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Compare and contrast two theories to explain cultural differences

The following essay will compare and contrast cultural materialism and historical

particularism to explain cultural differences within the context of developing countries and

westernised countries. The first part of the essay will explain both theories, background, key

features and so on. Secondly will compare and contrast the differences and similarities.

Furthermore the essay will then outline how the following theories explain cultural

differences.

The concept of historical particularism is that each culture posses it own unique historical

development and must be understood based on its own specific cultural context, especially

the historical process it has gone through(Peoples & Bailey, 2009). Historical particularism

was founded by Franz Boas and coined my Marvin Harris(McGee & Warms, 2007). In the

nineteenth century historical particularists rejected evolutionism ideology that all cultures in

society are on the same path and have reached a specific level of development the same way

all other societies have(Salzman, 2001). Historical particularism unlike evolutionism saw that

societies could reach the same level of development through various pathways(Buettner-

Janusch, 1957). Boas suggested that trade, diffusion, corresponding environment and

historical happenings are the things that create similar traits within different cultures.

Historical connections, psychological factors, environmental conditions are the traits that

boas suggested that explain cultural customs(Vernon J. Williams, 2003). History however is

the most important of them all as that is where the name of the theory is derived from.

Historical particularists claim to be free of preconceived ideas on cultures(Ortner, 1984).

There ideas are based on first hand cultural data that has been collected from ethnographic

field research. Based on material collected, they described particular cultures rather than

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trying to establish generalized theories that apply to all cultures in society(McGee & Warms,

2007; Ortner, 1984).

Historical particularists placed great value on field research and history as essential methods

for culture analysis(Darnell, 1977). Anthropologists in this theoretical school had different

views on the importance of individuals within cultures. Franz Boas for example, perceived

individuals as the essential mechanisms of wider society. Boas collected information from

individual informants and considered such material valuable for cultural analysis(Buettner-

Janusch, 1957). Alfred Kroeber however did not perceive individuals as essential

mechanisms of society. He believed that cultures evolve according to their own internal laws

that do not directly originate from its individuals. Kroeber named his cultural aspect as the

super organic and claimed that a culture can not be clarified without considering this

impersonal force(Buettner-Janusch, 1957).

Historical particularism was a dominant theoretical theory in anthropology during the first

half of the twentieth century(Laclau, 1992). Historical particularism has achieved excluding

racism from anthropology. Evolutionists in the nineteenth century explained cultural

similarities and differences by classifying cultures in society either into superior or inferior

classifications. Historical particularists showed that this type of classification was based on

insufficient evidence and claimed that cultures in society can not be classified by the value

and judgement of researchers(Darnell, 1977).

The concept of culture materialism is based on materialism(Salzman, 2001). Cultural

materialism is derived from Marxist materialistic thought. The theory of cultural materialism

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was first coined by Marvin Harris(Salzman, 2001). The culture aspect includes the social

structure, politics, law, language and so on. Materialism is materiality rather than spirituality

or intellect(Peoples & Bailey, 2009). Cultural materialism expands and still maintains the

three levels of the culture model of infrastructure, structure and superstructure(Glenn, 1988).

The infrastructure aspect includes the population, resources, and basic biological needs.

Structure is the organization such s the government, education system and production

regulation. Superstructure is the social institutions such as the politics, law, and religion jut to

name a few(Glenn, 1988). Cultural materialism holds that the infrastructure influences the

structure; however the structure has little influence on the infrastructure. Marxist materialism

however maintains that infrastructure and structure influence each other(Milner, 1994). I

would say that all three aspects of the culture model inter relate in the sense that they all

require each other to function. Another major distinction between the Marxist and cultural

materialism is class theory. Marxist materialism believes that social change is beneficial to

the ruling of class only, while cultural materialism believes that social change is beneficial to

the working class as well(Milner, 1994).

Cultural materialism focuses on the material side of a culture in society such as economics,

technology and physical environment. Cultural materialism is more concerned with the

social organization aspect of society more than the “culture”(Peoples & Bailey, 2009).

Explanations on cultures are offered from an etic which is an outsider’s perspective(Peoples

& Bailey, 2009). The major focuses are on modes of production, technology and practice

used in the production of food and energy. The use of technology in increasing, limiting and

maintenance of demographics(Glenn, 1988). Historical particularism on the hand focuses on

culture through the approaches of prehistory, physical environment and linguistics(Darnell,

1977). There is a great emphasize on the use of data collected through field research as

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opposed to the etic approaches of cultural materialism. Historical particularism has a

humanistic perspective in the sense that it challenges the assumptions of evolutionists(McGee

& Warms, 2007).

The need to keep a record of and study diminishing cultures such as Native American and

indigenous cultures in societies is greatly emphasized by historical particularists(Salzman,

2001). According to historical particularism each culture is unique and can not be compared

to another, and it is possible for the same cultural traits to develop through different cultures

but with different processes and still arrive at the same level(Vernon J. Williams, 2003). An

example of this is through trade and the modern economy. The two theories have no

similarities in place. As both approach culture from different approaches. Historical

particularism perceives culture to be unique and takes history into account(Peoples & Bailey,

2009).

Cultural materialism attempts to explain cultural differences through the aspects of ideology,

symbolism, social organization through the materialistic infrastructure, structure and

superstructure framework(Conrad, 1981). Cultural materialists believe that cultures develop

on the foundation of trial and error(Glenn, 1988). If an aspect is not beneficial to the society’s

ability to produce, reproduce, or causes production and or reproduction to exceed its adequate

limits, this aspect will then disappear from society altogether. Therefore, the law,

government, family values, religion, etc. Such aspects must be beneficial to the running of

society or they stop from existing in society according to cultural materialism(Conrad, 1981;

Peoples & Bailey, 2009). Historical particularism attempts to explain cultural differences by

stating that all cultures are unique(Laclau, 1992).

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Historical particularism argues that cultural change is not subject to orthogenetic

development, meaning toward a determined unilateral direction(Laclau, 1992). Culture is

pliable. Culture will either progress or deviate toward whichever the culture or environment

allows it to. Historical particularism rejects any form of structure of culture(Vernon J.

Williams, 2003). However, the basis of cultural materialism is the three level culture model

that consists of the infrastructure, structure and superstructure. Boas, stated that people can

not say that occurrence of the same event is due to the same cause(Buettner-Janusch, 1957).

This suggests that cultures across the world can be studied by anthropologists independent of

each other, therefore exposing there differences. Not all societies go through the same events

in the same manner(Buettner-Janusch, 1957).

Nowadays anthropologists are encouraged to no longer have any preconceived ideas or

judgements about a culture from their own standards but by standards of the cultures they are

studying(McGee & Warms, 2007). In regards to cultural materialism, westernised countries

cultures differs to developing countries due to the differences in technology. Technology in

westernised cultures is a lot more advanced than developing countries. The value placed on

materialism in westernised countries is a lot more than developing countries. The differences

in the infrastructure, structure and superstructure across all cultures in society is what causes

cultural differences. These cultural differences are neither good nor bad as according to

historical particularsim each culture is unique(Peoples & Bailey, 2009).

To conclude the theories cultural materialism and historical particularism both have different

approaches on culture as well as cultural differences. Cultural materialism seeks to explain

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cultural differences by focusing on the material aspect of life in the form of economics,

physical environment and technology(Peoples & Bailey, 2009). These aspects of cultural

materialism seek to explain social organizational and behavioural differences among

cultures(Peoples & Bailey, 2009).

Historical particularism seeks to explain cultural differences through the approach of

prehistory, physical environment and linguistics. Has a great emphasizes on ethnographical

research which makes each culture unique due this method, as opposed to the etic method of

research that cultural materialists use(McGee & Warms, 2007). The flaws of cultural

materialism are the ideologies of social Darwinism are visible, there is environmental

determinism and lastly the approach taken is best utilised when looking at past and long term

changes in cultures not short term cultural changes(Ortner, 1984). The flaws of historical

particularism are the cultural theory on the unique history of culture is adverse to the general

theory of culture. Also the approach is anti theoretical(Laclau, 1992).

Reference list

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Buettner-Janusch, J. (1957). Boas and Mason: particularism versus Generalization. American

Anthropologist, 59, 318-324.
Conrad, G. W. (1981). Cultural Materialism, Spilt Inheritance, and Expansion of
Ancient Peruvian Empires. American Antiquity, 46, 3-26.
Darnell, R. (1977). History of Anthropology in Historical Perspective. Annual
Review Anthropology, 6, 399-417.
Glenn, S. S. (1988). Contingencies and Metacontingencies; Toward a Synthesis of
Behaviour Analysisand Cultural Materialism. The Behaviour Analyst, 11,
161-179.
Laclau, E. (1992). Universalism, Particularism, and the Question of Identity. The
Identity in Question, 61, 83-90.
McGee, R., & Warms, R. (2007). Anthropological Theory: An Introductory History.
New York: McGraw Hill.
Milner, A. (1994). Cultural Materialism, Culturalism and Post-Culturalism: The
Legacy of Raymond Williams. Theory Culture Society.
Ortner, S. B. (1984). Theory of Anthropology since the Sixties. Comparative
Studies in Society and History, 26, 126-166.
Peoples, J., & Bailey, G. (2009). Humanity: Introduction to cultural anthropology.
USA: Cengage learning.
Salzman, P. C. (2001). Understanding Culture: An introduction to Anthropological
Theory. Illinois: Waveland Press.
Vernon J. Williams, J. (2003). Between Universalism and Particularism:
Historiographical Concerns in the History of Anthropology. Journal of
African American Studies, 7, 61-68.