472 Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol.

102 (2000) 472–486

Jiří Čmolíka, Physical refining of edible oils

Jan Pokorný b
a Development Department,
SETUZA A.S., Ústí nad
Labem, Czech Republic
b Department of Food
Chemistry and Analysis,
Institute of Chemical
Technology, Prague,
Czech Republic
Crude oils obtained by oilseed processing have to be refined before the consumption
in order to remove undesirable accompanying substances. The traditional alkali refin-
ing is often replaced by physical refining in which the use of chemicals is reduced. The
most widely used method is steam refining. The crude oil quality is very important in
order to obtain high quality refined oil. Furthermore, the oil should be efficiently
degummed to remove phospholipids as well as heavy metals and bleached to remove
pigments. The most important step consists of the application of superheated steam
under low pressure and at temperatures higher than 220 °C. Both free fatty acids and
objectionable volatiles, formed by cleavage of lipid oxidation products, are removed. A
disadvantage is the partial loss of tocopherols. Side reactions, particularly isomeriza-
tion of polyunsaturated fatty acids, should be minimized. The quality of physically re-
fined oil is close to that of alkali refined oils, but losses of neutral oil are lower and the
environment is less polluted. Among other methods of physical refining the application
of selective membranes is promising.

Keywords: Bleaching, degumming, edible oils, membrane refining, physical refining,

steam refining.

1 Introduction Tab. 1. Minor substances present in crude fats and oils.

Animal fats and vegetable oils are consumed because of Substance Typical Deteriorating
the content of triacylglycerols, but they do not consist on- class representatives effect
ly of triacylglycerols, at least when they are obtained from Oxidation Volatile aldehydes,
natural materials using industrial processing. They also products ketones, hydrocarbons Off-flavors
contain several groups of accompanying substances
Free fatty Saturated and Lower oxidative
which may be useful as nutrients, but at the same time acids unsaturated stability,
they are either objectionable from the point of view of fatty acids impaired
sensory value (they affect the taste, odor, color, and functional
appearance) or from the point of view of functional prop- properties
erties. The most important groups of these minor sub-
Phospholipids Lower oxidative
stances are listed in Tab. 1. The composition of accompa-
Review Article

stability
nying substances is influenced by processing methods,
e.g. oilseed conditioning increases the content of phos- Pigments Chlorophylls, Lower sensory
pholipids and other minor substances in the extracted oil. carotenoids, properties
myoglobin

2 Traditional refining procedures
Crude vegetable oils are only rarely used without previ-
ous refining except virgin olive oil. The oldest refining
methods were based on the removal of free fatty acids for
the following reason. In the most common European tra-
ditional fats and oils, olive oil prevailed in the Mediter-
ranean countries while pork lard and butter prevailed in
the Northern part of Europe. High quality products had
low free fatty acid content, on the other hand high acid
value was characteristic for low quality products. There-
Correspondence: Jiří Čmolík, SETUZA A.S., CZ-401 29 Ústí
nad Labem, Czech Republic. Phone: +420 47 5292291, Fax:
+420 47 529 3999; e-mail: jiri.cmolik@setuza.cz
Metal salts Iron and copper Lower oxidative
compounds stability
fore, the refining plant wished to produce edible fats and
oils with very low acid values, even though free fatty acids
are not objectionable, unless present in high amounts. Up
to now, most customers still connect low acid value with
high product quality.
Free fatty acids could be easily removed by washing
crude fat or oil with a solution of sodium hydroxide or sodi-
um carbonate. Therefore, the process was called alkali
refining. It is still used, in a more sophisticated form, in
many factories. Alkali refining alone improved the product
quality, but it was not sufficient to remove all objectionable
substances so that other refining steps had to be intro-

© WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH, 69451 Weinheim, 2000 0931-5985/2000/0707-0472 $17.50+.50/0

Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102 (2000) 472–486 Physical refining of edible oils 473

Tab. 2. Importance of refining steps in the case of the tra-
ditional process.
Refining step Substances removed
Hydration, degumming Phospholipids,
other polar lipids (gums)
Neutralization Free fatty acids,
residual phospholipids, metals
Bleaching Pigments, residual soaps,
and phospholipids
Deodorization Volatile oxidation products
and other contaminants
duced (Tab. 2). Phospholipids and other polar lipids were
removed by alkali refining with free fatty acids, but it was
soon found that it would be better to remove phospho-
lipids in a separate step consisting of heating crude raw
material with water or an aqueous solution of phosphoric
acid. The sedimented materials, called gums, could be
removed by centrifuging and used separately from free
fatty acids, removed by the subsequent alkali refining.
Pigments were removed by bleaching with bleaching clay
or charcoal, and volatile substances were removed by
distillation with steam at high temperatures and under
reduced pressure. The resulting product was nearly
colorless, bland with no appreciable flavor, and had a
good stability on storage.
Alkali refining generally is used in food industry, but
it has several disadvantages: 1. the procedure is rather
expensive, 2. losses of neutral triacylglycerols occur
which are high especially in raw materials with original
high free fatty acid content, 3. the procedure is time con-
suming, 4. energy requirements are high, 5. wastes cont-
aminate the environment. For these reasons, an alterna-
tive way of refining was developed. Other chemical refin-
ing methods, such as refining with mineral acids, are only
extremely rarely used for edible oil production.
3 Physical refining
In methods of physical refining, free fatty acids are re-
moved from crude oils by physical methods only without
the application of sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate
[1]. Strictly speaking, even in physical refining processing
steps are included which require chemicals. Several
physical procedures have been developed. Most of them
are only of historical interest, but many procedures may
become useful in the future and only a few are considered
as practicable in the industry nowadays. Most technolo-
gists use only one or two procedures best suitable for
their particular conditions, not being aware of a multitude
of other procedures which could be used in other factories
or under different processing conditions. Therefore, an
overview of methods for physical refining of crude veg-
etable oils is given in Tab. 3 including those methods
which now may be assumed as not important. Steam re-
fining is the only large-scale practicable method used in
the industry nowadays, and it is mostly this method, con-
nected with efficient degumming and bleaching, which is
understood by speaking of physical refining. Neverthe-
less, membrane technologies have good perspectives in
the future. Earlier methods of physical refining, with the
emphasis on steam refining, were critically reviewed soon
after the introduction of the procedure [2].

Tab. 3. Methods of physical refining of crude vegetable oils.

Procedure Principle
Steam refining (proper physical refining) Removal of fatty acids and other volatiles by superheated steam at
200–270 °C at low pressure after preliminary degumming and bleaching
steps.
Inert gas stripping Removal of free fatty acids in a stream of inert gas (nitrogen).
Molecular distillation Removal of more volatile components, including free fatty acids, from less
volatile triacylglycerols at very low pressure, without application of steam.
Membrane refining Treatment of crude oils under pressure with selective membranes,
permeable for free fatty acids, but not permeable for triacylglycerols.
Hermetic system Treatment of oil at high temperature and pressure, followed by centrifugation
of precipitates, followed by steam refining.
Extraction with solvents Selective removal of fatty acids by countercurrent distribution between
immiscible solvents, one dissolving selectively free acids, another one
selectively extracting triacylglycerols.
Refining with supercritical carbon dioxide Removal of free fatty acids and other impurities using supercritical
carbon dioxide.
Cholesterol removal Purification of animal fats from cholesterol, most often by steam refining.
474 Čmolík et al.
3.1 Physical refining of low unsaturated fats
and oils
Physical refining by superheated steam is not a new in-
dustrial refining method as it was introduced during the
World War II and the following years, when new equip-
ments for continuous deodorization and the use of high
deodorization temperatures were introduced. Problems
arose with the refining of vegetable oils containing higher
amounts of phospholipids and being more unstable at
high deodorization temperatures. Therefore, the method
was used mainly for less unsaturated and low phospho-
lipid materials, such as lard, coconut, and palm oils. In an
earlier review [3], high temperature steam refining was
classified as a procedure for refining lard or palm oil, at
least in the United States. The same opinion was ex-
pressed in a review on the progress of fats and oils refin-
ing in the USA several years earlier [4]. Even in a much
more recent review [5], physical refining is mentioned as
a method mainly for refining palm oil.
Lard was a common edible fat in the USA in the postwar
years, therefore, great attention was paid to lard refining
as the US consumers prefer a bland fat, without any typi-
cal lard flavor as appreciated in Central Europe. Bailey [6]
proposed an apparatus for physical refining of animal
fat shortening (particularly mixtures of lard and beef
tallow and their fractions), consisting of a cylindrical shell
with five square, superimposed trays. The fat was lique-
fied and discharged in the highest tray while the stripping
steam was introduced countercurrently. At the proposed
temperature of 175 °C the free fatty acid content de-
creased only moderately. As lard was rather unstable dur-
ing storage, the physical refining of lard was realized after
heating with creosot bush leaves [7] containing nordihy-
droguaiaretic acid (rather efficient, but not allowed any
longer for use in food) to improve the stability. The de-
odorization temperature was 400 to 500 °F (205–265 °C ),
when the acid value had to be decreased at the same
time, and only 350 °F (about 193 °C ), if the acid value
was no crucial quality indicator. Steaming for 3–4 h
was proposed as sufficient. In a postwar patent to East-
man Kodak Co. [8] the deodorization temperature of
80–280 °C was proposed at 10 mm Hg (1.3 kPa). In a
later paper [9] the main purpose of steam stripping of lard
was the removal of free fatty acids. A special deodoriza-
tion unit was patented for the physical refining of lard [10].
Coconut and palm kernel oils, extracted from palm seeds,
have very low unsaturation and low phospholipid content.
Free fatty acids have shorter hydrocarbon chains and,
thus, a higher volatility than other seed oils. Therefore,
they could be easily refined by superheated steam. The
refining was very important as medium chain length fatty
acids are sensorically more objectionable than higher fat-
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102 (2000) 472–486
ty acids. Palm seed oils are low unsaturated so that their
fatty acids are relatively resistant to high temperatures.
Earlier literature was reviewed by Tandy and McPherson
[11]. The quality of physically refined coconut, palm ker-
nel, and palm oils was compared with that of the respec-
tive alkali refined oils and substantial differences were ob-
served [12].
In an early patent [13] centrifugal force was applied to
control the flow rate of coconut oil through the neutraliza-
tion/deodorization column. The free fatty acid content
was reduced from 0.6 to 0.05% at the recommended
temperature of 205–235 °C and the pressure between
0.5–1.1 kPa [14]. Substantial removal of free fatty acids
was obtained by steam deodorization of coconut oil at
150–170 °C and 1.1–2.6 kPa for up to 6 h. Reduction of
the acid value was only slight in polyunsaturated oils,
such as sunflower and soybean oils, under the same con-
ditions [15]. Palm kernel oil has a similar composition to
that of coconut oil, so that it is easily physically refined un-
der similar processing parameters. Phosphoric acid was
recommended [16] as a suitable pretreatment to remove
phospholipids.
Palm oil, which is a pericarp oil, has another composition
than palm seed oils containing only traces of medium
chain length fatty acids. It is far more important for edible
uses than coconut or palm kernel oils, therefore, its refin-
ing was studied very early. The main reason is that it often
contains high amounts of free fatty acids. In case of high
acidic oils, physical refining may substantially reduce the
refining losses of neutral oil. A typical early procedure was
reported by Bloemen [17] using a deaerator and two
steam refining columns. The second one operating at
0.5–0.7 kPa. A sample of palm oil containing 12% free
fatty acids could be refined at 0.8 kPa to obtain refined
oil containing 1.3% free fatty acids at 220 °C and 0.5%
free fatty acids at the refining temperature of 230 °C. Of
course, much lower free fatty acid contents are required
now.
Bernardini [18] recommended a packed column for phys-
ical refining of palm oil after degumming to 2–3 mg/kg
phosphorus. The column height was 4–5 m with 250 m2
of packing surface per 1 m3. The column could be used
for deacidification of high acidity olive oil (up to 30% free
fatty acids).
The physical refining process of palm oil has been sub-
stantially improved since then, usually including the
degumming step, but the high temperature process re-
sults in a destruction of carotenes, and, thus, in a deterio-
rated nutritional value and even appearance for some
purposes. Therefore, lower deodorization temperatures
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102 (2000) 472–486 Physical refining of edible oils 475

may be useful to prevent the heat bleaching even when
free fatty acids are only partially removed. For instance, a
two-step process was reported [19] in which palm oil,
acidified to remove phospholipids and other gums, was
steam stripped at temperatures up to 200 °C followed by
the second step of heating up to 180 °C. This procedure is
suitable to obtain oil with agreeable flavor according to
the patent claims. Higher temperatures are used now,
e.g. steam stripping at 240–270 °C and 0.25–1.32 kPa [5].
Two modern deodorization devices, i.e. Mellapak ® and
the more recent Optiflow ®, were discussed [20] which
guarantee satisfactory mass transfer and a substantially
improved steam distribution.
pecially in Europe [3], where the industry had to process
several oilseeds in a plant. In their comparison of quality
characteristics of physically refined oils Strecker et al. [12]
discussed corn, sunflower, canola, soybean, peanut, rice
bran, safflower oils, and oils derived from palms. As ordi-
nary degumming process mainly water degumming was
used at first, but it was soon found that the quality and
oxidative stability of such a physically refined oil was
rather low due to high residual phospholipids and a heavy
metal content. New degumming methods had to be
developed [23]. Dijkstra [24] defined several degumming
processes which are used or might be potentially useful
(Tab. 4).

Red palm oil has been introduced more recently into the
market as the red coloration is agreeable to the consumer
and a high carotene content is desirable because of its
nutritional value and antioxidant activity. A molecular dis-
tillation unit was proposed [21] in which the free fatty acid
content was reduced to below 0.1%, while more than 80%
carotenes and tocopherols were retained.
In a film column cocoa butter, which belongs to low un-
saturated and easily refined fats, could be efficiently neu-
tralized/deodorized [22]. The molecular distillation is ex-
pensive (it will be discussed later), but for pharmaceutical
purposes the process is acceptable. The procedures of
steam refining recommended for palm oil, which are
much cheaper, could be used for cocoa butter, too.
3.2 Physical refining of polyunsaturated oils
The application of physical refining requires a change in
other refining steps, too. Therefore, the degumming
steps, and to lesser extent the bleaching steps, will be
discussed here as they are of crucial importance, even
though they do not belong to physical refining in its
narrower sense.
3.2.1 Degumming and bleaching
for physical refining
After the introduction of physical refining into the industry,
the process was applied to a variety of fats and oils, es-
It is relatively easy to remove hydratable phospholipids
from crude oils as they readily absorb water thereby
becoming insoluble in oil. A problem is the removal of
nonhydratable phospholipids, mainly calcium and magne-
sium salts of phosphatidic acids. It would be preferable to
keep the content of phosphatidic acids low in seeds. Un-
ripe, damaged, or moist seeds, which have to be dried be-
fore processing, are generally high in phosphatidic acid
salts so that they are refined with difficulty only. Therefore,
such seeds are unsuitable as raw materials for physically
refined oils.
In ripe seeds phosphatidic acids are mainly produced by
enzymatic hydrolysis during seed crushing. Therefore, it
is advantageous to deactivate phospholipases in a very
short time. A suitable procedure [25] is to treat oilseeds
with superheated steam (heated to 150–170 °C ) for a few
seconds to increase the moisture content from about
7.5% to 17% and then to dry the material back to 5–6%.
The whole process takes about 20 s. In such a short time
phospholipids do not hydrolyze appreciably into phospha-
tidic acids, but the enzymic activity of phospholipases is
destroyed by the heat. Dry flakes are cooled to 90–95 °C
in about 40 min and the final moisture is about 6%. Under
such conditions the contents of phosphatidic acids and
their iron, calcium, and magnesium salts are only about
25–50% of the amount obtained by conventional process-
es.

Tab. 4. Degumming processes before the physical refining of vegetable oils.

Type of degumming process Principle of the procedure
Water degumming Treatment of crude oil with hot water
Acid degumming Treatment of crude oil with phosphoric acid or citric acid
Acid refining Water degummed crude oil is treated with an acid, which is then partially neutralized
with alkali
Dry degumming Acid degumming with very small amount of water, combined with bleaching
Enzymic degumming Modification of phospholipids with enzymes to facilitate the hydration
Membrane degumming Passage of crude oil through a semipermeable membrane retaining phospholipids
476 Čmolík et al.
A similar process was covered by a patent [26] consisting
of forming a slurry from oilseeds and oil, deactivating en-
zymes by heating to 99 °C under reduced pressure, and
pasteurizing the slurry. The resulting oil has a low content
of phosphatidic acid salts and may be directly used for
physical refining. Another suggestion was to extract finely
ground oilseeds with hexane followed by acid degumming
of the miscella [27]. The process was tested on plant
scale, but the difficulty is to remove the solvent quantita-
tively from the miscella.
The time between flaking soybeans or other oilseeds and
their extraction should be very short, and the temperature
high [28]. Such pretreated oilseeds produce crude oil with
a lower content of nonhydratable phospholipids. The pas-
sage of oilseed material through an expander is advanta-
geous as the lipases are deactivated almost immediately
by expander cooking.
A variety of degumming procedures has been introduced
into the industry in the last twenty years [23] more or less
satisfying requirements for physical refining. The com-
mon experience is to obtain a good oil quality through
physical refining. The phospholipid content of the oil must
be sufficiently low (less than 5 mg/kg phosphorus before
stripping and less than 20 mg/kg phosphorus before the
bleaching step). This requires not only the removal of
hydratable phospholipids as is usually achieved by water
degumming, but also the removal of nonhydratable phos-
pholipids (calcium and magnesium salts of phosphatidyl
ethanolamine and phosphatidic acids).
Since about 1980 steady introduction of physical refining
processes was observed by oil technologists, which re-
quire more efficient degumming processes. First degum-
ming technologies allowing physical refining, involved, for
instance, dry degumming of crude oil followed by physical
refining as practised for palm oil and acid degumming of
crude oil, either water degummed or not, followed by dry
degumming and physical refining as practised for rape-
seed oil.
During the water degumming process hot water is mixed
into warm oil (70–90 °C). Hydratable phospholipids
absorb water to agglomerate into a gum phase, which is,
after a certain holding time, separated in separators or
decanters. The procedure may be sufficient for some
types of vegetable oils, e.g. 99% of phospholipids are
removed by heating oil to 80–85 °C with water and then
filtering at 55–60 °C [29]. However, the water degumming
does not destroy nonhydratable salts of phosphatidic
acids, therefore, it is not sufficiently efficient in most
cases for the preliminary purification of oils before physi-
cal refining.
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102 (2000) 472–486
For the acid degumming originally phosphoric acid was
used as it forms nondissociable phosphates with calcium,
iron, or magnesium ions and is much cheaper than poly-
valent organic acids. The use of 0.05–0.20% phosphoric
acid was found satisfactory for the degumming of palm oil
[20]. It was found efficient for the degumming of palm ker-
nel oil [16], but not for most other vegetable oils. For the
degumming of soybean oil the application of phosphoric
acid and water was recommended [30], first with a con-
centrated acid and then with diluted acid. A treatment with
phosphoric acid was proposed for the degumming of soy-
bean oil prior to physical refining in combination with a
coacervation agent [31], such as hydrated phospholipids.
Citric acid is an alternative to phosphoric acid. It is more
expensive than phosphoric acid, but the removal of non-
hydratable phospholipids is more efficient. Heating of
crude rapeseed oil with 0.1% citric acid to 70 °C with re-
moval of the precipitate by centrifugation resulted in
degummed oil containing only 2 mg phosphorus and
0.3 mg iron in 1 kg oil [32]. Acetic anhydride was found
similarly efficient as citric acid for the degumming of soy-
bean oil [33]. Sodium citrate was reported as more effi-
cient for removing calcium, magnesium, or iron from non-
hydratable phosphatides than free citric acid [34].
Water refining or refining with phosphoric or citric acids
alone is nowadays no longer generally considered as
a sufficiently effective degumming step before physical
refining and several more sophisticated procedures have
been developed.
In the dry degumming process, crude oil is treated with an
acid (usually 75–80% phosphoric acid) to decompose the
metal salts of acidic phospholipids. The acid is dispersed
in the hot oil (80–100 °C) in amounts of 0.05–1.20%.
Some water may be added to enhance bleaching efficien-
cy and bleaching earth is added (about 1–3% on the ba-
sis of oil). The bleaching procedure is carried out at 120 or
140 °C under reduced pressure. The bleaching earth is
then removed by filtration. In the dry degumming process
a part of the acid activated bleaching earth can be re-
placed by synthetic silica hydrogel.
The Total Degumming Process includes both acid
degumming and bleaching steps [35]. The amount of
bleaching earth is of crucial importance as the degummed
oil should not contain more than 0.2 mg/kg iron, other-
wise, it would be unstable during storage. The residual
phosphorus content should not exceed 10 mg/kg, but we
would recommend 5 mg/kg as the limiting value. The use
of bleaching earths Tonsil ® Optimum or Tonsil ® Supreme
was recommended in the bleaching step after citric acid
degumming as suitable for sunflower, corn, soybean,
peanut, and rice bran oils [36]. In another patent applica-
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102 (2000) 472–486
tion [37] crude oil is water degummed, then degummed
with an acid, and a highly acid bleaching earth is added.
The use of a combination of 3% bleaching clay and 0.3%
activated carbon was recommended for the purification of
edible oils previously degummed with phosphoric acid
and water [38]; heating to 110 °C for 10 min in vacuum
was recommended. Trisyl ® Silica (a silica gel adsorbent)
was found useful for the removal of iron and for decol-
orization of rapeseed and sunflower oils [39] and a mix-
ture of acidic synthetic adsorbents with activated clay for
rapeseed and soybean oils [40]. If the degumming and
bleaching steps are separated in the physical refining
process, the degummed oil for the subsequent bleaching
step should not contain more than 30 mg phosphorus per
kg [41], otherwise the oil cannot be efficiently bleached.
Advantages of the different procedures mentioned above
have been combined in the acid degumming process
(superdegumming). In the acid degumming process a
combination of degumming acid and water is used to
decompose the bivalent metal ion complexes with phos-
pholipids. The process has been critically reviewed by An-
derson [42] who also discussed the aspects of lecithin
quality. A similar procedure of acid refining which con-
sisted of adding water, heating, and centrifuging was suc-
cessfully used for the physical refining of sunflower oil
[43].
In the acid degumming process, introduced by Unilever
as the superdegumming process, a concentrated (e.g.
50%) solution of citric acid is added to crude oil, either
water degummed or not, and heated to 70 °C . After a
reaction period the mixture is cooled to below 40 °C and
water is added. During a further holding period liquid
phospholipid crystals are formed. These crystals are then
removed, but the oil mixture must be preheated before
being brought into the separator because of its high vis-
cosity at lower temperatures. Optionally, a specially
prepared easily hydratable modified lecithin agent can be
mixed into the crude oil to improve hydratability of the
originally present phospholipids.
Recently, Unilever has extended the superdegumming
process to the unidegumming process which consists of
several steps starting with the standard superdegumming
procedure which is followed by a further cooling step, the
addition of water or alkali, a further agglomeration stage
at 25 °C, followed by a heating and a final separation step.
Acid degumming processes usually lead to lower residual
phosphorus and iron contents, than those of water
degumming. Acid degumming processes are preferred for
processing rapeseed and sunflower oils the gums of
which are commonly mixed with extracted meal for feed-
ing purposes so that the quality of the gums is not crucial.
Physical refining of edible oils 477
The lecithin quality from the acid degumming is not equiv-
alent to that of lecithins obtained by traditional simpler
degumming processes [42] which may affect their appli-
cation for various purposes.
Recent developments involve the acid refining of crude
oil, either water degummed or not, where the oil is treated
with a degumming acid that is partially neutralized by
sodium hydroxide or caustic soda. Such an acid refined
oil can subsequently be bleached and physically refined.
According to Ajana and Hafidi [44] the acidified oil is neu-
tralized and washed. No phosphatidyl choline and phos-
phatidyl ethanolamine remained in the refined rapeseed
oil after neutralization, and the remaining phosphatidic
acids were removed by washing. In the case of soybean
oil only phosphatidyl choline was removed by neutraliza-
tion while phosphatidyl ethanolamine was completely
eliminated by washing only, and the phosphatidic acids
remained even in the washed oil. After Nock [45, 46]
crude rapeseed oil was acidified with citric acid, about
50–75% acids were neutralized with alkali, and acid acti-
vated clay was then added to finish the degumming. The
phosphorus content decreased from 2.4 g/kg to 5 mg/kg.
The suspension was filtered afterwards [46]. The heavy
metal content can be reduced by addition of 0.1–0.5%
complexing agents [47].
On the basis of preliminary studies the acid refining
process was developed as follows: Nonhydratable phos-
pholipids first are decomposed by a sufficiently strong
acid. After this acid treatment, instead of diluting the
degumming acid with water as in the acid degumming
processes, the hydratability of phospholipids is achieved
by the addition of a base, such as sodium hydroxide,
caustic soda, or sodium silicate. To prevent soap forma-
tion the degumming acid is only partially neutralized. On
a large scale, for instance, the Vandemoortele Total
Degumming Process (TOP) was developed for vegetable
oil refining. Phosphoric acid being nontoxic, food grade,
and cheaper than citric acid is preferred as a degumming
acid. Presently, an improved degumming procedure is
called “TOP-dry Process” because of its reduced water
consumption and small effluent volume. Degumming
acid is intensively mixed into the heated oil and after a
short contact time (2–3 min) partially neutralized with
caustic soda. Gums are separated in the first centrifugal
separator. Washing water is mixed into an oil stream
before it is passed to the second centrifugal separator
(clarifier) [24].
The above degumming procedures are suitable for plant
scale processes, but the choice of the best procedure
depends on the raw oil quality, plant equipment, and
requirements for refined oil.
478 Čmolík et al.
A soft degumming process developed by Tirtiaux [48]
consists of mixing the crude oil, either water degummed
or not, with a reactive aqueous solution of a complexing
agent (EDTA) which forms very stable chelate complexes
with polyvalent metal ions.
Elegant procedures are membrane degumming tech-
niques [49] which replace the subsequent alkali refining
and often combine the degumming step with the bleach-
ing step. Semipermeable membranes are used which
allow the passage of substances of either defined polarity
or defined molecular size. It is advantageous to refine
oil in miscella using a polyimide membrane before the
removal of extraction solvent [50] as the viscosity of the
solvent free liquid phase would be much higher than that
of a miscella. The membrane refining of crude soybean
and rapeseed oils was performed with multilayer NTGS-
1100 and NTGS-2100 membranes at a pressure of 3 MPa
and at a temperature of 40 °C [51]. In the presence of
water phospholipids form micelles of the size of about
20,000 Da which do not pass the membrane pores, e.g.
of a DS-7 membrane, when the phosphorus content is
close to zero in the permeate [52]. Thereby the loss of
neutral oil during the degumming is reduced substantially
by up to 75%. Membrane degumming was reviewed [53]
and pilot plant experiments were compared with laborato-
ry experiments. Some problems still exist, such as plug-
ging or recycling, and the mass transfer through mem-
branes should be improved, too [54]. The membrane
degumming is too expensive for industrial purposes, but it
will be developed in a few years into a technology which
could be used at least for pilot plant degumming of spe-
ciality oils.
Low temperature degumming [55] requires only 40–45 °C.
Sunflower oil was successfully degummed using electric
separators. The process capacity was 10 or 50 t/h with
the residual phospholipid content of 0.14–0.20% [56].
Moulton and Mounts [57] suggested ultrasonic degum-
ming of crude soybean oil with the addition of small
amounts of degumming agent. The authors claimed that
the process was very fast and 90–99% of phospholipides
were removed.
Supercritical carbon dioxide degumming was found effi-
cient, but it is still too expensive for edible oils. However,
it may be used for speciality oils and for pharmaceutical
purposes. At 55 MPa and at 70 °C the phosphorus con-
tent in crude soybean oil was reduced from 620 mg/kg to
less than 5 mg/kg [58]. Citric acid may be added to bind
iron into complexes. A similar process (at 20 MPa and
47 °C) was reported for crude peanut oil [59]. Carbon
dioxide is selective as a solvent not only for the removal of
phospholipids but also of pigments, trace metals, and free
fatty acids. In a two-column pilot plant, a mixture of car-
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102 (2000) 472–486
bon dioxide and propane was used at 12 MPa to remove
iron and most phospholipids (the residual contents of less
than 0.02 mg/kg and 0.5 mg/kg, respectively). The second
column was used for partial removal of free fatty acids
[60]. Refining in a silica gel packed column was suitable
for the removal of phospholipids and pigments using only
carbon dioxide and without hydrocarbon solvents [61]. A
supercritial carbon dioxide process [58] could remove
phosphorus (from 620 to 5 mg/kg) and all pigments from
crude soybean oil. The process was efficient in removing
carotenes from palm oil and decreasing the content of
polar lipids [62]. The supercritical carbon dioxide de-
gumming and bleaching was found to be successful even
for corn oil [63]. High costs will probably not allow wider
applications of the process though.
A modern method for vegetable oil degumming is the
enzyme catalyzed degumming. Lurgi AG developed the
EnzyMax process using phospholipase A2, which re-
moves the fatty acid bound in the sn-2 position, resulting
in the formation of the respective lysophospholipids which
are insoluble in oil. They can be easily separated, e.g. by
centrifuging, in the course of physical refining [64]. A sim-
ilar process was patented by a Japanese team [65]. An
early experience with the EnzyMax process was reviewed
by Dahlke and co-workers [66, 67, 1], who reported the
residual phosphorus content of 2 mg/kg. In spite of being
still under development, the enzymatic degumming
seems to be a suitable plant scale technology depending
on low cost and effective enzyme preparations.
The numerous new degumming procedures, which have
been developed in the last 15 years, enable us to produce
oil with such a low content of phospholipids and other im-
purities that these oils can be physically refined without
difficulties. Further development of several processes can
be expected in the near future.
3.2.2 Deodorization/deacidification process
When low unsaturated fats and oils started to be physi-
cally refined successfully, similar procedures were stud-
ied for the refining of polyunsaturated oils, of course, un-
der the conditions available at that time. The main differ-
ence between the conditions used for deodorization of
alkali refined soybean oil and deodorization/deacidifica-
tion was the use of high temperatures – between 220–
260 °C [68–70]. Both chemical and physical refining pro-
cedures were compared in several reviews [71–74].
Soybean oil was a subject of intensive study because of
its importance. Twenty years ago, the physical refining of
soybean oil was already sufficiently developed to allow
competition with alkali refining [75, 76]. The process was
particularly suitable for crude soybean oils of relatively
high quality processed in the soya producing regions. A
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102 (2000) 472–486
deodorization temperature of 240 °C, duration of 3–5 h,
and pressure of 0.4–0.6 kPa were recommended, but the
procedure was applicable only for crude oils containing
up to 1% free fatty acids. Removal of free fatty acids,
which are relatively less volatile then sensorically active
lipid oxidation products, required carefully optimized de-
odorization conditions [77]. Quality parameters of physi-
cally refined oils were similar to those of alkali refined oils
[78]. The most important condition for the production of
high quality, physically refined soybean oil was a better
equipment and development of engineering aspects of
the process [2]. Therefore, only laboratory experiments
were published from Russia [79] where such an equip-
ment was not available at that time.
It was soon found that the poor quality of physically re-
fined oils was mostly due to an unsatisfactory quality of oil
supplied for deodorization, in particular due to an insuffi-
cient removal of phospholipids and iron [80, 81]. This in-
formation caused the development of an improved
degumming. In a review published in 1983 the importance
for oils of a better quality for deodorization was empha-
sized [82, 83], which stimulated the introduction of su-
perdegumming. The upper temperature limit was fixed to
250 °C and the time limit to 2 h, otherwise, the quality
of refined oils deteriorated [84]. Even at the end of the
decade [85, 86] physical refining was questionable be-
cause of an insufficiently guaranteed shelf life, probably
due to the uncomplete removal of phospholipids and iron.
These opinions stimulated a further improvement of the
degumming process as discussed above.
Sunflower is the main oilseed in Russia, Ukraine, and
Balkan countries. Therefore, great attention was paid
there very early to their physical refining and it was dis-
cussed in early reviews published in Bulgaria [87] and in
Russia [88]. The final free fatty acid content of physically
refined sunflower oil was 0.05–0.13% which was consid-
ered very good in Russia at that time. The quality was
rapidly improved further [89] after introducing more so-
phisticated degumming so that the quality of physically
refined oil was the same as that of chemically refined
sunflower oil. The temperature was 200–240 °C at 0.25–
0.50 kPa [90]. Higher yields of physically refined oils were
reported as the most important advantage of physical re-
fining which reflected the emphasis of the Russian gov-
ernment on quantity instead of on quality. A degumming
process specific for sunflower oil was developed in Rus-
sia [91], and another specific procedure issued from Hun-
garian research plants [92]. The quality of physically re-
fined sunflower oil soon reached that of the alkali refined
oil in Hungary [93].
Rapeseed oil is not easily refined by deodorization/
deacidification because of the relatively high content of
thermolabile linolenic acid. Therefore, physical refining
Physical refining of edible oils 479
was not introduced for canola oil until the nineties even in
Canada [94]. Some experiments started in the meantime
not only in Western Europe but also in Central European
and Baltic countries [95]. Results of plant scale produc-
tion in the Czech Republic showed [96] that a physically
refined rapeseed oil had the same quality as an alkali re-
fined oil.
Crude rapeseed oil, produced by combination of expeller
pressing and hexane extraction of low glucosinolate zero
erucic winter rapeseed of Czech origin, is degummed
according to the Unilever procedure of superdegumming
using citric acid (Čmolík et al., unpublished results).
Superdegummed rapeseed oil (phosphorus content less
than 30 mg/kg) is bleached using a special bleaching pro-
cedure consisting of two steps: 1) acid conditioning with
an aqueous solution of citric acid followed by 2) bleaching
with acid activated bleaching earth under reduced pres-
sure. The phosphorus content in the bleached rapeseed
oil is usually less than 1 mg/kg. For the deodorization, a
semicontinuous tray-type Lurgi deodorizer is applied
(capacity about 10 t/h). The original design of the Lurgi
deodorizer was modified by the manufacturer for physical
refining of rapeseed oil (improvements in the stripping
steam injection and distribution, changes in the design of
gas-lift-pumps in the main deodorization trays, and lower
absolute pressure). The deodorization temperatures of
230 or 240 °C were found to be sufficient for the removal
of free fatty acids. Formation of trans fatty acids is influ-
enced by the composition of unsaturated fatty acids in
rapeseed oil. Oleic acid is relatively stable even at 270 °C.
Therefore, the increase of monoenoic trans isomers is
negligible during deodorization. Linoleic acid is on the one
hand stable at 230 or 240 °C, on the other hand at 250 °C
and particularly at 270 °C the formation of trans isomers
of linoleic acid accelerated. Linolenic acid is much less
stable on heating than linoleic acid even at low deodor-
ization temperatures. Earlier results confirmed that at
270 °C more than 40% of linolenic acid originally present
were transformed into various trans isomers. In other
words, the main source of trans isomers formed in physi-
cally refined rapeseed oil is linolenic acid which con-
tributes more to the total trans isomer content than all
other unsaturated fatty acids together. Trans isomers of
linolenic acid and those of linoleic acid are formed at a
ratio of about six to one. The deodorization procedure of
rapeseed oil at lower temperatures (230–240 °C ) results
in a significantly lower formation of trans isomers and
satisfactory tocopherol retention: 1% trans isomers and
72,6% tocopherol retention at 240 °C, and 0,6% trans
isomers and 83,6% tocopherol retention at 230 °C, re-
spectively.
Contrary to large changes due to isomerization of
linolenic acid [96] the content of most polyunsaturated
480 Čmolík et al.
triacylglycerols changed only a little which is a proof of
only moderate polymerization [97]. During storage for a
year, the quality of physically refined oils did not change
more than that of alkali refined oils and both types still had
completely satisfactory sensory values even at the end of
the storage period [98].
Corn oil can be physically refined after degumming
with water or acids, bleaching with diluted phosphoric
acid, and 3% bleaching earth before steam refining. The
free fatty acid content decreased from 1.8% to 0.010–
0.023%, the phospholipid content from 440 mg/kg to
10–23 mg/kg, iron from 1.4 mg/kg to less than 0.1 mg/kg.
The tocopherol content decreased from 1440 mg/kg to
700–950 mg/kg under deodorization conditions which still
is a fair content [99]. In Russian experience with corn oil,
the free fatty acid content was reduced from 2.17–2.53%
to 0.03–0.05% while the content of tocopherols de-
creased from 800–1100 to 300–400 mg/kg [100].
Cottonseed oil contains no linolenic acid, but problems
could arise from its easy discoloration. It could be de-
odorized at high temperatures [8]. High acidity cottonseed
oil may be difficult to refine [101]. The distillates from de-
odorization of cottonseed oil are a good source of sterols
and tocopherols [102].
Substantial improvement of deodorization equipment was
found necessary for physical refining to save energy [103,
104] and to improve the contact of oil with the steam [105,
106]. Improved steam sparging techniques [107–110]
made a decrease of the deodorization temperature possi-
ble without decreasing the efficiency of the free fatty acid
removal. A more detailed discussion of engineering as-
pects would require a special review.
The optimum physical refining process is not easy to
recommend. As evident from the above information, the
exact physical refining process should be adapted to the
type and quality of the crude oil to be refined and all para-
meters of deodorization/deacidification should be opti-
mized to obtain refined oils of superior quality [111]. An-
other important factor is the deodorization equipment
available, experience of the service, and the actual re-
quirements for refined oil. When the alkali refining is com-
pared with physical refining, the environmental aspects
would surely favor the latter process [112]. However, the
topic should be considered from other aspects, too.
Kokken [113] discussed some disadvantages of physical
refining, such as more frequent quality defects, especially
if crude oils of unknown quality are processed. Degum-
ming is more sensitive and larger centrifuges are needed
than in chemical refining. More bleaching earth is needed
which again requires more expensive equipment. The
deodorization/deacidification is carried out at higher tem-
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102 (2000) 472–486
peratures which is not only more expensive but also
causes isomerization of essential fatty acids and higher
losses of tocopherols. The deodorization condensates
are more contaminated with fatty acids so that they have
a lower value for further processing.
Deodorization condensates from physical refining have
a higher content of free fatty acids than deodorization
condensates from alkali refined oils. The fatty acid com-
position in the distillate may rather differ from that of
refined oils, e.g. lower linoleic acid content was found in
condensates from soybean and sunflower oils than in
neutral oil [114]. Free fatty acids complicate the utilization
of unsaponifiables. For easier separation free fatty acids
may be transformed into esters [115], and tocopherols are
then obtained by a new distillation. Immobilized lipase
was found suitable as a catalyst for the esterification of
free fatty acids in distillates from soybean and canola oils
[116]. Fatty acids can be converted not only to methyl
esters but also to nonvolatile triacylglycerols [117].
Tocopherol losses during physical refining of vegetable
oils were discussed [118]. The recovery of tocopherols is
also possible after saponification of free fatty acids [119,
120]. Different phenolic acids which are found in crude
vegetable oils are not found in refined oils [121]. There-
fore, they or their degradation products contaminate de-
odorization condensates.
Phytosterols are another commercially interesting com-
ponent present in deodorization condensates from both
alkali and physical refining [122]. Physically refined oils
contain higher amounts of acylated steryl glycosides than
chemically refined oils [123]. Most steryl glycosides are
already removed by degumming, but some still remain in
degummed oils before the deodorization [124]. They are
interesting because of their hypocholesterolemic activity.
The concentration of sterols in the condensates is usually
higher than that of tocopherols, but it is still lower than
that of fatty acids or neutral oil; a preconcentration step is
usually necessary before their utilization [125]. In a wiped
film short path evaporator it is possible to remove
free acids and other more volatile components from
tocopherols and sterols. Sterols crystallize from the
tocopherol fraction [126].
3.2.3 Side reactions during physical refining
High deodorization temperature accelerates trans iso-
merization reactions. The trans isomerization will be treat-
ed only briefly here as the same topic, only from another
aspect, will be the subject of a special Dossier on trans
unsaturated fatty acids in food lipids to be published later
this year in the European Journal of Lipid Science and
Technology.
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102 (2000) 472–486
The phenomenon is not new, being known for nearly 30
years. During the deodorization of soybean oil at
240–295 °C the contents of linoleic and linolenic acids de-
creased, which was also evident from the decreasing io-
dine value, and the content of trans fatty acids increased
[127]. A rising content of conjugated fatty acids was ob-
served [69, 127]. At that time no great concern was initiat-
ed among food scientists and nutritionists. Changes dur-
ing deodorization of rapeseed and soybean oils were
studied in the temperature range of 180–240 °C [128] and
isomerization of linolenic acid was observed, the rate
increasing with temperature. An isomerization degree of
up to 35% was reported at the highest temperature.
Changes of soybean oil were studied at still higher tem-
peratures of 240–300 °C [129] when not only isomeriza-
tion but also polymerization and interesterification took
place. These last reactions were found to be negligible
only at lower temperatures of 220–250 °C [97]. The cis,
trans isomerization did not take place at all at low temper-
atures of only 190 °C [130]. Under common industrial
practice in the USA in the early nineties the content of
geometrical isomers in refined soybean and canola oils
was 0.3–3.3% octadecadienoic acids, 6.6–37.1% octade-
catrienoic acids in the respective fractions, which corre-
sponds to 0.56–4.2 trans isomers in total fatty acids [131].
Small amounts of cyclic acids with 5–6 member cycles
were detected in heated dienoic and trienoic acid-rich oils
[132]. The content of trans isomers in the product was
found to depend on the fatty acid composition and on
the deodorization temperature more than on the time or
contaminants present [133]. In model experiments
degummed and bleached rapeseed oil was heated at
210, 220, and 230 °C for up to 86 hours (not applied in
the industrial production) under reduced pressure and
with nitrogen stripping [134, 135]. Under such conditions
the destruction of linolenic acid was a function of time and
temperature and could be estimated with the use of reac-
tion equations. No perceptible isomerization was expect-
ed under conventional deodorization conditions. Higher
content of contaminants, which is improbable under nor-
mal conditions, would, however, affect the reaction rate
[136]. Small amounts of polymers are produced on heat-
ing, e.g. 0.32–2.01% dimers (1.07% on average) were
found in refined vegetable oil [137] and 0.4–1.0% in
another study [138]. Minute amounts of dimeric triacyl-
glycerols were found even in deodorized relatively low
unsaturated olive oil [139]. Rapeseed oil refining was
studied at 200, 225 and 250 °C for 6 h at 0.13–0.26 kPa.
Nearly 4% of the trans isomers (mostly cis,cis,trans- and
trans,cis,cis-octadecatrienoic acids) were reported in oil
heated to 250 °C [140]. More data on linolenic acid iso-
merization as a function of time and temperature can be
obtained from companies offering software and equip-
ment for physical refining.
Physical refining of edible oils 481
Not only fatty acids but also sterols are affected during the
physical refining. They are dimerized by formation of ei-
ther linkages or dehydrated, e.g. 3,5-cholestadiene was
found in refined lard [141], and 24-ethyl-cholesta-2,4,6-
triene or 2,4,6,22-tetraene and 24-methyl-2,4,6-triene
were found in refined oils [142].
3.3 Other methods of physical refining
Application of superheated steam was reviewed in
the preceding chapter, but the deodorization may be
achieved by sparging oil with nitrogen instead of steam.
Up to 82% free fatty acids were removed at 162–288 °C
[143], and the quality was claimed as better than that of
steam refined oil. Beef tallow and some vegetable oils
were refined using a stream of nitrogen at 50–270 °C and
0.013–0.79 kPa [144]. A suitable equipment was pro-
posed, sparkling with nitrogen at 220–240 °C and
0.2–0.4 kPa [145]. Nitrogen is more expensive, of course,
than steam.
Another – also rather expensive – procedure for stripping
free fatty acids from edible oils is the use of a wiped film
evaporator, which was found successful for the refining of
lauric oils, palm oil, or rice bran oil [146]. Stage [147] pro-
posed a continuous countercurrent falling film apparatus;
99% free fatty acids were removed by using the process.
A pilot plant device (annual capacity of 500 t) was found
advantageous for high price oils, particularly for pharma-
ceutical purposes [148]. Temperatures in the range of
130–189 °C and pressures of up to 0.2 kPa may be used
to remove fatty acids [149]. The evaporator provided with
a thin film dropping worked at 181–200 °C and pressures
up to 1 kPa [150].
Supercritical carbon dioxide degumming already has
been discussed, but free fatty acids may be removed by
the same principle [59]. Free fatty acids are soluble at
47 °C and at 20 MPa inversely related to their chain length
and directly related to unsaturation. Isopropyl alcohol is
suitable as a cosolvent. The procedure was found appli-
cable for rice bran oil and cottonseed oil with relatively
high initial acid values [151]. For plant scale edible oil re-
fining the process is too expensive.
The membrane technology has been already discussed
as suitable but expensive for oil degumming. A similar
procedure could be used for free fatty acid removal [53,
54] and for refining milk fat [152]. A combination of a hy-
drophilic and a hydrophobic membrane was proposed
[153]. In a hexane solution containing 20% oil and 2% ole-
ic acid, simulating a miscella, the content of fatty acids
could be reduced by 40% [154]. In another proposal
free fatty acids were extracted from soybean oil with
methanol, afterwards separated from the solvent by
482 Čmolík et al.
nanofiltration (membrane filtration) using a suitable mem-
brane, and the solvent could be recycled [155]. The pro-
cedure does not involve heating to high temperatures so
that it could be applied to deacidification of fish oil [156]
without the danger of the isomerization of the fish oil fatty
acids. The procedure could become commercially appli-
cable in future.
3.4 Removal of cholesterol
Cholesterol belongs to objectionable components of ani-
mal fats because of their negative effect in the develop-
ment of cardiovascular diseases. Therefore, methods
for the removal of cholesterol from animal fats were
searched for. The removal is rather expensive, but is still
acceptable as cholesterol-free fats are considered as fats
for special dietary purposes. Most methods are based on
physical principles. They will be discussed only briefly be-
cause cholesterol removal is a very special field of physi-
cal refining.
The molecular distillation at 190–250 °C was proposed for
an almost complete removal of cholesterol from lard
[157]. The method can be applied to butter oil and for the
formation of cholesterol-free cream. Another possibility is
the extraction of cholesterol with ethanol; about 87.7%
cholesterol were removed by triple extraction [158].
Menhaden oil or other fish oils can be separated into a
low cholesterol and a high cholesterol fraction, which are
stripped with superheated steam [159]; 65% cholesterol
were removed at 204 °C and 0.13 kPa. Cholesterol forms
adducts with β-cyclodextrins, and about 90% cholesterol
can be removed in one step [160, 161]. An interesting
procedure has been developed at Cargill Co. [162].
Processed fat, such as beef tallow, is mixed with lecithin
and water and stirred. Cholesterol present in the fat
phase is included into phospholipid bilayers formed in the
presence of water. The bilayers are afterwards removed
with the aqueous phase by centrifugation. Cholesterol
reduced and cholesterol enriched fractions are thus
obtained. The cholesterol content can be decreased by
about 50%. Other procedures for the cholesterol removal
exist, but they are based on other principles than utilized
by physical processes. Various procedures were re-
viewed by Hayes [163]. Cholesterol-free animal fats are
suitable as a trans acid free component in shortenings.
4 Conclusions
Physical refining consisting of efficient degumming and
deodorization/deacidification has made great progress in
the last 10 years and further developments can be ex-
pected. The physical refining procedures are commonly
used on a large scale while being continuously improved.
The choice of the optimum technology depends on the
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102 (2000) 472–486
quality of the crude oils, processing equipment, tradition
and experience, environmental and economical factors,
and quality requirements for the refined products. Among
other methods both the enzyme and membrane technolo-
gies are in the stage of a promising development. Cho-
lesterol removal will probably soon develop into an indus-
trial method to produce animal fats better applicable for
edible purposes.
References
[1] K. Dahlke, M. Eichelsbacher: EnzyMax® and ALCON®-
Lurgi’s route to physical refining. In: Emerging Technolo-
gies, Current Practices, Quality Control, Technology Trans-
fer, and Environmental Issues, I. Eds. S. S. Koseoglu, K. C.
Rhee, R. F. Wilson. AOCS Press, Champaign IL (USA)
1998, pp. 53–59.
[2] H. Stage: Physical refining of vegetable oils with special
emphasis on soy oil today and tomorrow. In: Proc. of the
Second American Soybean Association (ASA) Symposium
on Soybean Processing. ASA, 1983, Paper No. 9, pp. 1–22.
[3] F. A. Norris: Refining and bleaching. In: Bailey’s Industrial
Oil and Fat Products. Ed. D. Swern. Interscience Publish-
ers, New York-London-Sydney 1964, pp. 719–792.
[4] R. Lüde: New methods of refining fats and fatty oils. Fette
Seifen 52 (1950) 326–331.
[5] J. T. P. Derksen, F. P. Cuperus: Processing of oilseed con-
stituents for nonfood applications. In: Emerging Technolo-
gies, Current Practices, Quality Control, Technology Trans-
fer, and Environmental Issues, Vol. I. Eds. S. S. Koseoglu,
K. C. Rhee, R. F. Wilson. AOCS Press, Champaign, IL
(USA) 1998, pp. 113–120.
[6] A. E. Bailey: The semicontinuous deodorization of fats. J.
Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 26 (1949) 166–170.
[7] J. R. Shipner: Stabilization of fatty materials. US Patent 2
457 741 (1948).
[8] K. C. Hickman: US Patent Appl. 600 403; Off. Gaz. 636 664
(1950).
[9] I. W. Wolf, J. J. Rushton: Steam stripping of lard. J. Am. Oil
Chem. Soc. 30 (1953) 147–153.
[10] E. W. Eckey: Apparatus for continuous multistage counter-
current contact with high-viscosity liquids and vapors. US
Patent 2 871 250 (1959).
[11] O. C. Tandy, W. J. McPherson: Physical refining of edible
oil. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 61 (1984) 1253–1258.
[12] L. R. Strecker, J. M. Hasman, A. Maza: Quality characteris-
tics and properties of the principal world oils when
processed by physical refining. Proc. World Conf. Emerging
Technol. Fats Oils Ind. Ed. A. R. Baldwin. AOCS, Cham-
paign IL (USA) 1986, pp. 51–55.
[13] Dresser Industries: Brit. Patent 985 719 (1965).
[14] W. J. Podbielniak: US Patent 3 257 774 (1966).
[15] M. Rac, M. Gams, M. Petric: Determination of deodorization
of edible oils by chemical analysis. Kem. Ind. 14 (1965)
88–90.
[16] C. I. Iwuoha, C. N. Ubbaonu, R. Ugwo, N. U. Okereke:
Chemical and physical characteristics of palm, palm kernel
and groundnut oils as affected by degumming. Food Chem.
55 (1996) 29–34.
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102 (2000) 472–486
[17] F. Bloemen: Column for steam refining and deodorization of
fats and for the simple or fractional distillation of fatty acids.
Rev. Fr. Corps Gras 13 (1966) 247–254.
[18] M. Bernardini: Deodorization. In: Proceedings of the World
Conference on Oilseed Technology and Utilization, Bu-
dapest. Ed. T. A. Applewhite. AOCS Press, Champaign IL
(USA) 1993, pp. 186–193.
[19] J. P. Van Dalen, K. P. A. M. Van Putte, R. F. Van Slooten:
PCT Int. Appl. WO 94 12 596 (1994).
[20] P. Faessler: Recent developments and improvements in
palm oil stripping and fatty acid distillation. In: Proc. World
Conf. Palm Coconut Oils for the 21th Century. Eds. E. C.
Leonard, E. G. Perkins, A. Cahn. AOCS Press, Champaign
IL (USA) 1998, pp. 67–72.
[21] G. K. Ooi, Y. M. Choo, S. C. Yap, A. N. Ma: Refining of red
palm oil. Elaeis 8 (1996) 20–28.
[22] T. Rüütmann, J. Kallas: Deodorization of cocoa butter, fish
fat, and the fat of furbearing animals. Fett Wiss. Technol. 96
(1994) 259–266.
[23] L. H. Wesdorp: Current trends in oil processing. Lipid Tech-
nol. (Nov. 1996) 129–135.
[24] A. J. Dijkstra: Degumming, refining, washing and drying fats
and oils. In: Proceedings of the World Conference on
Oilseeds Technology and Utilization 1992. Ed. T. H. Apple-
white. AOCS Press, Champaign IL (USA) 1993, pp.
138–151.
[25] J. A. H. Dahlén: A new way to produce crude rapeseed oil
with an extremely low content of nonhydratable phos-
phatides. In: Advances in Oils and Fats, Fatty Acids, and
Oilseed By-Products, Vol. II. Eds. S. S. Koseoglu, K. C.
Rhee, R. F. Wilson. AOCS Press, Champaign IL (USA)
1996, pp. 36–38.
[26] N. R. Strop, R. R. Perry: US Patent 4 944 954 (1990).
[27] C. D. Nieh, H. E Snyder: Solvent extraction of oil from soy-
bean flour. II. Pilot plant and two-solvent extractions. J. Am.
Oil Chem. Soc. 68 (1991) 250–253.
[28] D. Rade, D. Štrucelj, Z. Mokrovčak: Effect of soybean
pretreatment on the phospholipid content in crude and
degummed oils. Fett Wiss. Technol. 97 (special edition 1)
(1995) 501–507.
[29] S. Qu: Fanning Zhuanli Shenquivq Gongkai Shuomingshii.
CN Patent 1 051 386 (1991).
[30] S. M. Aly: Degumming of soybean oil. Grasas Aceites 43
(1992) 284–286.
[31] W. Du: Degumming method for soybean oil prior to physical
refining. Zhongguo Youzhi 21 (1996) 53–55; Chem. Abstr.
125, 250878.
[32] J. C. Segers: PCT Int. Appl. WO 94 21 762.
[33] K. Gu, Q. Lu, Sh. Liang: Effects of degumming conditions
on the quality of soybean oil and lecithin yield. Zhongguo
Yohuzhi 20 (1) (1995) 9–13; Chem Abstr. 123: 54 506.
[34] V. L. Pogrebnaya, I. A. Kitaigorodsky, O. N. Volkov, Ye. P.
Kornena, Ye. A. Butina, Zh. V. Kapustyanskaya, Kh. R.
Blyagoz, T. N. Bokovikova: On the modelling of complex-
formation in the Ca2+-citric acid system. Izv. Vyssh. Uchebn.
Zaved., Pishch. Tekhnol. 1–2 (1993) 48–49.
[35] B. Cleenewerck, A. J. Dijkstra: The total degumming
process – theory and industrial application in refining and
hydrogenation. Fett Wiss. Technol. 94 (1992) 317–322.
Physical refining of edible oils 483
[36] Z. Leibovitz, C. Ruckenstein: New processes in degum-
ming, bleaching, deacidification-deodorization and winteriz-
ing of edible oils. Rev. Fr. Corps Gras 28 (1981) 303–308.
[37] M. Ohzeki, T. Hisatsune, Y. Ohta: Japanese Patent 76 44
107 (1976).
[38] D. B. Shaw, M. E. Davies, J. Barlas: PCT Int. Appl. WO 93
23 508 (1993).
[39] X. Pages: Utilization of Trisyl in the refining of edible oils.
Rev. Fr. Corps Gras 38 (1991) 398–400.
[40] Z. Huang, X. Li, D. Wang: The initial investigation of refined
edible oils with mixed adsorbents. Lizi Jiaohuan Yu Xifu 11
(1995) 341–347; Chem. Abstr. 125: 141 010.
[41] W. Zschau: Bleaching. Theory and Practice. In: Emerging
Technologies, Current Practices, Quality Control, Technolo-
gy Transfer, and Environmental Issues, Vol. I. Eds. S. S.
Koseoglu, K. C. Rhee, R. F. Wilson. AOCS Press, Cham-
paign IL (USA) 1998, pp. 64–76.
[42] D. Anderson: Degumming and lecithin refining. In: Emerg-
ing Technologies, Current Practices, Quality Control, Tech-
nology Transfer, and Environmental Issues, Vol. I. Eds.
S. S. Koseoglu, K. C. Rhee, R. F. Wilson. AOCS Press,
Champaign IL (USA) 1998, pp. 60–63.
[43] H. Rohdenburg, J. Perédi: Degumming and physical refin-
ing of rapeseed and sunflower oil. Fett Wiss. Technol. 95
(special edition 1) (1993) 483–487.
[44] H. Ajana, A. Hafidi: Composition of the phospholipid fraction
isolated by dialysis from vegetable oils: effects of refining.
Rev. Fr. Corps Gras 39 (1992) 333–338.
[45] A. Nock: PCT Int. Appl. WO 94 25 551 (1994).
[46] A. Nock: PCT Int. Appl. WO 95 30 727 (1995).
[47] N. A. Kalasheva, A. I. Askinazi, I. I. Gubman, M. P. Aznau-
ryan, L. S. Sidorina, G. N. Kapinskij, N. M. Dyatlova, V. Ya.
Temkina, T. V. Baklanova: USSR Patent 1 731 793 (1992).
[48] E. Deffense: Soft degumming. In: Proceedings of the 21st
World Congress of the ISF (1995: The Hague), PJ Barnes &
Assoc., Bridgwater (UK) 1996, pp. 125–128.
[49] M. Cheryan, L. P. Raman, M. Rajagopalan: Refining veg-
etable oils by membrane technology. In: Proceedings of the
6th International Congress on Development of Food Engi-
neering, 1993, Part 2. Eds. T. Yano, R. Matano, K. Naka-
mura. Blackie, Glasgow (UK) 1994, pp. 677–679.
[50] D. A. LaMonica: US Patent 5 310 487 (1994).
[51] R. Subramanian, M. Nakajima: Membrane degumming of
crude soybean and rapeseed oils. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 74
(1997) 971–975.
[52] L. Lin, K. C. Rhee, S. S. Koseoglu: Recent progress in
membrane degumming of crude vegetable oils on a pilot-
plant scale. In: Advances in Oils and Fats, Antioxidants, and
Oilseed By-Products, Vol. II. Eds. S. S. Koseoglu, K. C.
Rhee, R. F. Wilson. AOCS Press, Champaign IL (USA)
1996, pp. 76–82.
[53] D. Pioch: Refining by membrane techniques. Ol., Corps
Gras, Lipides 4 (1997) 51–54.
[54] D. Pioch, C. Largueze, A. Hafidi, H. Ajana, J. Graille: Mem-
brane-based vegetable oil refining: Crossflow filtration at
the laboratory and pilot scale. In: Advances in Oils and Fats,
Antioxidants, and Oilseed By-Products, Vol. II. Eds. S. S.
Koseoglu, K. C. Rhee, R. F. Wilson. AOCS Press, Cham-
paign IL (USA) 1996, pp. 83–86.
484 Čmolík et al.
[55] J. Wang, Y. Qing, J. Li, B. Li, C. Yuhong: Low-temperature
degumming of soybean oil. Zhongguo Yoazhi 21 (1996) 56;
Chem. Abstr. 125: 250 879.
[56] I. I. Beril, M. K. Bologa, V. I. Vakaryuk, A. A. Polikarpov:
Electric separation of phosphatides in sunflower oil. Elek-
tron. Obrab. Mater. 1 (1993) 64–66; Chem. Abstr. 123: 255
105.
[57] K. J. Moulton, T. L. Mounts: Continuous ultrasonic degum-
ming of crude soybean oil. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 67 (1990)
33–38.
[58] G. R. List, J. W. King, J. H. Johnson, K. Warner, T. O. L.
Mounts: Supercritical carbon dioxide degumming and phys-
ical refining of soybean oil. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 70 (1993)
473–476.
[59] G. R. Ziegler, Y. J. Liaw: Deodorization and deacidification
of edible oils with dense carbon dioxide. J. Am. Oil Chem.
Soc. 70 (1993) 947–953.
[60] K. Höfelmann, R. Steiner: Extractive refining of rape oil
with supercritical solvents. Chem.-Ing.Techn. 65 (1993)
1510–1514.
[61] T. Nakamura, N. Aoi: Japanese Patent 93 345 898 (1993).
[62] C. K. Ooi, A. Bhaskar, M. S. Yener, D. Q. Tuan, J. Hsu,
S. S. H. Rizvi: Continuous supercritical carbon dioxide pro-
cessing of palm oil. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 73 (1996)
233–237.
[63] T. Langmaak, P. T. Jäger, R. Eggers: The refinement of veg-
etable oils through countercurrent extraction with com-
pressed carbon dioxide. Fett/Lipid 98 (1996) 261–267.
[64] H. Buchold: The enzyme catalyzed degumming process of
vegetable oils. Fett Wiss. Technol. 95 (1993) 300–304.
[65] T. Yagi, M. Higurashi, H. Tsuruoka, I. Nomora: Eur. Patent
Appl. EP 622 446 (1994).
[66] K. Dahlke, H. Buchold, E.-W. Münch, B. Paulitz: First
experience with industrial scale enzymatic degumming.
INFORM 1 (1995) 534–545.
[67] K. Dahlke: The enzymic degumming – EnzyMax. Ol., Corps
Gras, Lipides 4 (1997) 55–57.
[68] J. L. Jakobsen: US Patent 2 508 919 (1950).
[69] D. J. Brion, R. J. Fiala: US Patent 3 239 547 (1966).
[70] S. Ueno, A. Uno: Behavior of some vegetable oils during
deodorization heating. Yushi Kagaku Kyokaishi 4 (1955)
327–328.
[71] N. Hebendanz: Impurities of vegetable oils – how to get rid
of unwanted by-products. Proc. World Conf. Oleochem. Ed.
T. H. Applewhite. AOCS, Champaign IL (USA) 1991, pp.
161–164.
[72] D. A. Allen: Refining of fats and oils. In: Lipid Technology
and Applications. Ed. F. D. Gunstone, F. B. Padley. M.
Dekker, New York (USA) 1997, pp. 137–167.
[73] A. Tirtiaux, V. Gibon: Flexibility of physical deodorization.
Ol., Corps Gras, Lipides 4 (1997) 51–54.
[74] T. L. Mounts, F. P. Khym: Soy oil processing and utilization.
Refining. In: Handbook of Soybean Oil Processing and Uti-
lization. Eds. R. Erickson, E. H. Pryde, O. L. Brekke. Ameri-
can Soybean Association, St. Louis MO (USA) 1980, pp.
89–103.
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102 (2000) 472–486
[75] J. M. Klein: Physical and chemical refining of soybean oil.
In: Proceedings of the Second American Soybean Associa-
tion (ASA) Symposium on Soybean Processing. ASA, St.
Louis MO (USA) 1981, Pap. 5, pp. 1–5.
[76] J. M.Klein: Physical and chemical refining of the soybean
oil. Rev. Fr. Corps Gras 28 (1981) 301–313.
[77] O. L. Brekke: Soy oil processing and utilization. Deodoriza-
tion. In: Handbook of Soy Oil Processing and Utilization.
Eds. D. R. Erickson, E. H. Pryde, O. L. Brekke. American
Soybean Association, St. Louis MO (USA) 1980, pp.
104–111.
[78] A. Thomas: Analytical control during soybean oil refining.
Proceedings of the Second American Soybean Association
(ASA) Symposium on Soybean Processing. ASA, St. Louis
MO (USA) 1981, Pap. 11, pp. 1–6.
[79] S. N. Volotovskaya, N. I. Gribova, S. G. Gerke, A. G.
Rumyantseva, V. N. Brik, G. I. Chernyakova, A. A. Os’-
machko: Refining soybean oil. Maslo-Zhir. Prom. 2 (1974)
14–16.
[80] B. Grothues: Physical refining of soy oil. Proceedings of the
Second ASA Symposium on Soybean Processing. Ameri-
can Soybean Association (ASA), St. Louis MO (USA) 1981,
Pap. 10, pp. 1–8.
[81] B. Grothues: Problems of physical refining of soybean oil.
Fette, Seifen, Anstrichmittel 84 (1982) 21–28.
[82] A. B. Caragay: Pacing technologies in the fats and oils in-
dustry. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 60 (1983) 1641–1644.
[83] M. Kock: Oilseed pretreatment in connection with physical
refining. J. Am. Oil Chem.Soc. 60 (1983) 198–202.
[84] I. M. Jawad, S. P. Kochhar, B. J. F. Hudson: Quality charac-
teristics of physically refined soybean oil: effects of pre-
treatment and processing time and temperature. J. Food
Technol. 18 (1983) 353–360.
[85] L. Wiedermann: Soybean oil: Commentary and insights.
Lipid Technol. 1 (1989) 7–10.
[86] L. Wiedermann: Soybean oil: modern processing and uti-
lization. INFORM 2 (1991) 200–208.
[87] I. Ilev: Refining of sunflower oil, II and III. Maslo-Sapunena
Prom. 16 (1980) (No. 2) 36–47 and (No. 3–4) 28–43.
[88] G. Ya. Smirnov, E. I. Katalkina, D. U. Semenova, G. V.
Sadovnichij: Use of highly productive technology for the re-
fining of fats and oils. Pishch. Prom., Sec. 6. Obz. Inf. 4
(1982) 1–29.
[89] A. G. Sergeev, V. R. Burnashev, S. N. Volotovskaya, L. T.
Prohorova, L. T. Krishtofovich, N. N. Frolova, F. B. Estrina:
Physical refining of sunflower oil. Maslo-Zhir. Prom. 5
(1985) 26–30.
[90] V. R. Burnashev, G. P. Zabrovskij, K. M. Edemskaya, L. N.
Glusshenko: Physical refining of sunflower oil. Pishch.
Prom. 1 (1990) 44–46.
[91] A. V. Aleksandrov, A. Vladimirovich: RU Patent 2 064 486
(1996).
[92] H. Rohdenburg, K. Csernitsky, B. Chikany, J. Perédi, A.
Borodi, A. Ruzics-Fabics: Eur. Patent Appl. EP 473 985
(1992).
[93] K. Kovari, A. Fabics-Ruzics, K. Polya: Comparison of con-
ventional and physical refining of sunflower oil based on the
quality of intermediate and final products. Olaj, Szappan,
Kozmet. 41 (1992) 40–46.
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102 (2000) 472–486
[94] T. K. Mag: Further processing of canola and rapeseed oils.
In: Canola Rapeseed. Ed. F. Shahidi. Van Nostrand Rein-
hold, New York NY (USA) 1990, pp. 251–276.
[95] M. Strele, E. Gudriniece, I. Krastina, R. Serzane, R.
Kalnins: Deodorization of rapeseed oil. Latv. Kim. Z. 6
(1993) 741–744; Chem. Abstr. 121: 233 392.
[96] J. Čmolík, W. Schwarz, Z. Svoboda, J. Pokorný, Z.
Réblová, M. Doležal, H. Valentová: Effects of plant-scale
alkali refining and physical refining on the quality of rape-
seed oil. Eur. J. Lipid Sci.Technol. 102 (2000) 15–22.
[97] W. Schwarz, J. Čmolík, Z. Réblová, J. Pokorný, J. Pánek:
Changes of the triglyceride composition of rapeseed oil
during alkali and physical refining. In: Advances in Oils
and Fats, Antioxidants, and Oilseed By-Products, Vol. II.
Eds. S. S. Koseoglu, K. C. Rhee, R. F. Wilson. AOCS
Press, Champaign IL (USA) 1996, pp. 41–44.
[98] J. Čmolík, W. Schwarz, J. Pokorný, Z. Réblová, H. Valen-
tová: Influence of the refining process on changes in rape-
seed oil during storage. In: Advances in Oils and Fats, An-
tioxidants, and Oilseed By-Products, Vol. II. Eds. S. S.
Koseoglu, K. C. Rhee, R. F. Wilson. AOCS Press, Cham-
paign IL (USA) 1996, pp. 39–40.
[99] L. R. Strecker: Brit. UK Patent Appl. 2 107 343 (1983).
[100] V. K. Timchenko, V. I. Babenko, A. R. Chumak, D. N. Pank:
Effect of refining of corn oil on the composition of minor
constituents. Pishch. Prom. 5 (1992) 8.
[101] H. Zhang: The characteristics of cottonseed oil and its re-
fining process. Zhongguo Youzhi 21 (1996) 30–31; Chem.
Abstr. 125: 303 715.
[102] M. H. El-Mallah, T. Murui: Grape seeds, wheat germ, and
deodorization distillates of cottonseed oil. Seifen, Öle,
Fette, Wachse 119 (1993) 45–49.
[103] O. Moeller, K. H. Rochlitzer, A. P. Wilcock: Reduction of ef-
fluent products and energy consumption in barometric vac-
uum systems. Fett Wiss. Technol. 95 (special edition 1)
(1993) 510–512.
[104] K. Szczciński, P. Dobrowolski, J. Wrzodak: PL Patent 168
079 (1995).
[105] T. Kadota, Y. Kuriwaki, S. Takashina, K. Ishihara: Japan-
ese Patent 93 271 686 (1993).
[106] W. Rähse, J. F. Füs, K. Paatz, H. Scheck, J. Kozma, R.
Wiedermeyer: Ger. Offen. DE 4 307 115 (1994).
[107] D. G. Sewell: Brit. UK Patent Appl. GB 2 283 435 (1995).
[108] T. N. S. Hall: Steam stripping of fats and oils. Eur. Patent
Appl. EP 677 313 (1995).
[109] P. Avari: Steam jet vacuum systems for edible oil deodoriz-
er and distillation equipment. Chem. Eng. World 30 (1995)
93.
[110] R. Nair, V. S. Vadke: Steam economy in solvent extraction
and deodorizing. Chem. Eng. World 30 (1995) 103–104.
[111] A. Maza, R. A. Ormsbee, L. R. Strecker: Effect of deodor-
ization and steam refining parameters on finished oil qual-
ity. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 69 (1992) 1003–1008.
[112] W. Beeger, B. Kunze: Refining and environment. Solutions
in processing technology. Fett Wiss. Technol. 96 (1994)
309–318.
[113] M. J. Kokken: Physical refining. In: Emerging Technolo-
gies, Current Practices, Quality Control, Technology Trans-
fer, and Environmental Issues. Eds. S. S. Koseoglu, K. C.
Physical refining of edible oils 485
Rhee, R. F. Wilson. AOCS Press, Champaign IL (USA)
1998, pp. 99–102.
[114] M. Nogala-Kalucka, M. Gogolewski, E. Swiatkewicz:
Changes in the composition of tocopherols and fatty acids
in postdeodorization condensates during the refining of
various vegetable oils. Fett Wiss. Technol. 95 (1993)
144–147.
[115] S. D. Barnicki, C. E. Summer Jr., H. C. Williams: US Patent
5 512 691 (1996).
[116] S. Ramamurthi, A. R. McCurdy: Enzyme pretreatment of
deodorizer distillate for concentration of sterols and toco-
pherols. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 70 (1993) 287–295.
[117] C. E. Summer Jr., S. D. Barnicki, M. D. Dolfi: US Patent 5
424 457 (1995).
[118] I. M. Jawad, S. P. Kochhar, B. J. F. Hudson: The physical
refining of edible oils. II. Effect of unsaponifiable compo-
nents. Lebensm. Wiss. Technol. 17 (1984) 155–159.
[119] S. da Motta, J. M. de Andrade Araujo: Preparation of vita-
min E concentrate from soybean oil distillate. Arq. Biol.
Tecnol. 34 (1991) 217–226.
[120] M. E. Marques Almeida, E. Contreras Gusman, P. R.
Nogueira Carvalho: Evaluation of soybean oil deodoriza-
tion distillate for vitamin E recovery. Arq. Biol. Tecnol. 37
(1994) 1003–1011.
[121] I. Bernwieser, G. Sontag: Determination of phenolic acids
in vegetable oil using HPLC coupled with multielectrode
detection. Z. Lebensm. Unters. Forsch. 195 (1992)
559–561.
[122] A. Qiu, S. Wu: Recovery of phytosterols from deodorized
distillate. Zhongguo Youzhi 22 (1997) 49–50; Chem. Abstr.
127: 175 501.
[123] T. Murui, Y. H. Siew: Effect of refining process on the con-
tent of sterylglycosides and alcohols for palm oil. Nihon
Yukagakkaishi 46 (1997) 683–686.
[124] T. Murui, A. Fukushima: Behaviour of sterols and sterylgly-
cosides in vegetable oil manufacturing process. Yukagaku
42 (1993) 442–446.
[125] C. Fizet: Eur. Patent Appl. EP 610 742 (1994).
[126] J. Cvengroš, T. Liptaj: Czech. Patent CS 277 473 (1993).
[127] K. Yasuda, H. Watanabe, T. Tokunaga: Effect of the
deodorization temperature on the quality of soybean oil.
Yukagaku 11 (1962) 2–5.
[128] G. Devinat, L. Scamaroni, M. Naudet: Isomerization of
linolenic acid during the deodorization of rape and soya
oils. Rev. Fr. Corps Gras 27 (1980) 283–287.
[129] I. M. Jawad, S. P. Kochhar, J. F. Hudson: The physical re-
fining of edible oils. 1. Effect on component fatty acids and
on triglycerides. Lebensm. Wiss. Technol. 17 (1983)
289–293.
[130] G. Nota, D. Luongo, R. Sacchi, C. Improta: Effect of refin-
ing on the cis,trans-isomerization of oleic acid in lard. Riv.
Ital. Sostanze Grasse 68 (1991) 597–598.
[131] S. O’Keefe, S. Gaskins-Wright, V. Wiley, I.-C. Chen: Levels
of trans geometrical isomers of essential fatty acids in
some unhydrogenated US vegetable oils. J. Food Lipids 1
(1994) 165–176.
[132] G. Dobson, W. W. Christie, J. L. Sébédio: The nature of
cyclic fatty acids formed in heated vegetable oils. Grasas
Aceites 47 (1996) 26–33.
486 Čmolík et al.
[133] F. Pudel, P. Denecke: Influences on the formation of trans
fatty acids during deodorization of rapeseed oil. Ol., Corps
Gras, Lipides 4 (1997) 58–61.
[134] G. Henon, Z. Kemeny, K. Recseg, F. Zwobada, K. Kovari:
Degradation of alpha-linolenic acid during heating. J. Am.
Oil Chem. Soc. 74 (1997) 1615–1617.
[135] K. Kovari, J. Denise, F. Zwobada, Z. Kemeny, K. Recseg,
G. Henon: Kinetics of trans isomer fatty acid formation dur-
ing heating. Olaj, Szappan, Kozmet. 47 (1998) 7–12.
[136] P. Denecke, F. Pudel: Formation of trans fatty acids during
deodorization. Proc. World Congr. Int. Soc. Fat Res.,
Magdeburg 1995. Barnes, Bridgewater 1996, pp. 163–
166.
[137] W. F. DeGreyt, M. J. Kellens, A. D. Huyghenbaert: Polymer-
ic and oxidized triglyceride content of crude and refined
vegetable oils. Fett/Lipid 99 (1997) 287–290.
[138] R. A. Ferrari, E. Schulte, W. Esteves, L. Brühl, K. D. Muk-
erjee: Minor constituents of vegetable oils during industrial
processing. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 73 (1996) 587–592.
[139] M. C. Pérez-Camino, M. V. Ruiz-Méndez, G. Marques-
Ruiz, M. C. Dobarganes: Virgin and refined olive oils: dif-
ference in minor glycerides. Grasas Aceites 44 (1993)
91–96.
[140] C. Bertoli, A. Bellini, A. del Vecchio, P. Durand, D. Gumy,
M. Stancanelli: Formation of trans fatty acids during de-
odorization of low erucic acid rapeseed oil. In: Advances in
Oils and Fats, Antioxidants, and Oilseed By-Products, Vol.
II. Eds. S. S. Koseoglu, K. C. Rhee, R. F. Wilson. AOCS
Press, Champaign IL (USA) 1996, pp. 67–71.
[141] E. Bianchi, A. Cantoni, A. Bocca, M. Delise, F. Fabieti,
E. M. Zambini: Refining technology and analytical parame-
ters of the lard. Influence of industrial processes. Ind. Ali-
ment. 36 (1997) 134–138.
[142] R. Bortolomeazzi, L. Pizzale, A. Novelli, L. S. Conte:
Steroidal hydrocarbons formed by dehydration of oxidized
sterols in refined oils. Riv. Ital. Sostanze Grasse 73 (1996)
457–460.
[143] R. G. Krishnamurthy, N. R. Widlak, J. J. Wang: US Patent 5
091 116 (1992).
[144] A. T. Y. Cheng, J. R. Calvo, R. Rodríguez Barrado: Eur.
Patent Appl. EP 513 739 (1992).
[145] A. Fernández Vecilia: Deodorization of oils using nitrogen
gas. Aliment. Équipos Tecnol. 13 (1994) 23–26.
[146] A. Adwani, J. D. Dalwadi: Wiped film evaporator for strip-
ping free fatty acids from edible oils. Chem. Eng. World 28
(1993) 79–81.
[147] H. Stage: Ger. Offen. DE Patent 4 300 890 (1994).
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102 (2000) 472–486
[148] J. Cvengroš: Physical refining of edible oils. J. Am. Oil
Chem. Soc. 72 (1995) 1193–1196.
[149] J. Cvengroš, M. Cvengroš, Š. Schmidt: Czech. Patent CZ
278 992 (1994).
[150] J. Chrbet, J. Chrbetova: Eur. Patent Appl. EP 785 249
(1997).
[151] M. Mukhopadhyay, M. K. Nath: Removal of free fatty acids
from rice bran and cotton seed oils using supercritical car-
bon dioxide. Indian Chem. Eng. Sect. A 37 (1995) 53–57.
[152] S. S. H. Rizvi, A. R. Bhaskar: Supercritical fluid processing
of milk fat: fractionation, scale-up, and economics of frac-
tionation with supercritical fluid processing holds promise
as a means to turn milk fat into valued and novel ingredi-
ents. Food Technol. 49 (1995) 90–97.
[153] J. T. F. Keurentjes, K. van’t Riet: Membrane technology in
the refining of oils and fats. Polytech. Tijdschr. Procestech.
48 (1993) 36–39.
[154] L. P. Raman, M. Cheryan, N. Rajagopalan: Solvent recov-
ery and partial deacidification of vegetable oils by mem-
brane technology. Fett/Lipid 98 (1996) 10–14.
[155] L. P. Raman, H. Cheryan, N. Rajagopalan: Deacidification
of soybean oil by membrane technology. J. Am. Oil Chem.
Soc. 73 (1996) 219–224.
[156] Y. Sahashi, H. Ishizuka, S. Koike, K. Suzuki: Membrane
separation of polyunsaturated fatty acids-rich acylglycerols
from fish oil. Yukagaku 43 (1994) 116–123.
[157] A. Lanzani, P. Bondioli, C. Mariani, L. Folegatti, S. Venturi-
ni, E. Fedeli: A new short-path distillation system applied to
the reduction of cholesterol in butter and lard. J. Am. Oil
Chem. Soc. 71 (1994) 609–614.
[158] Y. M. Choong, M. Wang, K. L. Ku, M. Lee: Removal of cho-
lesterol from lard by liquid-liquid extraction. Zhongguo
Nongye Huaxue Huizhi 33 (1995) 94–103; Chem. Abstr.
123: 8273.
[159] C. Massie, J. B. Fine: US Patent 5 436 018 (1995).
[160] G.-C. Yen, L.-J. Tsai: Cholesterol removal from a lard-
water mixture with β-cyclodextrin. J. Food Sci. 60 (1995)
561–564.
[161] C. Ritter, C. Sikorski, W. Shieh, A. Hedges: PCT Int. Patent
Appl. WO 96 25 858.
[162] D. R. Kodali: PCT Int. Appl. WO 98 33,875.
[163] K. C. Hayes: Designing a cholesterol-removed fat blend for
frying and baking. Food Technol. 50 (1996) 92–97.
[Received: May 4, 2000; accepted: June 19, 2000]