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When a test fails to meet the thickness and other test requirement that are in place
to insure plane-strain condition, the fracture toughness values produced is given
the designation KC. Sometimes it is not possible to produce a specimen that meets
the thickness requirement. For example when a relatively thin plate product with
high toughness is being tested, it might not be possible to produce a thicker
specimen with plain-strain conditions at the crack tip.
KIC values are used also used to calculate the critical stress value when a crack of a
given length is found in a component.
Orientation
The fracture toughness of a material commonly varies with grain direction.
Therefore, it is customary to specify specimen and crack orientations by an ordered
pair of grain direction symbols. The first letter designates the grain direction
normal to the crack plane. The second letter designates the grain direction parallel
to the fracture plane. For flat sections of various products, e.g., plate, extrusions,
forgings, etc., in which the three grain directions are designated (L) longitudinal,
(T) transverse, and (S) short transverse, the six principal fracture path directions
are: L-T, L-S, T-L, T-S, S-L and S-T.
Depending on the direction of the specimen loading and the specimen thickness,
four types of stress-intensity factors are used: KC, KIC KIIC KIIIC.
KIIC and KIIIC – stress-intensity factors relating to the fracture modes in which the
loading direction is parallel to the crack plane. These factors are rarely used for
metals and are not used for ceramics;
KIC – plane strain stress-intensity factor relating to the fracture modes in which the
loading direction is normal to the crack plane. This factor is widely used for both
metallic and ceramic materials.
KIC is used for estimation critical stress applied to a specimen with a given crack
length:
Where
a – the crack length for edge crack or half crack length for internal crack;
Y – geometry factor.
Impact test
Impact test is used for measuring toughness of materials and their capacity of
resisting shock. In this test the pendulum is swing up to its starting position (height
H ) and then it is allowed to strike the notched specimen, fixed in a vice. The
pendulum fractures the specimen, spending a part of its energy. After the fracture
the pendulum swings up to a height H. The impact toughness of the specimen is
calculated by the formula:
a = A/ S
Where
a-impact toughness,
A – the work, required for breaking the specimen ( A = M*g*H0–M*g*H),
One of the most popular impact tests is the Charpy Test, schematically presented in the
figure below:
The hammer striking energy in the Charpy test is 220 ft*lbf (300 J).
Single edge notched bend (SENB), single edge notched tension (SENT).)
1-http://www.ndt-
ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Materials/Mechanical/FractureTou
ghness.htm
2-http://www.twi.co.uk/content/kscsw011.html
3-http://www.twi.co.uk/content/kscsw011.html
Background
The resistance to fracture of a material is known as its fracture toughness. Fracture toughness
generally depends on temperature, environment, loading rate, the composition of the material
and its microstructure, together with geometric effects (constraint).[1] These factors are of
particular importance for welded joints, where the metallurgical and geometric effects are
complex[2,3]
Various measures of 'toughness' exist, including the widely used but qualitative Charpy impact
test. Although it is possible to correlate Charpy energy with fracture toughness, a large degree of
uncertainty is associated with correlations because they are empirical. It is preferable to
determine fracture toughness in a rigorous fashion, in terms of K (stress intensity factor), CTOD
(crack tip opening displacement), or J (the J integral); see also What is a fracture toughness test?
Standards exist for performing fracture mechanics tests, with the most common specimen
configuration shown in Fig.1 (the single-edge notch bend SENB specimen, sometimes referred
as a SE(B) specimen). A sharp fatigue crack is inserted in the specimen, which is loaded to
failure. The crack driving force is calculated for the failure condition, giving the fracture
toughness.
Various national Standards have been developed for fracture toughness testing:
• The British Standard BS 7448[4] includes four parts, for testing of metallic materials, including
parent materials (Part 1), weldments (Part 2), high strain rates (dynamic fracture toughness
testing, Part 3), and resistance curves (R-curves for ductile tearing, Part 4). BS 7448: Part 2 is the
first Standard worldwide to apply specifically to weldments.
• A series of American standards (ASTM) cover K, CTOD, J testing, ASTM E1290 (CTOD testing),
ASTM E1820 (K, J & CTOD, including R-curves) and ASTM E1921 (J testing to determine T0 for
ferritic steels). None specifically address testing of welds. ASTM E1823 provides a useful
summary of terminology.[5-9]
• A series of international (ISO) standards are being developed. ISO 12135 covers all aspects of
fracture testing (K, J-integral & CTOD) of plain material. Standards are being prepared on testing
of welds (ISO/FDIS 15653) and stable crack growth in low constraint specimens (ISO/22889). The
latter is mainly concerned with testing thin, sheet material.
• The European Structural Integrity Society (ESIS) has published procedures for R-curve and
standard fracture toughness testing of metallic materials.[10-11] A draft unified testing procedure
(ESIS P3-04), which includes weld testing, is being developed. (These are not standards in the
usual sense, but rather testing protocols that have been agreed by experts. Unfortunately,
currently there is no formal mechanism for keeping these protocols up to date).
• Increasing use is being made of single edge notch tension (SENT or SE(T)) specimens to
determine fracture toughness of girth welds in submarine pipelines. Currently, there is no
testing standard but a DNV recommended practice does provide a testing protocol [12]. This is
designed for ductile materials and the protocol describes a method for the determination of a J
R-curve.
Although different standards have historically been published for determining K, CTOD and J-
integral, the tests are very similar, and generally all three values can be established from one test.
See Are there any differences between fracture toughness tests carried out to BS7448 and
E1820?
Test specimens
The most widely used fracture toughness test configurations are the single edge notch bend
(SENB or three-point bend), and the compact (CT) specimens, as shown in Fig.2. The compact
specimen has the advantage that it requires less material, but is more expensive to machine and
more complex to test compared with the SENB specimen. Also, special requirements are needed
for temperature control (e.g. use of an environmental chamber). SENB specimens are typically
immersed in a bath for low temperature tests. Although the compact specimen is loaded in
tension, the crack tip conditions are predominantly bending (high constraint). If limited material
is available, it is possible to fabricate SENB specimens by welding extension pieces (for the
loading arms) to the material sample. (Electron beam welding is typically used, because the weld
is narrow and causes little distortion).
Fig.2. Examples of common
fracture toughness test
specimen types
Other specimen configurations include centre-cracked tension (CCT) panels, single edge notch
tension (SENT) specimens, and shallow-crack tests. These specialised tests are associated with
lower levels of constraint, and can be more structurally representative than standard SENB or CT
specimens. SENT specimens are being used to determine fracture toughness of pipeline girth in
submarine pipelines, especially where the installation method involves plastic straining. Further
information can be found in a DNV recommended practice [12] and Appendix A of a DNV
standard [13]. The primary purpose of the tests is to define flaw acceptance criteria when the
results are used with an appropriate assessment procedure.
The position and orientation of the specimen is important. In particular, the location and
orientation of the notch is critical, especially for welded joints. Typically, the notch (fatigue pre-
crack) is positioned such that a chosen microstructure is sampled. The orientation of the notch is
defined with respect to either the weld axis for welded joints, or the rolling direction or forging
axis for other components.
In standard SENB & C T specimens (see Fig.1), the notch depth is within the range 45-70% of
the specimen width, W, giving a lower-bound estimate of fracture toughness, because of the high
level of crack tip constraint generated by the specimen design.
A notch is machined into the fracture toughness specimen blank, following which a fatigue crack
is grown by applying cyclic loading to the specimen. In order to minimise the time spent in
fatigue pre-cracking, specialised high frequency resonance or servo-hydraulic machines are often
used for this process.
Since specimens taken from as-welded joints will contain residual stresses arising from the
welding process, there is a risk of non-uniform fatigue pre-cracks which would invalidate the test
result. To counter this, various options are recommended in BS7448 Part2. The most commonly
used method which has also been found to provide the most consistent results is local
compression. This involves controlled plastic compression of the sides of the specimen after
notching but before fatigue pre-cracking.
The fracture mechanics test standards include many checks to ensure that results are credible.
These include restrictions on the fatigue crack size, plane and shape, together with limitations on
the maximum allowable fatigue force (this is to ensure that the crack-tip plastic zone produced
during fatigue pre-cracking is small in comparison with the plastic zone produced during
testing). Many of these checks can only be performed after testing.
During fracture toughness testing, the force applied to the specimen and specimen displacements
and loading rate (using load cells and displacement transducers), together with the temperature
are recorded.
One of the displacements is the crack-mouth opening. This is measured using a clip gauge either
attached to knife edges mounted at the crack mouth (see Fig.1) or integral knife edges machined
into the notch. These gauges comprise two cantilevered beams on which are positioned four
strain gauges. By measuring the elastic strains and calibration crack-mouth opening displacement
is obtained. Analysis of the relationship between applied force and crack mouth opening
displacement form the test enables fracture toughness to be determined in terms of K, CTOD and
J-integral.
Fracture toughness tests are performed in universal hydraulic test machines, generally using
displacement control.
The following are the fracture toughness parameters commonly obtained from testing
It should be noted that all three fracture parameters can be related to one another. However, the
relationship is not unique and depends on material tensile properties and specimen geometry.
For more information please contact us.
References
Items 1-3 are not in the public domain but are available to TWI Industrial Member companies.
1. M G Dawes: 'An Introduction to K, CTOD and J Fracture Mechanics Analyses and Toughness, and
the Application of these to Metal Structures'.
5. ASTM E399-09: 'Standard Test Method for Plane Strain Fracture Toughness of Metallic
Materials'. American Society of Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 2009.
6. ASTM E1290-09: 'Standard Test Method for Crack-Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD) Fracture
Toughness Measurement'. American Society of Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 2009
7. ASTM E1820-09: 'Standard Test Method for Measurement for Fracture Toughness'. American
Society of Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 2009.
8. ASTM E1823-09: 'Technology Relating to Fatigue and Fracture Testing'. American Society for
Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 2009.
9. ASTM E1921-09 'Standard Test Method for Determination of Reference Temperature, T0, for
Ferritic Steels in the Transition Range'. American Society of Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,
2009
10. ESIS P1-92: 'ESIS Recommendation for Determining the Fracture Resistance of Ductile Materials'
European Structural Integrity Society, 1992.
11. ESIS P2-92: 'ESIS Procedure for Determining the Fracture Behaviour of Materials'. European
Structural Integrity Society, 1992.
12. DNV-RP-F108: 'Fracture control for pipeline installation methods introducing cyclic plastic
strain'. Det Norske Veritas, January 2006.
13. DNV-OS-F101: 'Submarine pipeline systems'. Det Norske Veritas, October 2007.