Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 109 (2007) 373–379 DOI 10.1002/ejlt.

200600264 373

Ping Tou Gee Analytical characteristics of crude and refined palm

Palm Nutraceuticals Sdn. Bhd.,
Johore, Malaysia
oil and fractions
Palm oil provides significantly higher amounts of oil/ha than any other commercial oil
crop. Palm oil can be physically refined and fractionated into various fractions, ranging
from very hard palm stearin with iodine values below 10 to palm superolein with iodine
values as high as 72. Palm mid fractions consisting of symmetrical triacylglycerols
provide sharp-melting fats for niche applications. The wide range of palm oil fractions
provides versatility for different food applications, with the additional advantage that
natural palm oil is trans free and genetic modification free. Palm oil and its fractions are
widely used for direct blending with other oils or are interesterified with other oils to
meet the trans-free fat requirements of the food industry. The sn-2 position of palm oil
triacylglycerols is mainly esterified with oleic and linoleic acid. This provides better
bioavailability of oleic acid as monounsaturated fatty acid and linoleic acid as an
essential fatty acid, as compared to oils or fats with similar composition but with ran-
domized fatty acid distribution. Crude palm oil also contains highly valuable minor
components, including carotenoids and tocotrienols, which are potent fat-soluble
antioxidants. Recent research findings on potential chemo-preventive and che-
motherapeutic roles of tocotrienols are extremely encouraging.

Keywords: Palm oil, fractions, characteristics, sn-2 position, trans free.

1 Introduction required if other low-oil-yield annual crops such as rape-

The oil palm, Elaeis guineesis Jacq., originates from the
Guinea Coast of Africa. The oil palm is a monocotyledon
perennial tree crop and has about 25 years of economical
life cycle. The oil palm plantation assimilates 44 tonnes of
dry matter/ha/year, significantly more than the
25.7 tonnes of dry matter/ha/year by a rainforest. The dry
matter production remains high throughout the 25-year
economic life cycle of the oil palm plantation, after which
the oil palm can be replanted. The long economical life
cycle and the closed canopy of the oil palm plantation
support stable ecosystems, although the surrounding
seed or soybean are to be planted. Malaysia produced
14,961,658 tonnes of crude palm oil (CPO) out of
74,280,593 tonnes of fresh fruit bunches (FFB) harvested
from 4,049,201 ha of oil palm plantation land in 2005 [1].
Currently, there are 395 palm oil mills and 63 palm oil
refineries in Malaysia [1].
The commercial crop (tenera fruit type) is a hybrid be-
tween dura and pisifera fruit types. A palm fruit produces
two distinct types of oil: orange-red crude palm oil from
the mesocarp and brownish yellow crude palm kernel oil
from the seeds. The former consists of mainly palmitic

Review Article
flora and fauna biodiversity cannot match that of a tropi- and oleic acids whereas the latter is a main source of
cal rainforest. lauric-based oil.

The oil palm is a high-oil-yield crop, producing on average

3.80 tonnes of oil/ha, as compared to 0.56 and
0.35 tonnes of oil/ha for rapeseed and soybean oil,
respectively. In view of the foreseeable shortfall of oils and
fats due to the diversion of oils and fats into biofuel, palm
oil will be the most efficient oil crop to fill up the shortfall,
without sacrificing too much of forest land, which will be
2 Processing of palm oil and its fractions
FFB are sterilized by steam at the palm oil mill and the
sterilized fruits are extracted mechanically to produce
CPO and palm kernels. Crude palm kernel oil is obtained
by mechanical pressing of palm kernels by expellers.

CPO contains relatively high amounts of free fatty acids

Correspondence: Ping Tou Gee, Palm Nutraceuticals Sdn. Bhd.,
Batu 7, Jalan Mawai, 81900 Kota Tinggi, Johore, Malaysia.
Phone: 1607 8823787, Fax: 1607 8832787, e-mail: geept@tm.
net.my
and low amounts of phospholipids as compared to seed
oils. Physical refining of CPO is preferred over the chemi-
cal refining. CPO is refined at the palm oil refinery to
remove undesirable impurities, producing refined,

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

374 P. T. Gee Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 109 (2007) 373–379

bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm oil. Although palm
oil can be processed into neutralized, bleached and deo-
dorized palm oil, the quantity of chemically refined palm
oil is very small as compared to the physically refined
RBD palm oil.
At the palm oil refinery, CPO is treated with ortho-phos-
phoric acid for gum-conditioning, with bleaching earth for
bleaching, and then filtered to remove the gums and
adsorbed impurities. The bleached oil is then deacidified
and deodorized at 250–265 7C under vacuum (,5 mmHg)
with steam stripping. Free fatty acids, odoriferous and
other volatile components are distilled and removed as
palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD), whereas the oil after
deacidification and deodorization is the RBD palm oil.
The semi-solid palm oil can be fractionated into palm
olein (the liquid fraction) and palm stearin (the solid frac-
tion). Detergent fractionation is used for fractionation of
CPO, whereas dry fractionation is normally used for frac-
tionation of RBD palm oil. Solvent fractionation is only
used for fractionation of high-value-added products such
as good-quality palm mid fraction. Multiple fractionations
can be carried out in order to achieve products with the
desired characteristics. Fractionation involves crystal-
lization at lower temperatures, followed by a filtration step
to separate the liquid and solid fractions.
3 Composition and characteristics of CPO
Just like other oils and fats, the main component of palm
oil is triacyglycerols. All the unsaturated fatty acids in
palm oil triacylglycerols are having cis-configuration.
Commercial palm oil is also free from genetic modification
(GM), therefore all natural palm oil products should be
considered as having the same status of identity-pre-
served products. Tab. 1 summarizes the triacylglycerol
composition in palm oil [2]. 1-Palmitoyl-2,3-dioleoyl-sn-
glycerol and 1,3-dipalmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycerol are the
main triacylglycerols in palm oil; each constitutes about
one fifth of the total triacylglycerol content. The semi-solid
nature of CPO at room temperature (about 30 7C) is due to
the presence of a wide spectrum of triacylglycerols,
comprising saturated triacylglycerols and triacylglycerols
with one, two, three, four or more double bonds.
The triacylglycerol composition reveals that the sn-2
position of palm oil triacylglycerols is mainly esterified
with unsaturated fatty acids (.58.25% oleic acid and
.18.41% linoleic acid). Dietary fat is hydrolyzed into fatty
acids and 2-monoacyl-sn-glycerols during digestion. Re-
esterification of 2-monoacyl-sn-glycerols with other
available dietary fatty acids into triacylglycerols shall
constitute as body fat. While fatty acids at the sn-1 and
sn-3 positions are hydrolyzed and may or may not be re-
esterified, the sn-2 position of dietary fat will remain intact
when converted into body fat.
The low polyunsaturated fatty acid content and high
levels of antioxidants in palm oil provide good oxidative
stability whereas the preferential enrichment of oleic and
linoleic acids in the sn-2 position provides better
bioavailabilty of oleic acid as monounsaturated fatty acid
and linoleic acid as essential fatty acid, as compared to
oils and fats of similar composition but with randomized
fatty acid distribution.

Tab. 1. Triacylglycerol composition of palm oil [2].

Saturated 1 double bond 2 double bonds 3 double bonds 4 double bonds

[%] [%] [%] [%] [%]

MPP 0.29 MOP 0.83 MLP 0.26 MLO 0.14 PLL 1.08
PMP 0.22 MPO 0.15 MOO 0.43 PLO 6.59 OLO 1.71
PPP 6.91 POP 20.02 PLP 6.36 POL 3.39 OOL 1.76
PPS 1.21 POS 3.50 PLS 1.11 SLO 0.60 OLL 0.56
PSP 0.12 PMO 0.22 PPL 1.17 SOL 0.30 LOL 0.14
PPO 7.16 SPL 0.10 OSL 0.11
PSO 0.68 POO 20.54 OOO 5.38
SOS 0.15 SOO 1.81 OPL 0.61
SPO 0.63 OPO 1.86
OSO 0.18
Others 0.16 0.34 0.19 0.15 0.22
Total 9.57 33.68 34.01 17.27 5.47

M, myristic acid; P, palmitic acid; S, stearic acid; O, oleic acid; L, linoleic acid.

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 109 (2007) 373–379 Analytical characteristics of crude and refined palm oil 375

Tab. 2. Fatty acid composition of palm oil, palm olein and palm stearin [3].

Fatty acid Palm oil [%] Palm olein [%] Palm stearin [%]

Lauric, 12:0 0.10–0.40 (0.24) 0.20–0.40 (0.27) 0.10–0.30 (0.18)

Myristic, 14:0 1.00–1.40 (1.11) 0.90–1.20 (1.09) 1.10–1.70 (1.27)
Palmitic, 16:0 40.90–47.50 (44.14) 36.80–43.20 (40.93) 49.80–68.10 (56.79)
Stearic, 18:0 3.80–4.80 (4.44) 3.70–4.80 (4.18) 3.90–5.60 (4.93)
Oleic, 18:1 36.40–41.20 (39.04) 39.80–44.60 (41.51) 20.40–34.40 (29.00)
Linoleic, 18:2 9.20–11.60 (10.57) 10.40–12.90 (11.64) 5.00–8.90 (7.23)
Linolenic, 18:3 0.05–0.60 (0.37) 0.10–0.60 (0.40) 0.00–0.50 (0.09)
Arachidoic, 20:0 0.20–0.70 (0.38) 0.30–0.50 (0.37) 0.00–0.50 (0.24)

Values in parentheses are the mean values.

Oils and fats are often characterized by their fatty acid diacylglycerols are not affected by the refining processes.
composition. Oils and fats are transesterified into fatty These components are hydrolytic metabolites and also
acid methyl esters (FAME) and FAME can be determined biosynthetic intermediates of triacylglycerols. While 1,3-
by gas-liquid chromatography. Tab. 2 summarizes the diacyl-sn-glycerols are the main diacylglycerols in CPO as
fatty acid composition of palm oil and its fractions. The they are thermodynamically more stable than 1,2-diacyl-
fatty acid composition is less informative than the tri- sn-glycerols, the chiral 1,2-diacyl-sn-glycerols are the
acylglycerol composition, but the gas-liquid chromato- indigenous diacylglycerols in the palm fruits [5]. Dia-
gram is easier to interpret due to lesser components. The cylglycerols are considered undesirable in palm oil, as
main fatty acids are palmitic acid (44.1%), oleic acid they affect crystallization and clarity of palm olein upon
(39.0%) and linoleic acid (10.6%). By using a highly polar storage [6]. Synthetic diacylglycerol cooking oil, obtained
column (not shown in the Tab. 2), small quantities (,1%) by interesterification of rapeseed or soybean oil with
of palmitoleic acid (cis-9-hexadecenoic acid) and asce- glycerol, is used as anti-obesity functional food in Japan
leptic acid (cis-11-octadecenoic acid, also called cis- and the USA.
vaccinic acid) can be detected besides oleic acid (cis-9-
octadecenoic acid).
4 Minor components
CPO also contains free fatty acids (,5%), mono-
acylglycerols (0.21–0.34%) and diacylglycerols (5.3– CPO is the richest natural source of carotenoids and
7.7%) [4]. Tab. 3 summarizes the effects of fractionation tocotrienols. Both carotenoids and tocotrienols are
and refining on the monoacylglycerols and diacylglycer- potent fat-soluble antioxidants. It is interesting to note
ols. While monoacylglycerols are reduced after refining, that the commercial values of carotenoids and toco-
trienols in CPO exceed that of the CPO they are derived
from. Other minor components have lower commercial
Tab. 3. Effect of fractionation and refining on mono- values. Tab. 4 summarizes the minor components of
acylglycerols and diacylglycerols [4]. CPO.
Monoacyl- Diacyl- The carotenoids (500–700 ppm) are responsible for the
glycerols glycerols characteristic orange-red color of CPO. Tab. 5 sum-
[%] [%] marizes the carotenoids present in CPO. The main car-
otenes present in CPO are b-carotene (56%) and a-car-
Crude palm oil 0.26 6.6
Bleached and degummed palm oil 0.17 6.7 otene (35%). Both b-carotene and a-carotene are provi-
RBD palm oil 0.08 6.9 tamin A. All carotenoids are destroyed during the normal
Crude palm olein 0.24 7.3 refining processes. Processes are available to refine red
Bleached and degummed palm olein 0.16 7.2 palm oil without destroying the carotenoids. There are at
RBD palm olein 0.07 7.4 least three companies in Malaysia producing refined red
Crude palm stearin 0.41 4.2 palm oil.
Bleached and degummed palm stearin 0.27 4.3
RBD palm stearin 0.05 4.2 Tocotrienols are the most valuable component in CPO.
Tab. 6 summarizes the vitamin E composition of CPO.
RBD, refined, bleached and deodorized. a-Tocomonoenol, with a double bond at carbon-11’ of the

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376 P. T. Gee Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 109 (2007) 373–379

Tab. 4. Minor components of crude palm oil. noenol levels were 12.8 and 40 mg/kg, respectively. The
tocopherol and tocotrienol profile in palm oil is distinctly
Component Total in CPO [mg/kg] different from that of all other oils and fats. It should be
Carotenoids [7] 500–700 noted that the natural sources for tocotrienols are scarce.
Squalene [8] 200–500
Recent reviews revealed that tocotrienols are potentially
Non-terpenoid hydrocarbons [9] 30–50
a-Tocopherol 1 tocotrienols [7] 600–1000 better chemo-prevention and chemotherapy agents for
Sterols [10] 362–627 degenerative diseases [24, 25] than a-tocopherol. For the
Triterpenic alcohols [11, 12] 40–80 past half a century, misconceptions and lack of under-
Methylsterol [12] 40–80 standing have misled the clinical scientists to conduct
Dolichols 1 polyprenols [13] 81 research on a-tocopherol only. Clinical outcomes from
Ubiquinones [14] 10–80 a-tocopherol human intervention trials were very dis-
Phospholipids [15] 5–130 appointing, ineffective, and some even with negative cor-
Glycolipids [16] 1033–3780
relations.

The fate of the tocotrienols during refining is different from

that of the carotenoids. A small quantity of the toco-
Tab. 5. Carotenoid composition of CPO [17].
trienols is adsorbed by the bleaching earth. High-perfor-
Carotene Composition [%] mance liquid chromatography indicates that the double
bonds along the farnesyl side chains of some of the
Phytoene 1.27 tocotrienols in PFAD are partially degraded during the
Phytofluene 0.06 steam distillation. Other degraded products derived from
cis-b-Carotene 0.68 tocotrienols have been reported in PFAD [9]. The deaci-
b-Carotene 56.02
dification and deodorization conditions (temperature and
a-Carotene 35.16
cis-a-Carotene 2.49 vacuum) determine the quantity and quality of toco-
z-Carotene 0.69 trienols that are distilled into PFAD.
g-Carotene 0.33
d-Carotene 0.83 The volatile minor components such as non-terpenoid
Neurosporene 0.29 hydrocarbons, squalene and sterols are also distilled as
b-Zeacarotene 0.23 PFAD, together with vitamin E and degraded products
Lycopene 1.30 from carotenoids. The polar components such as phos-
pholipids and glycolipids are adsorbed by the bleaching
earth and subsequently removed by filtration.

Tab. 6. Vitamin E composition of CPO.

Vitamin E Composition [%] 5 Palm oil fractions

§
[18] [19] [20] [21] Mean The fatty acid compositions of a single fractionated palm
a-Tocopherol 22.4 28.2 31.0 27.1 27.2 olein and palm stearin are given in Tab. 2, together with
g-Tocopherol Trace – – – – that of palm oil. During fractionation, unsaturated fatty
a-Tocotrienol 21.0 19.5 14.8 28.6 21.0 acids are preferentially distributed in the palm olein
b-Tocotrienol 2.9 4.0 2.2 1.4 2.6 whereas saturated fatty acids are preferentially distribut-
g-Tocotrienol 41.5 39.0 41.4 28.7 37.7 ed in the palm stearin. Diacylglycerols, squalene, car-
d-Tocotrienol 12.1 9.4 10.7 14.2 11.6 otenoids, tocopherol and tocotrienols are also pre-
ferentially distributed in the palm olein. On the other hand,
§
Mean of the values from the four references. Data are monoacylglycerols, sterols and phospholipids are pre-
normalized for comparison. ferentially distributed in the palm stearin.

Tab. 7 summarizes the chemical and physical character-

hydrocarbon side chain, was first isolated and structurally
elucidated by mass spectroscopy and proton nuclear
magnetic resonance spectroscopy [22]. a-Tocomonoenol
is normally not reported and its significance is unknown. A
literature search revealed that there were two reports [22,
23] on a-tocomonoenol in palm oil, and the a-tocomo-
istics of palm oil and its fractions. The iodine value is a
measure of unsaturation in oils and fats. Theoretically, it
can be calculated from the fatty acid composition, but in
practice, it is usually determined by titration using the Wijs
method. The ranges for both the fatty acid composition
and the iodine value of palm stearin are very wide. These

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Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 109 (2007) 373–379 Analytical characteristics of crude and refined palm oil 377

Tab. 7. Characteristics of RBD palm oil and its fractions [3, 26].

Parameter Palm oil Palm olein Palm stearin

Iodine value 50.09–54.91 (52.07) 55.57–61.87 (56.75) 27.84–45.13 (37.74)

Slip melting point [7C] 33.00–39.00 (36.72) 19.20–23.60 (21.45) 46.60–53.80 (51.44)
Refractive index# 1.4544–1.4550 (1.4548) 1.4589–1.4592 (1.4589) 1.4482–1.4501 (1.4493)
Apparent density [g/mL] 0.8896–0.8910 (0.8899) 0.8969–0.8977 (0.8972) 0.8813–0.8844 (0.8822)
Solid fat content [%] at
10 7C 46.1–60.8 (53.7) 23.9–45.5 (38.3) 49.5–84.1 (76.0)
15 7C 33.4–50.8 (39.1) 10.7–25.9 (19.9) 37.2–79.0 (68.9)
20 7C 21.6–31.3 (26.1) 0.0–9.0 (5.7) 25.2–71.2 (60.2)
25 7C 12.1–20.7 (16.3) 0.0–4.3 (2.1) 15.8–63.5 (50.6)
30 7C 6.1–14.3 (10.5) 11.2–55.0 (40.4)
35 7C 3.5–11.7 (7.9) 7.2–46.6 (34.3)
40 7C 0.0–8.3 (4.6) 6.1–38.0 (28.1)
45 7C 1.0–32.2 (22.4)
50 7C 0.0–21.3 (12.5)
55 7C 0.0–9.1 (0.6)

#
Refractive index and apparent density for palm oil, palm olein and palm stearin were measured at
50, 40 and 60 7C respectively. Values in parentheses are the mean values.

wide ranges are due to the methods and conditions used
in the fractionation. Detergent fractionation produces very
hard stearin (with low iodine values) whereas dry frac-
tionation produces intermediate and soft palm stearin,
depending on the rate of crystallization.
By further fractionation of palm olein, palm superolein and
palm mid fractions can be obtained. The iodine value for
palm superolein is within the range of 64–72 whereas
iodine values for palm mid fractions have a range of 32–
48. Palm superolein has a low cloud point (,3 7C) and can
be used in colder climates. Palm mid fractions contain
mainly 1,3-dipalmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycerol and lesser
amounts of 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-3-stearyl-sn-glycerol,
are sharp-melting fats and can be used for formulation
into cocoa butter equivalent and confectionery fats.
Similarly, palm stearin can be further fractionated into
very hard stearin and palm mid fractions. The palm mid
fractions obtained from the stearin fraction usually con-
tain too high amounts of tripalmitoylglycerol, but can be
further processed into good-quality palm mid fractions.
By the fractionation process alone (without hydrogena-
tion), very hard palm stearin with iodine values of less than
10 can be achieved. This hard stearin can be used for
interesterification with oleic acid to produce 1,3-dioleoyl-
2-palmitoyl-sn-glycerol. 1,3-Dioleoyl-2-palmitoyl-sn-
glycerol is used in infant formulations, imitating the human
milk.
To overcome the adverse effects of trans fatty acids on
cardiovascular diseases, palm oil and its fractions are
widely used for direct blending with other oils or are
interesterified with other oils to meet the trans-free fat
requirements of the food industry.
Other chemical characteristics of palm oil and its frac-
tions given in Tab. 7 are refractive index, apparent
density, slip melting point and solid fat contents at
various temperatures. These parameters provide infor-
mation on the physical properties of palm oil and its
fractions.
6 Specifications for CPO
In the past, CPO was traded on free fatty acids (5%
maximum) and moisture and impurities (0.25% maximum)
as the contractual parameters. Recently, an additional
parameter, deterioration of bleachability index (DOBI)
value of 2.3 minimum was included. For CPO’s future
trading, the free fatty acids and DOBI of CPO to be deliv-
ered into the port tank installations are 4% maximum and
2.5 minimum, respectively.
The DOBI is a unique parameter for CPO and was devel-
oped by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board. It is a ratio of the
absorbance at 446 nm to that at 269 nm. The former
measures the carotene content whereas the latter meas-
ures the secondary oxidation products. The DOBI is a
good indicator for the ease of bleaching of the CPO in the
refinery. The higher the DOBI value, the easier is the CPO
to be refined. A review on DOBI was given by Siew and
Gee [27].

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

378 P. T. Gee
Tab. 8. PORAM standard specifications for processed palm oil [28].
Products FFA [%] M&I [%]
RBD palm oil 0.1 max. 0.1 max.
Crude palm olein 5 max. 0.25 max.
RBD palm olein 0.1 max. 0.1 max.
Crude palm stearin 5 max. 0.25 max.
RBD palm stearin 0.2 max. 0.15 max.
PORAM, Palm Oil Refiners Association of Malaysia; FFA, free fatty acid, expressed as palmitic acid;
M&I, moisture and impurities; IV, iodine value determined by Wijs method; M.Pt, melting point,
determined by AOCS Cc 3-25; Colour, colour determined by Lovibond tintometer mode “E” AF900 or
Model “D” AF702 in 5¼” cell, in red unit; RBD, refined, bleached and deodorized.
7 Specifications for processed palm oil
The bulk of CPO in Malaysia is processed into RBD palm
oil, RBD palm olein and RBD palm stearin. Smaller quan-
tities of crude palm olein and crude palm stearin are also
being produced. Their basic specifications are given in
Tab. 8 [28]. More stringent specifications involving more
parameters are not uncommon. Specifications for speci-
alty and niche products are subjected to negotiations
between buyer and seller.
8 Conclusions
The fatty acids in palm oil triacylglycerols are trans free
and GM free. The bulk of CPO is physically refined. The
semi-solid palm oil with iodine values around 52 can be
fractionated into a wide range of products with various
iodine values ranging from less than 10 to more than 70.
The trans-free liquid palm olein, palm mid fractions, and
soft and hard palm stearin are excellent materials for
trans-free food formulations and applications. Both the
minor components and fatty acid distribution at the sn-2
position are contributing to the stability and nutritional
value of palm oil and its fractions.
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[Received: November 26, 2006; accepted: February 2, 2007]
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