segment production for NEIS Tunnel Project will then
start at a planned rate of 28 rings per day equating to 37.8m (124´) of tunnel and be
completed in March 2004.

Quality
A quality program was developed and implemented by TSGP to assure that
segment manufacture is performed in accordance with Contract Drawings,
Specifications, HMM’s design and within Traylor Bros. Inc. ISO 9001 certification. This
plan was developed and submitted by TSGP and approved by the City of Los Angeles.
It outlines procedures for testing, checking and monitoring all materials and processes
from raw materials to the final product.
Each segment has a unique tracking identification number, which identifies
segment type, mold, casting date, production building and shift. For each segment, the
system can identify the labor, reinforcing mill certification, gasket and concrete raw
materials certifications, individual concrete batch tickets, concrete casting time,
vibration and steam curing times, achieved concrete strength during de-molding and at
28 days, the QC/QA engineer, city inspector, the time and shift the segment’s molds
was measured and the date of shipping.

Stacking, Storage and Shipping

Once the segments reach 13.7 MPa (2,000 psi) they can be stripped, handled and
stacked three-high using a custom designed lifting jig. These stacks are then picked up
by forklift with neoprene fork covers and moved to the storage yard. In the yard,
segments are stacked in complete rings (6 segments). The order in each stack
matches the ring build sequence to minimize handling. Once the segments reach the
required strength of 41.4 MPa (6,000 psi), the segments can be shipped. Delivery
sizes are limited by legal load limits; for ECIS, one truckload is two complete rings and
for NEIS, one truckload consists of three complete rings. Shipping for ECIS has been
very successful, considering that there are three delivery locations. Delivery rates have
averaged 20 loads/day with an achieved daily maximum of 43 loads.

IMPLEMENTATION

Ring Erection Sequence

The first step in erecting each ring is to select the key position. The erection
begins with the trapezoidal counter-key and then proceeds to erect the two adjacent
parallelogram segments on both sides of the counter-key by installing individual
segments in turn (2–3 with 3–4 and 1–6 with 6–5) and finishes with the key. This
sequence is necessary due to the nature of the skewed radial joints relative to the
tunnel drive direction. Once the key is installed and radial joint bolts have been
installed, the next excavation shove can begin and the cycle is repeated.
During closure of the ring, the key must be wedged into the space between the
two adjacent and previously erected segments. This requires the key segment
extrados to fit, with a reasonable clearance, past the intrados of these adjacent
segments requiring a longer tail shield or reduction of the maximum segment length for
a given minimum curve radius. These would limit the machine steering capabilities and
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Figure 11. Segments delivered and stored at shaft site (ECIS)

overall productivity. To mitigate this, the slope of the radial joints along the key and
counter-key segments were inclined relative to the radial direction (intrados out,
extrados in) to shorten the key segment travel distance.

Benefits
The combined use of Buclock couplers along the circumferential joint and skewed
radial joints reduces the time required for and improves the quality of ring builds.
Segments are inter-connected across the circumferential joints using plastic Buclock
dowels and by steel bolts across the radial joints. The dowels, in comparison to bolts,
allow faster ring erection and the option of flipping the leading-trailing ring edge
configuration allowing either up-down or left-right ring installation with the same ring
shape. This affords more options to orient the rings to maintain alignment. Aligning the
segments using the dowels also results in alignment of the gasket with the gasket of
adjacent segments prior to contact. This, combined with lubricating the gaskets with
soap results in a better gasket contact and less dragging during setting and hence less
chance of rolled, torn or offset gaskets.

Achieved Results
At time of writing (January, 2003), just over 6700m of tunnel have been
constructed on the ECIS project representing 37% of the lined length and all 4 TBMs
are now in operation. Segment manufacture is 98% complete and ahead of schedule.
All four TBMs are now in operation and reported ring erection times have consistently
been of the order of six minutes (Budd, 2002). Site observations confirm that the ring
erection has had virtually no impact on the mining cycle as it is easily accomplished in
the interval between the end of mining and prior to the arrival of next muck train.
Discussions with mining crews and inspection staff also confirm that the segments
build quickly with only a 2 to 3 miner crew (including TBM operator running the
segment erector). Figures 11 and 12 show on site ECIS segment operations.
The progress plot of Unit 2 East (from Inlet Siphon to Arlington Shaft, 26+00 to
74+60) shown in Figure 13 indicates a slow, initial progress characteristic of the
learning curve associated with most tunneling operations. However, a steady increase
in productivity is easily discerned and it is evident from Figure 13 that crews have
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SEGMENT DESIGN FOR TUNNELING PRODUCTIVITY 709

Figure 12. ECIS segment erection in tunnel

Figure 13. Plot of ECIS Unit 2W tunneling progress (Jan./03)

achieved a consistent, sustained mining rate from August, 2002 to January, 2003 of
109m per week on a single shift, exceeding the 91m per week baseline. By means of
extrapolation it is further evident that operations on this unit should meet the overall
schedule. Unit 4 West is approximately 44% complete and does not show the same
progress as Unit 2 East. Progress has been hampered by the presence of boulders,
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Figure 14. ECIS tunnel lining

cutter changes and face grouting. Mining on Unit 3 has just started but is showing
promise with a relatively short learning curve and recently achieved weekly advance
rates (double shifts) of 172m (564´) and 215m (705´). These achieved rates further
support the efficacy of the segment design for not controlling the mine cycle and
allowing the achievement of high rates of tunneling. Unit 1 has had a late start to TBM
operations and initial mining has been hampered due to a shared access shaft with
other mining operations. A view of the lined tunnel is shown in Figure 14.
Reported ring and segment deficiencies are minor with some light cracking and
spalling observed along limited lengths (learning curve periods) but with lining
condition well within the design intent. Ring builds look good and the benefit of the
invert segment utilizing direct fixation rails is evident.

REFERENCES:
Bartlet, J.V., Noskiewicz, T.M. and Ramsay, J.A., (1971), “Precast Concrete Tunnel
Linings for the Toronto Subway,” Journal of Construction Division, Paper 8498,
ASCE, New York, N.Y., November 1971.
Budd, Ted (2002), Personal conversation with Gary Kramer, December, 2002.
Hanks, K., Fong, F., Edgerton, W. and Miya, B. (1999), “City of Los Angeles—Large
Diameter Interceptor Sewer Tunnels,” Proceedings Rapid Excavating and
Tunneling Conference, Orlando, 1999, pp. 307–329.
McBean, R.J. and Harris, D.A. (1970), “The Development of High Speed Ground
Tunneling Using Precast Concrete Segments and Tunneling Machines,”
Proceedings South African Conference on Tunnelling, Johannesburg, Africa, pp.
129–134.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:
The authors would like to thank the ECIS and NEIS contractors: Kenny Shea
Traylor Frontier-Kemper and Traylor Shea Frontier-Kemper Kenny Joint Ventures for
their contributions to this work. Additionally, we would like to thank Amarat
Wipaghathagit of Jacobs Associates for provision of ECIS progress data.