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Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychologists are concerned with human development and the factors that
shape behavior and personality from birth to old age. They are concerned with many
aspects of development as well as many different stages.
Two basic questions are related to (I) the role of biological factors (interaction between
nature and environment in determining the course of development) & (2) the continuity of
development: is it continuous process of change or a series of qualitatively distinct stages.
Another important question is whether there is a critical period during which experience
must occur for psychological development to proceed.

Genetic determinants express themselves through the process of maturation: innately

determined sequence of growth or bodily changes that are relatively independent of the
environment. For example, motor development goes through the same sequence, e.g..
creeping, crawling, and walking. But even these can be modified by inadequate
environment.

WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT?

1) Many aspects of human development share certain characteristics, whether they

involve Physical Development; the maturation of various bodily structures, Motor
Development; the progressive attainment of various motor skills; Cognitive Development;
the growth of intellectual functions: or Social Development, Changes in the ways the child
deals with others.
2) Many theorists agree that the changes that constitute development are produced by the
interaction of genetic endowment and environmental factors.
3) An important concept on which many psychologists agree is the concept of Critical or
Sensitive Period. By this, it is meant that what is important at one stage in life may not
be so at some later point. That is, sensitive period means that there are certain periods
in development during which certain important events will have an impact that they
would not have with the same strength at earlier or later times.

Some aspects of the orderly progression of development are determined by maturation,

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which genetically programmed and is independent of specific environmental
conditions. An example is walking. This and other early sensory and motor achievements
seem to be relatively unaffected by specific practice. On the other hand, more general
kinds of experience, such as sensory deprivation and sensory enrichment, seem to exert
important effects.

(A) COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT:

The study of cognitive development is concerned with how the quality of thought process
improves with experience and maturity. The central theorist on this is Jean Piaget. In his
theory, cognition develops as the child applies assimilation and accommodation to
existing schemes, and the do so by passing through the same sequence of developmental
stages.

1) SENSORY-MOTOR THINKING:
a) The first stage in this theory is the Sensory Motor Stage, which lasts from birth until about
two years of age. Infants are subjective and unaware of any existence other than their own.
The infant fails to distinguish between the self and no self, (out of sight out of mind). The
infant can’t conceive of an object’s existence once it is no longer immediately perceptible.
b) Towards the end of this stage the infant develops Objects Permanence, Sensory-Motor
Schemas and acquires Mental Representations. This is achieved through the acquisition of
new mental imagery that allows them to imagine the existence of objects not directly
perceptible. The selves are distinguished from reality, which becomes separate from their
own action.

2) PRE-OPERA TIONAL THINKING:

a)The second stage is the pre-operational stage, which lasts till about six or seven. Children
are capable of representational thoughts but lack mental operation that order and organize
these thoughts. They cannot, for example distinguish or recognize that another person
might view reality differently if situated at a different point. (left & Right)
b)Characteristic deficits at this stage includes inability to conserve number and quantity,
(Lack of Conservation Ability), and Egocentrism, an inability to take another person’s
perspective. Until the age of six the child also fails the task of Class Inclusion because of
deficient logic at this stage.

3) CONCRETE OPERATIONAL THINKING:

a)At approximately seven years of age, the child enters the Concrete operational stage,
marked by the onset of logical thinking. This enables the child to solve correctly all the
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cognitive tasks that he or she fails at earlier stage. They are no longer egocentric. They
are able to recognize that their view of reality is one of many other views. However, the
child can now solve problems similar to that of class inclusion and conservation, but they
cannot think abstractly.

4) FORMAL OPERATIONAL THINKING:

a) At approximately eleven or twelve, the Formal operational stage starts, where abstract
thinking is possible. Children can now consider hypothetical possibilities and became
capable of scientific thinking.
However, cognitive development affects the child’s understanding of the physical
environment and social world as well. One aspect of the social world is moral reasoning
and judgement. Piaget has also proposed a theory on moral development, but this has been
further elaborated and expanded by L. Kohlberg.

(B) THE DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL REASONING:

Based on the stage theory of cognitive development, Lawrence Kohlberg has developed a
stage theory of moral development and moral reasoning. This theory describes three
progressive levels of moral development, each level includes two stages:

(1) PRE-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY:

Stage (I): Moral reasoning is governed by punishment orientation-obey rule to avoid
punishment.
Stage (11): Reward orientation- conforms to obtain rewards.

(2) CONVENTIONAL LEVEL:

Stage (III): Good boy/good girl orientation- conforms to avoid disapproval.
Stage(IV): Authority orientation: rigid codes, rules, and duties define this stage.

(3) POST-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL:

Stage (V): This stage is defined by social contract. Generally, actions are guided by
principles commonly agreed on as important to the public good and welfare. Respect of
the self comes from respects of others.

Stage (VI): This stage is oriented to ethical principles and is based on abstract thinking.
Actions guided by self-chosen ethical principles, which usually stress justice, dignity, and
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equality.

(C) PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT:

Theories of psychosocial development are represented by the work of Bowlby, (1973) in

his theory of attachment, and the work of Erikson, (1976) in his theory of psychosocial
development.
ATTACHMENT:
Attachment is generally defined as the emotional bond that develops between the infant
and the caregiver, providing infants with emotional security. Many theories have been
developed to explain how attachment develops. The Behaviorist emphasizes the Drive-
Reduction and Operant conditioning hypotheses. However, the hypothesis is weakened by
evidence indicating that infants may form relationships not only with mothers who feeds
them, but also with many things that provide feelings of warmth and security.
However, an alternative theory by J. Bowlby proposed continuity and expansion of
attachment development. This development is presented in four stages or phases.

Stage (I)- Birth to 6 Weeks: This is called the indiscriminate social responsiveness
phase.
The baby seems to respond to anyone (human). Action represented in afterbirth reflexes.
Stage (11)- (6 weeks to 7 months): This is called the discriminate social responsiveness
phase.
Babies start to smile and to respond to their parents, but they will not protest if they were
left alone.
Stare (III)- (7 months to about 2 years): This is called the specific attachment phase.
Children start to recognize their mothers. They are able to create a mental representation of
the mother (object permanence). Children of this age may show separation anxiety.
Stage (VI)- (From about 2 years old): This the phase of forming reciprocal relationship.
Now children begin to use language to express their needs, to understand the feelings of
others (not egocentric after the preoperational stage), and able to form mutual
relationships.
However, the development of attachment, and its disturbance or losses plays a significant
role in the formation of psychological well-beings and maladjustment. Secured attachment
is associated with adaptive behavior, social competence independence, and persistence in
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problem solving. Insecure attachment may lead to mistrust, avoidance behavior, craving
for attention, seeking constant approval, and other emotional disturbances. Many of these
issues are covered and clarified in Eriksson’s theory of psychosocial development that is
summarized below.

Erikson Theory of Psychosocial Development:

In this theory, each stage of development is dominated by a particular developmental task

reflecting a conflict between a person’s needs and societies need. That conflict must be
resolved before the person can proceed to the next stage.

Stage (1): TRUST versus Mistrust: This conflict dominates during the first year of life.
Here the concept of TRUST resembles secured attachment. Constant and reliable care that
makes the infant feel secured, and feels that parents could be trusted. MISTRUST or
insecure attachment may lead to suspiciousness, frustration, and difficulties in forming
relationships.

Stage (2): AUTONOMY versus DOUBTS: During the second year of life. Autonomy
refers to the feeling of Self-Control and self-determination. It is encouraged when the child
starts to exercise some control over their action. If parents did not grant them autonomy,
children will feel incompetent, become doubt, and will describe themselves (self-concept)
negatively.

Stage (3): INITIATIVE versus GUILT: This occurs at the play stage (preschool). To
initiate constructive activities simply for the sake of being active. Again, parental attitudes,
encouraging. or discouraging, can make children feel inadequate or guilt if the child
initiates activity that the adult consider as shameful. This is the stage when also children
start to develop Gender Identity (The inner experience of being a male or female), and
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Gender Role (a socially prescribed patterns of behavior and attitudes for male and
females.

Stage (4): INDUSTRY versus INFERIORITY: This occurs at school age. Children
want to learn the skill valued by adults and the society in order to gain recognition. These
include various skills of adults. Successful will lead to the feelings of competence and
production, while receiving negative response and critics will lead to inferiority.

Stage (5): IDENTITY versus CONFUSION: This conflict occurs during adolescence.
Constructing personal identity is the major task of adolescence. Children start to develop a
sense of their own individuality. Inability to resolve these questions may lead to identity
crisis and role confusion.

Stage (6): INTIMACY versus ISOLATION: This is the conflict of EARLY

ADULTHOOD. The major task facing young adults is the development of intimacy. It is
the ability to commit oneself to a close relationship that demand sacrifices. The negative
impact of this conflict is isolation.

Stage (7): GENERATIVITY versus SELF-ABSORPTION: This occurs at middle

adulthood. Generativity refers to the concerns over future generations, which may results
in feelings of satisfaction. Self-absorption or stagnation is the lack of concerns over future
generation, which may’ results in self-dissatisfaction and emptiness.

Stage (8): EGO-INTEGRITY versus DESPAIR: This is the conflict of late adulthood
Ego integrity refers to the sense of wholeness and meaningfulness of one’s life. Those who
resolve this conflict will accept themselves as they are and believe in their dignity. Those
who don’t resolve this conflict will fall into despair fear of death and wish to live their life
again.

Parenting Styles

Baumrind has described three basic parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative and
permissive.
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Other psychologists have differentiated between two permissive styles (indulgent
and ignoring). These four diverge along two dimensions:

– Control of their children’s behavior

– Responsiveness to their children’s feelings and needs

• Authoritarian parents set strict rules that are to be obeyed without question. The child is
not consulted or considered in setting or implementing the rules

• Children raised with this style are likely to be fearful, irritable, moody, unhappy,
unspontaneous and socially withdrawn.

• Permissive-Indulgent parents do not set or enforce clear and consistent rules.

• Children are more cheerful but also aggressive, immature, and impulsive

• It is interesting that both INDULGENCE AND AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS have

children who tend to display little self-reliance and may have problems with aggression.

• Authoritative parents set and enforce clear and consistent rules, but do so in consideration
of the child's needs. The rules are based on reasons that are discussed with the child.
Exceptions might be made, again with good reason. They are also warm and supportive.

• Children are cheerful, energetic, friendly, and socially competent. They also get the best
grades of any of the three groups.

• FINALLY, Permissive-Neglecting parents: are more concerned with their own activities
and are uninvolved in their children. Their children tend to be: Impulsive; uninterested in
school, and lack long-terms goals. Extremely Neglecting parents have children who show
clear disturbances in their a attachment relationships and psychological functioning.
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Erickson Theory of Psychosocial Development

Stage Central Conflict Positive Resolution Negative Resolution

1 Infancy (0-18 Trust vs Consistent warmth fosters Neglect leads to fear & mistrust
mos) Mistrust trust
2 Toddlerhood Autonomy vs Encouragement fosters Restrictions promote self-doubt and low self-
(18-36 mos) Doubt independence, self- esteem.
sufficiency and self-esteem
3 Early Initiative vs Child initiates activities and Over-control stunts child's spontaneity and
Childhood Guilt developments a sense of sociability; promotes guilt and fear
(3-6 yrs) responsibility
4 Middle/Late Industry vs Success with peers and Failure with peers and parents leads to
Childhood Inferiority parents leads to pride and inferiority and inadequacy
(6-12 years social competence
5 Adolescence Identity vs Adolescent tries on different Adolescent does not experiment (through
Identity roles and develops a stable apathy or demands from others) becomes
Diffusion self-definition and confused about self and future roles
commitment to adult goals
6 Young Intimacy vs Lasting and meaningful Fear of rejection or narcissism inhibits
Adulthood Isolation relationships promote intimate relationships leading to isolation
connectedness and intimacy
7 Middle Generativity vs Unselfish concern for the Self-indulgence and self-absorption promote
Adulthood Stagnation next generation is boredom, stagnation and failure
manifested in work,
community activities and
child-rearing
8 Late Ego Integrity vs Older adult looks back on a Older adult looks back with disappointment,
Adulthood Despair meaningful and satisfying dissatisfaction and regret
life
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning
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Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience
Level One:
Orientation
Pre-conventional
Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist
Morality
Orientation
Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl
Level Two: Orientation
Conventional Morality
Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation

Level Three: Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation

Post-Conventional
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle
Morality
Orientation

PARENTING STYLES

LOW CONTROL HIGH CONTRL

LOW Permissive-indifferent Authoritarian
RESPONSIVENESS (Neglecting)

HIGH Authoritative
RESPONSIVENESS

Permissive-indulgent
Prepared by Dr. Mohamed Salah Khalil
Assistant professor of Clinical Psychology