Chap 03

eTHINKING 3
Set notation
and theory
3
Margaret is in charge of
distributing team uniforms for
students representing the school in
music, athletics and debating. This
year, representing the school are
43 students, of which some are
involved in more than one activity.
Each student is required to
purchase a uniform for each
activity they participate in.
Margaret has misplaced the
individual order forms but knows
that 36 students are in the concert
band, 31 students are in the
athletics team, 12 students are in
the debating team and 6 students
are involved in all three. Nine
students are involved in music and
debating, 7 in athletics and
debating and 26 students in music
and athletics. From this
information, is it possible to
determine whether students are
involved in only one activity and
therefore require only one type of
uniform?
In this chapter you will learn
how to sort through information
and present it in a variety of
formats.
areyou96 Maths Quest 8 for Victoria
Are you ready? READY?

Try the questions below. If you have difficulty with any of them, extra help can be
obtained by completing the matching SkillSHEET. Either click on the SkillSHEET icon
next to the question on the Maths Quest 8 CD-ROM or ask your teacher for a copy.
The questions below refer to the following groups of numbers.

Group A: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20.
Group B: 1, 4, 9, 16.
Group C: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27.
3.1 Even and odd numbers

1 a List the odd numbers that are contained in:
i group A ii group B iii group C.
b List the even numbers that are contained in:
i group A ii group B iii group C.
3.2 Consecutive numbers

2 Write three consecutive numbers, beginning with 5, that are odd and are contained in:
a group A b group B c group C.
3.3 Square numbers

3 List the square numbers that are contained in:
3.4 Multiples
4 List the multiples of 3 that are contained in:
3.5 Prime and composite numbers

5 List the prime numbers that are contained in:
3.6 Factor pairs

6 List the factors of 12 that are contained in:
3.7 Perfect cubes

7 List the perfect cubes that are contained in:
3.8 Disjoint and overlapping sets

8 a List the numbers that groups A and B have in common.
b List the numbers that groups A and C have in common.
c List the numbers that groups B and C have in common.
d List the numbers that groups A, B and C have in common.
Chapter 3 Set notation and theory 97
Introducing sets
Georg Cantor (1845–1918) was born in Russia but lived and worked most of his life in
Germany. His passion was mathematics, in particular, set theory. Today he is regarded
as the originator of set theory, although in his lifetime his work was often ridiculed and
ignored.
A set is a collection of things or numbers that belong to a well-defined category. For
example, a bird is a member of the set of two-legged animals; Tuesday is a member of
the set of days of the week. The members are called elements of the set.
The following conventions are associated with set notation.
• The elements of the set are enclosed in braces (curly brackets). Commas separate
each element. For example, {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} could represent the set of positive integers
less than 6. The braces, {}, represent the words ‘the set of’. The symbol Œ stands for
‘is an element of ’. Therefore, the statement ‘2 is an element of the set of positive
integers less than 6’ is represented by 2 ∈{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
• A set can contain any number of elements. A unit set contains only one element. For
example, {Friday} could be the set of days of the week starting with F.
• An empty set (or null set) contains no elements and is denoted as either {} or ∅. An
example of a null set could be {the number of people over 500 years old}.
• The order of listing of the elements in the set is not important. For example, the
listed set {5, 2, 3, 1, 4} is the same as {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
• The elements of the set should be listed only once. For example, {S, M, T, W, F}
represents the set of starting letters of the days of the week.
• The elements within a set can represent a variety of sets. For example, {2, 3} could
represent {integers between 1 and 4} or {first two prime numbers}.
• A capital letter is frequently used to define a set, for example, A = {2, 3}.
• If a set contains a large number of elements, a series of dots can be used to replace
some of the elements when a pattern is obvious. For example, {a, b, c, d, … , z} can
represent all the letters of the alphabet.
• Instead of listing the elements in a set, a description of the elements can be
provided, for example, {females in the classroom}. This set is referred to as a
described set.
The following provides some examples of how sets are written and spoken.
• D = {3, m} is read as ‘D is the set of 3 and m’.
• 3 ∈ D is read as ‘3 is an element of D’.
• p ∉ D is read as ‘p is not an element of D’.
• H = {1, 2, 3, 4, … , 100} is read as ‘H is the set of integers from 1 to 100’.
• K = {seasons of the year} is read as ‘K is the set of spring, summer, autumn and
winter’.
98 Maths Quest 8 for Victoria
WORKED Example 1
State whether each of the following is a listed set or a described set.
a {apples, oranges, pears} b {fruit} c {prime numbers}
THINK WRITE
a 1 Determine whether the elements are a The elements of the set are listed
listed individually or described in general. specifically — apples, oranges and pears.
2 Write the answer. This is a listed set.
b 1 Determine whether the elements are b A general description of the elements is
listed individually or described in given, that is, all fruit.
general.
2 Write the answer. This is a described set.
c 1 Determine whether the elements are c A general description of the elements is
listed individually or described in general. given, that is, all prime numbers.
2 Write the answer. This is a described set.
WORKED Example 2
Write a general description for the set {2, 4, 6, 8, … , 20}.
THINK WRITE
1 Consider the category of elements Each of the elements contained in the set is an
contained in the set. even number ranging from 2 to 20.
Note: There may be more than one
possible answer.
2 Write the answer. A general description for the set could be {even
numbers from 2 to 20}.
Note: In worked example 2 it would be just as correct to say {the first ten multiples of
2} or {the first ten positive even integers}.
Another way to represent a set is to use a set builder method, where a pronumeral
represents any particular element. For example, the set A = {x: x is a letter of the
alphabet} is read as ‘A is equal to the set of all elements x such that x is a letter of the
alphabet’.
WORKED Example 3
Write the set C = {a: a is an Australian capital city} as a listed set.
THINK WRITE
1 Determine what the pronumeral represents. The elements in the set represent each of the
Australian capital cities.
2 Write the answer. C = {Melbourne, Brisbane, Sydney, Hobart,
Adelaide, Perth, Darwin}
remember
1. A set is a collection of things or numbers that belong to a well-defined
category.
2. Sets can be represented by a capital letter.
3. The set is enclosed in braces, {}.
4. The members inside the braces are elements of the set and are denoted by the
symbol ∈.
5. The elements of the set are only listed once and can appear in any order.
6. A unit set contains only one element.
7. A null (or empty) set contains no elements and is denoted by a pair of empty
braces, {}, or the symbol ∅.
8. A set can be defined as a listed set, described set or set builder.
3A Introducing sets
1 Copy and complete the following paragraph.
The members of a set are called _________. These are enclosed within curly brackets
known as ________. A set with one member is known as a _______ set; a set with no
members is called a ________ or _______ set. If the members of a set are individu-
ally stated, this type of set is known as a ________ set. If a generalisation of a set is
given, this type of set is called a ________ set. If a pronumeral represents any
particular member, this is the ________ method of representation.
WORKED 2 State whether each of the following

Example
1
is a listed set or a described set.
a {odd integers}
3.1 b {1, 3, 6, 7}
HEET
c {months of the year}
SkillS
Even and d {school sports}

odd e {mathematical operations}
numbers
f {p, q, r, s, t}
g {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36 49, ... , 100}
h {tennis, squash, table tennis}
i {♣, ♦, ♥, ♠}
j {water sports}
k {breakfast cereals}
l {invertebrates}
m {macchiato, long black, caffe latte}
n {H2O, CO2, HCl, H}
o {star constellations}
p {public holidays}
q {Mazda, Holden, Ford, Kia,
BMW, Mercedes}
r {summer, autumn, winter, spring}
WORKED 3 Write a general description for each of the following sets. In some cases there may be
Example
HEET
3.2 2
more than one correct answer.
a {1, 3, 5, 7, …} b {a, e, i, o, u}
SkillS
Consecutive c {Tuesday, Thursday} d {1, 4, 9, 16}

numbers e {Vic, Qld, NSW, Tas, SA, WA} f {m, a, t, h, e, i, c, s}
g {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3} h {north, south, east, west}
HEET
3.3 i {Homer, Lisa, Bart, Marge} j {drums, guitar, saxophone}
k {Monopoly, Scrabble, Pictionary} l {ace, jack, king, queen}
SkillS
Square m {beaker, test tube, Bunsen burner} n {mm, cm, m, km}

numbers o {red, green, amber} p {chick, kitten, puppy, lamb}
WORKED 4 Write the following sets as listed
Example
3
sets.
a {m: m is a month of the year}
b {c: c is an Australian coin less
than $2 in value}
c {p: p is a polygon of less than 7
sides}
d {l: l is a letter common to the
words two and three}
e {p: p is people who live on the
moon}
f {a: a is an English alphabet
letter after the letter x}
g {e: e is an even number less
than 50}
h {c: c is a cubic less than 70}
3.4 i {m: m is a multiple of 20 and
HEET 30}
SkillS
Multiples j {w: w is a month of winter}
5 Consider your answers to question

4. Are there any unit or null sets
among your answers? Explain your
reasoning.
6 Write each of the sets in question 3 using set builder notation.
7 Write each of the following as listed sets.

a {crocodiles that can fly}
b {l: l is a letter in the word element}
c The set T consisting of two elements, where a ∉ T, m ∈ T, p ∉ T, x ∈ T.
d {c: c is a counting number between 20 and 30}
e {months of the year beginning with the letter a}
3.5 f {prime numbers between 5 and 10}
HEET
g {the numbers appearing uppermost on a fair die}
SkillS
Prime and h {numbers that are both prime and even}

composite i {different modes of public transport}
numbers
j {the numerals used in the binary number system}
8 State whether each of the following is true or false.
a t ∉ {English vowels}
b Pacific ∈ {oceans}
c 100 ∈ {1, 3, 5, 7, …}
d cat ∈ {animals}
e golf ∉ {s: s is a sport}
f 121 ∈ {square numbers}
12
g ------ ∈ {positive integers}
2
h carbohydrates ∈ {food groups}
i Europe ∉ {continents}
j Saturn ∉ {planets}
9 Which of the following describes a

null or empty set?
a {prime numbers between 7 and
11}
b {integers which are not prime and
not composite}
c {quadrilaterals with five sides}
d {factors of 12 less than 12} 3.6 SkillS
e {square numbers that are also
HEET
perfect cubes} Factor
f {composite numbers that are also pairs
odd}
g {the interstate football teams in the
AFL}
h {the football team that has won a
premiership flag in 5 consecutive
years}
i {a triangle with two obtuse
angles}
j {an odd number that is a perfect 3.7 SkillS
cube}
HEET
Perfect
10 Consider the set S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15}. From this set, list cubes
the elements of each of the following.
a {even numbers}
b {p : p is a prime number}
c {perfect squares}
d {c : c is a cube}
e {b : b is both a perfect square and a perfect cube}
f {n : n is an odd number less than or equal to 3}
g {multiples of 5}
h {e : e is an even number greater than 6 and less than 14}
i {f : f is a factor of 24}
j {d : d is a number that is divisible by 2 or 3 or 4}
11 Interpret each of the following images as a described set. In some cases there may be
more than one correct answer.
a b
c d
Some special sets

The null set and the unit set have already been introduced. These contain respectively 0
and 1 elements. The number of elements in a set is known as the cardinal number of
the set and is given the symbol n.
Therefore, if A = {4, 11, 12}, the cardinal number of the set is 3 because there are 3
elements. We write this as n(A) = 3 or n{4, 11, 12} = 3.
Finite and infinite sets

A set that contains a definite or countable number of elements is said to be a finite set.
Set A is finite because it contains exactly 3 elements. If a set contains an unlimited
number of elements, that is, all of the elements cannot be listed, it is known as an
infinite set. The set of counting numbers {1, 2, 3, 4, …} is an infinite set because there
is really no end to this set of numbers.
WORKED Example 4
Consider the following three sets.
C = {positive integers} D = {3, 8, 11}
E = { j: j is a positive even integer less than 10}
a State the cardinal number of each of the sets.
b State whether each set is finite or infinite.
THINK WRITE
a Determine the cardinal number of each a n(C) cannot be determined as there is no end
set (that is, count the number of to this set of numbers.
elements in each set) and write the n(D) = 3
answer. n(E) = n{2, 4, 6, 8}
n(E) = 4
b Determine whether the elements of each b The elements in set C cannot be counted;
set can be counted and answer the therefore, set C is an infinite set.
question. Set D is a finite set because it contains a
Note: Sets that have a definite number of definite number of elements.
elements are finite, but those without a Set E is a finite set because it contains a
definite number are infinite. definite number of elements.
The universal set

The universal set, denoted by the symbol ξ, contains all the elements referring to a
particular problem. There are many different universal sets and the set itself can be
quite small. The set of alphabet letters or the set consisting of the first two counting
numbers could be universal sets.
WORKED Example 5
Consider the universal set ξ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10}. From this set, list the elements of:
a F = {odd numbers}
b H = {p: p is a prime number}.
THINK WRITE
a Select all the odd numbers from the a F = {odd numbers}
universal set and write the answer. F = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
b Select all the prime numbers from the b H = {prime numbers}

universal set and write the answer. H = {2, 3, 5, 7}
Note: Remember that 1 is not a prime
number.
Subsets (Ã) and supersets (…)

A subset is a smaller set from within another set and is denoted by the symbol ⊂. For
example, if P = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and T = {1, 4}, then we can regard T as a subset of P
because P contains all the elements of T. Using set notation, we write this as T ⊂ P. We
then regard the set P as a superset of T, that is, P ⊃ T.
WORKED Example 6
Consider the relationship between the following three sets.
G = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7} J = {1, 2, 3} K = {1, 2}
a Name any subsets that exist, clearly explaining your answer.
b Name any supersets that exist, clearly explaining your answer.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Compare the elements in set G with a Each of the elements contained in J, that is
those in set J, and determine whether 1, 2 and 3, is also contained in G.
one is a subset of the other.
2 Answer the question. Therefore J ⊂ G.
3 Compare the elements in set G with Each of the elements contained in K, that is 1
those in set K, and determine and 2, is also contained in G.
whether one is a subset of the other.
4 Answer the question. Therefore K ⊂ G.
5 Compare the elements in set J with Each of the elements contained in K, that is 1
those in set K, and determine and 2, is also contained in J.
whether one is a subset of the other.
6 Answer the question. Therefore K ⊂ J.
b Use the results obtained in part a to b Since J is contained in G, G is a superset of

determine which sets are supersets and J, that is, G ⊃ J.
answer the question. Since K is contained in G, G is a superset of
K, that is, G ⊃ K.
Since K is contained in J, J is a superset of
K, that is, J ⊃ K.
Disjoint and overlapping sets

Disjoint sets are sets that have no elements in common with each other. If the sets do
have some elements in common, they are defined as overlapping sets.
WORKED Example 7
Consider the relationship between the following three sets.
A = {odd integers} B = {even integers} C = {prime numbers}
a Name any disjoint sets, clearly explaining your answer.
b Name any overlapping sets, clearly explaining your answer.
THINK WRITE
a Compare the elements in each of the sets a An odd integer cannot also be an even
and answer the question. integer; therefore, A and B are disjoint sets.
Note: Disjoint sets have no elements in
common.
THINK WRITE
b Compare the elements in each of the sets b Since most prime numbers are odd, sets A
and answer the question. and C have elements in common and are
Note: Overlapping sets have elements in therefore examples of overlapping sets.
common. However, there also exists an even prime
number, that is, 2. So sets B and C may be
defined as overlapping sets since they have
an element in common.
Complement sets
The complement set of A contains all the elements of the universal set in question that
are not in set A itself. The symbol for the complement of set A is written as A′ (and read
as ‘A dash’).
WORKED Example 8
Consider the following three sets.
ξ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
P = {even numbers}
Q = {n: n is a square number}
a Write the complement of set P, clearly explaining your answer.
b Write the complement of set Q, clearly explaining your answer.
THINK WRITE
a 1 List the elements of set P and a P = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
compare them with the elements of
the universal set.
2 Answer the question. The complement set P′ contains all the
Note: Complementary sets contain elements that are not in set P. Therefore
all the elements of the universal set P′ = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
that are not in the set itself.
b 1 List the elements of set Q and b Q = {1, 4, 9}

compare them with the elements of
the universal set.
2 Answer the question. The complement set Q′ contains all the
elements that are not in set Q. Therefore
Q′ = {2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10}
Equal and equivalent sets

Sets may be defined according to the relationship that exists between them. For
example, equal sets are sets that have exactly the same elements. Equivalent sets are
those that have the same number of elements but not necessarily the same kind of
elements (they can be paired in one-to-one correspondence). The sign for equivalent
sets is denoted by the symbol ↔, while ↔ represents sets that are not equivalent.
WORKED Example 9
Consider the following sets:
A = {1, 4, 9}
B = {9, 4, 1}
C = {a, b, c}
D = {+, −, ×, ÷}
a Name all pairs of equivalent sets, clearly explaining your answer.
b Name all pairs of equal sets, clearly explaining your answer.
THINK WRITE
a Count the number of elements in each set a A ↔ B because each set contains 3 elements.
and answer the question. A ↔ C because each set contains 3 elements.
Note: Equivalent sets have the same number B ↔ C because each set contains 3 elements.
of elements but not necessarily the same Set D was not equivalent to any of the other
kind of elements. sets as it contained 4 elements.
b Compare the elements of each set and b A = B because the 3 elements in each set are
answer the question. the same.
Note: Equal sets have exactly the same
elements.
Power set
The power set is a set that contains all possible subsets of a particular finite set. This
includes both the empty set and the given set. Each subset of the power set is con-
sidered to be an element of the power set. The power set is denoted by the symbol P.
WORKED Example 10
Consider the following sets.
a X = {go, stop} b Y = {1, 2, 3} c Z = {a, b, c, d}
ii Determine the power set of each given set.
ii State the number of elements in each of the power sets.
THINK WRITE
a ii List each possible subset of the given a ii P(X) = {{∅}, {go}, {stop}, {go, stop}}
set. Remember to include the empty
set and the given set.
ii Count the number of elements (that ii Four elements (subsets) are contained in
is, subsets) contained in the power set the power set.
and answer the question.
b ii List each possible subset of the given b ii P(Y) = {{∅}, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1,
set. Remember to include the empty 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}
set and the given set.
ii Count the number of elements ii Eight elements (subsets) are contained in
contained in the power set and answer the power set.
the question.
THINK WRITE
c ii List each possible subset of the given c ii P(Z) = {{∅}, {a}, {b}, {c}, {d}, {a, b},
set. Remember to include the empty {a, c}, {a, d}, {b, c}, {b, d}, {c, d},
set and the given set. {a, b, c}, {a, b, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d},
{a, b, c, d}}
ii Count the number of elements ii Sixteen elements (subsets) are contained
contained in the power set and answer in the power set.
the question.
From worked example 10 we can see that a relationship exists between the number of
elements in a set and the number of elements in its power set. For example:
n(X) = 2 and n(P(X)) = 22 = 4
n(Y) = 3 and n(P(Y)) = 23 = 8
n(Z) = 4 and n(P(Z)) = 24 = 16
remember
1. A null set contains 0 elements and a unit set contains 1 element.
2. Finite sets contain a definite (countable) number of elements and infinite sets
contain an infinite number of elements.
3. The number of elements in a set is known as the cardinal number of the set.
4. The universal set, ξ, contains all the elements referring to a particular problem.
5. A subset is a set that forms part of another set. If set X is a subset of set Y, then
set Y is a superset of set X.
6. Disjoint sets are sets that have no elements in common. Overlapping sets have
some elements in common.
7. X′ is the complement of set X and contains all the elements of the universal set
in question that are not in set X itself.
8. Equal sets have the same elements, while equivalent sets (↔) have the same
number of elements but not necessarily the same kind of elements.
9. The power set is a set that contains all possible subsets of a particular finite set,
including the empty set and the actual given set.
3B Some special sets

WORKED 1 Consider the following sets below.
Example
4 ii State the cardinal number of each of the sets.
ii State whether each set is finite or infinite.
a D = {odd numbers}
b L = {letters in the word school}
c F = {f: f is a factor of 10}
d Y = {y: y is a number on a fair die}
e H = {s: s is a side on a coin}
f J = {x: x is a letter that occurs in both the words English and French}
g A = { 1--- , 3--- , 5--- , 7--- }
2 4 8 3
h S = {red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet}
i T = {platinum, gold, silver, bronze}
j I = {flour, water, sugar, butter, sultanas}
WORKED 2 Consider the universal set ξ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10}.
Example
5
From this set, list the elements of each of the following
sets.
a A = {multiples of 3}
b B = {m: m is less than or equal to 4}
c C = {n: n is an even number greater than 6}
d D = {factors of 8}
e E = {b: b is a number greater than 4 and less than 5}
f F = {an odd or an even number}
g G = {a number divisible by 2}
h H = {a number divisible by 2 and 4}
i I = {a square number}
3 a Consider the universal set = {−5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. From this set list
the elements of each of the following sets.
iii J = {positive integers}
iii O = {odd integers}
iii G = {integers greater −3 and less 5}
iv S = {divisible by both 2 and 3}
b State the cardinal number of each of the sets obtained in part a.
c State whether each of the sets obtained in part a is finite or infinite.
WORKED 4 Consider the relationship between the following three sets.
Example
6
A = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24}
B = {6, 12, 18}
C = {6, 12}
a Name any subsets that exist, clearly explaining your answer.
b Name any supersets that exist, clearly explaining your answer.
5 Consider the relationship between the following sets:
S = {sport}
T = {fencing, judo, tennis}
U = {swimming, water polo, rowing}
a Name any subsets that exist, clearly
explaining your answer.
b Name any supersets that exist, clearly
explaining your answer.
6 Consider the following sets.
K = {counting numbers}
L = {x: x is an odd number less than 10}
M = {first five prime numbers}
N = {prime factors of 20}
a List the elements in each of the sets. b Name a subset of K.
c Name a superset of M. d Name a subset of both K and M.
e Is it true to say that L ⊃ N? f Is it true to say that L ⊂ K?
WORKED 7 Consider the relationship between the following sets: 3.8 SkillS
Example
A = {prime numbers} B = {square numbers} C = {factor pairs of 16}
HEET
7
a Name any disjoint sets, clearly explaining your answer. Disjoint and
b Name any overlapping sets, clearly explaining your answer. overlapping
sets
8 Consider the relationship between the following sets:
D = {musical instruments}
E = {percussion}
F = {sheet music}
a Name any disjoint sets, clearly explaining your answer.
b Name any overlapping sets, clearly explaining your answer.
9 Consider the following four sets.
P = {letters of the English alphabet}
Q = {consonants}
R = {vowels)
S = {letters of the word Victoria}
a Name a pair of disjoint sets.
b Name a set which overlaps with set R.
c How could you describe the overlap between sets P and Q?
d Describe the overlap between sets R and S.
WORKED 10 Consider the following sets:
Example
8 ξ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} P = {odd numbers}
Q = {n : n is a cubed number}
a Write the complement of set P, clearly explaining your answer.
b Write the complement of set Q, clearly explaining your answer.
11 Consider the following sets:
ξ = {letters in the word mathematics} V = {vowels} C = {consonants}
a List the elements in the universal set.
b What are the elements of V?
c List the elements of the set V′.
d List the elements of the set C′.
e Compare the sets V and C′.
f Are V′ and C disjoint sets or overlapping sets?
WORKED 12 Consider the following sets:
Example
9 A = {1, 11, 12, 28} B = {up, down, left, right} C = {28, 12, 11, 1} D = {✹, ✧, ✯}
a Name all pairs of equivalent sets, clearly explaining your answer.
b Name all pairs of equal sets, clearly explaining your answer.
13 In the following examples, insert the most suitable sign (=, ↔ or ↔) make the set
statement true.
a {a, b, c} ______ {c, b, a}
b {a, b} ______ {1, 6}
c {+, −, ×, ÷} ______ {p, q, r, s}
d {last letter of alphabet} ______ {first counting number}
e {x, y, z} ______ {10, 11}
f {first two prime numbers} ______ {second and third counting numbers}
g _____
______
h ______
______
14 Given ξ = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j}
A = {vowels} B = {consonants} C = {x: x is a letter of the word bed}
D = {first five letters of the alphabet},
state whether each of the following statements is true or false.
a A↔C b A⊂ξ c D⊃C
d A′ = B e A⊂D f B′ ↔ C
g A and C are disjoint h B and D overlap i n(B) = n(A′)
j D⊃B k ξ⊂C l n(A) + n(B) = n(ξ)
15 In each of the following pairs of sets, indicate which set is the subset.
a A⊃B b W ⊂Y c F ⊃ {1, 2, 3}
d ξ⊃H e {5, 7, 9} ⊃ W f {primes} ⊂ {integers}
16 State whether each of the following is true or false for sets in general.
a If A = B, then B = A. b P and ∅ are disjoint.
c If X = Y, then X ↔ Y. d If X ↔ Y, then X = Y.
e If n(T) = n(S), then T = S. f A ↔ A for any set A.
g P ⊂ P for any set P. h If E ⊂ F, then F ⊃ E.
i If A = B and A = C, then B = C. j If C ↔ D and D ↔ E, then C = E.
k If X ⊂ Y and Z ⊂ X, then Z ⊂ Y. l If M ⊃ N and N ⊃ P, then P ⊂ M.
WORKED 17 Consider the following sets.
Example
10 a X = {x, y, z} b Y = {♣, ♦, ♥, ♠} c Z = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
ii Determine the power set of each given set.
ii State the number of elements in each of the power sets.
18 multiple choice
SHEE
T 3.1
The number of elements contained in the power set P(W) given
Work
W = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} is:
A7 B 14 C 49 D 64 E 128
What is the official name of
the United Kingdom?
Use the universal set to find the
sets as defined below. The corresponding
letter and the number of elements in each set,
combine to answer the code puzzle.
{ {
1 3
5 ––
2 10 8 64 24 0.3 –5 100 28 ––
4
x= a 3.6 36 13 b c 5
––
3 4 16 2.1 –3
2 3
––
3
d 2 ––
5
9.1 –10 7 11 27 29
= The set of = The set of prime = The set of = The set containing
fractions numbers integers less integers only
than 52
= = =
=
n (A ) = n (B) = n(D ) = n (E) =
= The set of = The set containing = The set of = The set containing
positive integers letters from the counting numbers fractions or
that are divisible alphabet decimals
by 2 = =
= =
n (F) = n (G ) = n(H) = n (I) =
= The set containing = The set of integers = The set of square = The set of improper
elements that are less than 20 numbers or cube fractions
neither prime nor numbers
odd = =
= =
n (K ) = n (L ) = n(M) = n (N ) =
= The set containing = The set containing = The set containing

= The set of numbers
fractions and negative numbers consonants and greater than 50
decimals that are fractions
equivalent = =
=
=
n (O ) = n (R ) = n(T ) = n (U ) =
8 16 19 2 1 9 8 19 13 23 9 1 4 13 0 7 0 10
4 3 19 5 8 6 3 9 8 5 9 1 5 1 13
1 0 3 8 16 19 3 1 9 3 19 12 5 1 13
Venn diagrams
In the 1700s, the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) used a series of
circles to represent sets and the relationships between them. The English mathemat-
ician John Venn (1834–1923) further developed this concept and included rectangles in
these diagrams. These diagrams came to be called Venn diagrams.
The universal set, ξ, is shown as a rectangle and all the points inside the rectangle
correspond to elements of the universal set. All other sets that are subsets of the uni-
versal set are represented as circles inside the rectangle. There is no limit to the number
of these circles or the size of the region enclosed by the circle. The circles may overlap
(overlapping sets) or may not overlap (disjoint sets).
The figure at right shows the
universal set ‘Some Olympic Some Olympic events ξ
events’ with the subsets: Heptathlon Decathlon
A B
A = ‘Heptathlon’,
B = ‘Decathlon’
100 m
C = ‘Aquatic events’. High jump 400 m
Sets A and B are overlapping sets 100 m hurdles Shot-put 100 m hurdles
because they have common 200 m Long jump Discus
800 m Javelin Pole vault
elements, that is, high jump, 1500 m
shot-put, long jump and javelin.
Sets A and C, however, are dis-
joint, as are sets B and C. Aquatic
events
Elements that rest inside the C
rectangle but outside the circles, Gymnastics Swimming
that is, gymnastics and archery, Archery Diving
are elements of the universal set Water polo
that are not elements of A, B
or C.
WORKED Example 11
Draw a Venn diagram representing the relationship between the following sets below.
Show the position of all the elements in the Venn diagram.
ξ = {counting numbers up to 10}
A = {first 3 prime numbers} B = {odd numbers less than 9}
THINK WRITE
1 List the elements in each of the sets. ξ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
A = {2, 3, 5}
B = {1, 3, 5, 7}
2 Draw the universal set as a rectangle. ξ
Note: This contains the elements 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9 and 10.
THINK WRITE
3 Draw and label a circle within the rectangle ξ

to represent set A. This circle contains the
elements 2, 3 and 5. A
4 Draw and label a circle within the rectangle ξ

to represent set B. This circle contains the
B
elements 1, 3, 5 and 7. A
Note: Circles A and B will overlap as they
have common elements, that is, 3 and 5.
5 Enter the elements into the appropriate ξ

section of the Venn diagram. 6 8
4 B
a First label the overlapping section with A
3 7
the elements common to both A and B. 2 5 1
b Next label sets A and B with the elements
not already included in the overlapping 9 10
section.
c Lastly, label the rectangle with those
elements in the universal set not already
listed in sets A or B.
6 Check that circle A contains all the elements
of set A. Similarly, check circle B and the
universal set.
Intersection of sets, «
When set A and set B overlap — that is, there are elements common to both sets — this
overlap is defined as the intersection of the two sets. The region is represented using
the notation A ∩ B (read as ‘A intersection B’). In worked example 11, the common
elements were 3 and 5; therefore, A ∩ B = {3, 5}.
The following Venn diagrams show a variety of intersection relations between two
sets. The intersection set is the shaded area.
Disjoint sets Overlapping sets
ξ ξ
A B A B
A∩B
A∩B=∅ A∩B
A=B A=B
⊃
ξ ξ
B A
A
B
A∩B=A A∩B=A=B
Union of sets, »
The union of any two sets A and B is the set of all elements in A or in B (or in both).
This is represented using the notation A ∪ B (read as ‘A union B’). In worked example
11, A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7}. Note that repeated values are only written once.
The following Venn diagrams show a variety of union relations between two sets.
The union set is the shaded area.
Disjoint sets Overlapping sets
ξ ξ
A B A B
A∩B ∩ A∩B ∩
A=B A=B
⊃
ξ ξ
B
A A
B
A∩B=B
∩
A∩B=A=B
∩
WORKED Example 12
a Draw a Venn diagram representing the relationship between the following sets.
ξ = {first 10 letters of the English alphabet} A = {vowels}
B = {consonants} C = {letters of the word head}
b Use the Venn diagram to list the elements in the sets:
i B′ ii B ∩ C iii A ∪ C iv (A ∩ C) ∩ (B ∩ C).
THINK WRITE
a 1 List the elements in each of the sets. a ξ = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j}
A = {a, e, i}
B = {b, c, d, f, g, h, j}
C = {a, e, d, h}
THINK WRITE
2 Draw the universal set as a rectangle. ξ

3 Draw and label two separate circles
A C B
within the rectangle to represent the
disjoint sets A and B.
4 Draw and label a third circle within the
rectangle that overlaps set A and set B.
Note: Circle C is positioned between
circles A and B as it has elements
common to both sets.
5 Enter the elements into the appropriate Sets A and C have a and e in common.
section of the Venn diagram; that is, fill Sets B and C have h and d in common.
in the letters in the overlapping areas There are no remaining elements in C. The
first, and then work outwards to the remaining element in A is i. The remaining
universal set. elements in B are b, c, f, g, j.
A C B
e h c
b f
i a d
g j
b iii Carefully analyse the Venn diagram and b iii B′ = {a, e, i}

identify the set required.
Note: B′ is the complement of set B and
includes all the elements that are part of
the universal set and not in set B.
iii Carefully analyse the Venn diagram and iii B ∩ C = {d, h}
identify the set required.
Note: The intersection of B and C is the
overlapping area of these two circles.
iii Carefully analyse the Venn diagram iii A ∪ C = {a, d, e, h, i}
and identify the set required.
Note: The union of A and C contain
all the elements in circles A and C.
iv Carefully analyse the Venn diagram iv (A ∩ C) ∩ (B ∩ C) = {a, e} ∩ {d, h}
and consider the intersection of A (A ∩ C) ∩ (B ∩ C) = {}
with C. Next consider the
intersection of B with C. Compare
the sets obtained and answer the
question.
WORKED Example 13
An ice-cream manufacturer conducted a survey of 1400 customers in a local supermarket
and obtained the following results on two new ice-cream flavours. The results showed that
870 customers preferred Product A, 778 preferred Product B, and 376 preferred both
equally.
a Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the above information.
b Use the Venn diagram to answer the following questions.
iii How many customers preferred Product A only?
iii How many customers preferred Product B only?
iii How many customers preferred neither product?
THINK WRITE
a 1 Draw the universal set as a rectangle. a
2 Draw and label two overlapping
circles within the rectangle to Product Product
represent Product A and Product B. A B
Note: Circles for products A and B
overlap because 376 customers
preferred both products equally.
3 Working from the overlapping area There are 376 customers in both sets.
outwards, determine the number of Product A’s set contains 494 customers (that
customers in each region. is, 870 − 376) who prefer Product A but not
Note: The total must equal the Product B.
number of customers surveyed, that Product B’s set contains 402 customers (that
is, 1400. is, 778 − 376) who prefer Product B but not
Product A.
The remaining 128 customers (that is, [1400
− (494 + 376 + 402)]) prefer neither product.
Product Product
A 376 B
494 402
128
b iii Refer to the Venn diagram and answer b iii 494 customers preferred Product A only.
the question.
Note: The non-overlapping part of
Product A’s circle refers to the
customers that prefer Product A only.
iii Refer to the Venn diagram and answer iii 402 customers preferred Product B only.
the question.
Note: The non-overlapping part of
Product B’s circle refers to the
customers that prefer Product B only.
iii Refer to the Venn diagram and iii 128 customers preferred neither product.
answer the question.
remember
1. Venn diagrams show the relationship between sets. The universal set ξ is drawn
as a rectangle and other subsets of the universal set are drawn as circles within
the rectangle.
2. If the circles within the universal set overlap, there are elements common to
these subsets. If there is no overlap of the circles, the subsets are disjoint.
3. The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of elements common to both A
and B. It is represented using the notation A ∩ B.
4. The union of two sets A and B is the set of all elements in A or in B (or in both).
It is represented using the notation A ∪ B.
3C Venn diagrams
WORKED 1 Draw a Venn diagram representing the relationship between the following sets. Show
Example
11
the position of all the elements in the Venn diagram.
ξ = {integers ranging from 10 to 20}
B = {odd numbers greater than 12 and less than 18}
A = {composite numbers ranging from 10 to 20}
2 Draw a Venn diagram representing the relationship between the following sets. Show 3.9 SkillS
HEET
ξ = {alphabet letters a to j} Venn
V = {vowels} diagrams
H = {letters of the word high}
3 Draw a Venn diagram representing the relationship between the following sets. Show
ξ = {counting numbers up to 10}
P = {prime numbers}
E = {even numbers}
4 Draw a Venn diagram representing the relationship
between the following sets. Show the position of all
the elements in the Venn diagram.
ξ = {months of the year}
J = {months of the year beginning with j}
W = {winter months}
S = {summer months}
5 The Venn diagram at right shows the following

sets. ξ
ξ = {first 16 letters of the alphabet}
V = {vowels} V W C
C = {consonants}
W = {letters of the word padlock} <figure 3.37>
Show the position of all the elements in the Venn
diagram.
6 The Venn diagram at right shows the following ξ

sets.
ξ = {positive integers less than 15} O M E
O = {odd numbers}
E = {even numbers}
M = {multiples of 3}
Show the position of all the elements in the Venn
diagram.
WORKED 7 a Draw a Venn diagram representing the relationship between the following sets.
Example
12
ξ = {a, c, e, g, i, k, m, o, q, s, u, w, y}
A = {vowels}
B = {consonants}
C = {letters of the word cages}
3.10 b Use the Venn diagram to list the elements in the following sets.
HEET i B′ ii B ∩ C iii A ∪ C iv (A ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ C)
SkillS
Set 8 From your Venn diagram in question 1, list the elements in the following sets.
notation
a X ∩Y b X′ c Y′
d X ∪Y e X′ ∪ Y f Y′ ∪ X
9 For the following Venn diagrams, list the elements in the given sets. In some cases,
the answer may be the null set.
a
A
1
2
B
5
4
3
C 6
i A∩B ii C ∩ B iii A ∩ C iv (A ∩ B) ∩ C v A ∩ (B ∩ C)
b ξ
T 1
4 R
2 3 5
7 6
S
i T∩R ii S ∩ R iii T ∩ S iv (T ∩ R) ∩ S v T ∩ (R ∩ S)
c
X Z
Y3
1 2 4
i X ∩Y ii Z ∩ Y iii X ∩ Z iv (X ∩ Z) ∩ Y v X ∩ (Z ∩ Y)
10 Consider each of the figures in question 9. For parts i to v, change the intersection sign
(∩) to the union sign (∪) and list the elements in the given sets.
11 What is the intersection set of ({1, 2, 5, 6} ∩ {2, 3, 5, 9}) ∩ {5, 6, 7, 8}?
WORKED 12 A tyre manufacturer conducting a survey of 2200 customers obtained

Example
13
the following results on two tyres: 1390 customers preferred Tyre
A, 1084 preferred Tyre B, and 496 preferred
both equally.
a Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the
above information.
b Use the Venn diagram to answer the
following questions.
iii How many customers preferred Tyre A
iii only?
iii How many customers preferred Tyre B
iii only?
iii How many customers preferred neither tyre?
13 A sporting club has its members playing different

sports, as shown in the Venn diagram. Volleyball Tennis
a Copy the given Venn diagram and shade the
6 8
areas that represent: 10
10 22
iii members playing tennis only
iii members walking only Walking
iii members both playing tennis and walking.
b How many members:
iii play volleyball?
iii are involved in all three activities?
c How many members do not:
iii play tennis?
iii walk?
d How many members belong to the sporting club?
14 a Draw a Venn diagram that displays the following information.

n(A) = 9
n(B) = 5
n(A ∩ B) = 3.
b Use the Venn diagram to find n(A ∪ B).
15 a Use the universal set to find the sets as defined below:

ξ = { -----
11
1 1
- , 6, --- , 0, –8,
4
5 , 22, 0.21, 16, – 1--- , – 6--- , 2.85,
5 3
17 , 5.2, 0.75, 1.23, 8,
– 144 , 36}
N = {natural numbers}
J = {integers} GAME
Q = {rational numbers}
time
R = {numbers not belonging to sets N, J, Q} Set

Note: Recall that natural numbers are the counting numbers; integers are whole notation
numbers and rational numbers are numbers that can be expressed as a fraction. and
theory
b Draw a Venn diagram representing the relationship between sets N, J, Q and R. — 001
COMMUNICATION Taking orders

At the beginning of the chapter we met Margaret, who is in charge of distributing
team uniforms for students representing the school in music, athletics and
debating. Margaret knows that representing the school are 43 students, of whom
some are involved in more than one activity — they must purchase a uniform for
each activity they participate in.
Margaret has the following information: 36 students are in the concert band, 31
students are in the athletics team, 12 students are in the debating team, 6 students
are involved in all three. Nine students are involved in music and debating, 7 in
athletics and debating and 26 students in music and athletics.
1 Show this information on a Venn diagram.
2 a How many students will be required to purchase only the music uniform?
b Represent this on your Venn diagram.
3 a How many students will be required to purchase only the athletics uniform?
4 a How many students will be required to purchase only the debating uniform?
5 a How many students will be required to purchase music and debating
uniforms but not an athletics uniform?
6 Will any students be required to purchase athletics and debating uniforms but
not a music uniform?
1
1 Is the set {l: l is a letter of the alphabet} expressed in the form of a listed set, a
described set or in set builder notation?
2 Is the statement 1 ∈ {prime numbers} true or false?
3 Is the set M = {multiples of 5} finite or infinite?
4 List the elements of the set F = {factors of 24}.
5 If C = {first 10 counting numbers} and P = {first five prime numbers}, explain
whether P is a subset of C?
6 What is the cardinal number of the set {letters of the word mathematics}?
7 If C = {consonants} and V = {vowels}, how could you best describe the relationship
between sets C and V?
8 For sets ξ = {positive integers less than 10} and N = {odd integers}, list the elements
of the set N′.
9 Draw a Venn diagram to represent the sets:
ξ = {1, 2, 3, … , 12}, P = {prime numbers} and M = {multiples of 3}
10 Given that X = {1, 4, 9} and Y = {counting numbers less than 8}, give the elements of
X ∪ Y.
Karnaugh maps
Venn diagrams show a visual representation of relationships between sets. This
relationship can be also represented using Karnaugh maps. These maps summarise all
possible combinations of two events (sets), say A and B, and their complements, A′ and
B′. They take the form of a table as shown below.
B B′ Total
A A∩B A ∩ B′
A′ A′ ∩ B A′ ∩ B′
Total
The following example demonstrates how the
intersection of all combinations of these four sets
is obtained.
WORKED Example 14
A survey of the 900 students in a school showed that 570 played
tennis, 480 played basketball and 300 played both sports.
a Represent these data as a Venn diagram.
b Show these data as a Karnaugh map.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Draw the universal set as a rectangle. a ξ
2 Draw and label two overlapping
circles within the rectangle to T B
represent those who play tennis and
those who play basketball.
Note: The two circles overlap as
some students play both.
3 Working from the overlapping area There are 300 students in both sets T and B.
outwards, determine the number of Set T contains 270 students (that is,
students in each region. 570 − 300) who play tennis but not
Note: The total sum must correspond basketball. Set B contains 180 students (that
to the number of students surveyed; is, 480 − 300) who play basketball but not
that is, 900. tennis. The remaining 150 students, that is,
[900 − (270 + 300 + 180)] play neither sport.
ξ
T B
300
270 180
150
Continued over page

THINK WRITE
b 1 Determine the number of students in b T = {students who play tennis}
sets T, T′, B and B′. = 570 students
T′ = {students who do not play tennis}
= 900 – 570
= 330 students
B = {students who play basketball}
= 480 students
B' = {students who do not play basketball}
= 900 – 480
= 420 students
2 Draw a Karnaugh map.
3 Enter the known values into the B B′ Total
‘Total’ column and row and the T 300 570
T ∩ B cell.
T′ 330
Total 480 420 900
4 Work across the rows and down the T ∩ B′ = 570 – 300 = 270
columns to complete the table. T′ ∩ B = 480 – 300 = 180
T′ ∩ B′ = 420 – 270 = 150
B B′ Total
T 300 270 570
T′ 180 150 330
Total 480 420 900
Tables such as these provide a wealth of information and are a compact way to store data.
WORKED Example 15
The local video and DVD rental store surveyed the households in their district to deter-
mine the distribution of VCRs and DVD players in the area. They wanted to cater for the
needs of the residents in their district. The following Karnaugh map is a summary of their
survey. (V stands for VCR and D for DVD.)
V V′ Total
D 320 110 430
D′ 180 380 560
Total 500 490 990
a How many households were surveyed?
b How many households have both a DVD player and a VCR?
c How many households have only a DVD player?
d How many households have neither a DVD player nor a VCR?
THINK WRITE
a Read the required value from the bottom a The number of households surveyed was
total cell and answer the question. 990.
Note: The number of surveys conducted
is the grand total of the last column or
the last row.
b Refer to the relevant cell and answer the b The number of households with both a DVD
question. player and a VCR is 320.
Note: The D ∩ V cell represents
households with both a DVD player and
a VCR.
c Refer to the relevant cell and answer the c The number of households with only a DVD
question. player is 110.
Note: The D ∩ V′ cell represents
households with a DVD player and not a
VCR.
d Refer to the relevant cell and answer the d The number of households with neither a
question. DVD player nor a VCR is 380.
Note: The D′ ∩ V′ cell represents
households with neither a DVD player
nor a VCR.
remember
1. A Karnaugh map is a table that summarises all possible combinations of two
events (sets), say A and B, and their complements, A′ and B′.
2. A Karnaugh map is a useful way to store data from surveys.
3D Karnaugh maps
1 Consider a Karnaugh map for two sets X and Y. Copy and complete the entries in the
following table using the appropriate notation.
Y Y′
X
X′
2 Copy and complete the entries in the following Karnaugh map.
Q Q′ Total
P 326 38
P′ 27 52
Total 63
WORKED 3 One hundred Year 8 students were surveyed to determine the popularity of chocolate
Example
14
and strawberry as ice-cream flavours. The results showed that a total of 72 students
liked chocolate, 25 liked strawberry, and 12 liked both flavours.
4 A newsagency surveyed 500 residents to determine the popularity of two magazines
(Magazine A and Magazine B). The results showed that 246 residents liked Magazine
A, 160 liked Magazine B, while 62 liked both magazines.
5 Represent the Venn diagram at right as a ξ
Karnaugh map.
X Y
WORKED 6 A supermarket surveyed its customers to find out 29
Example 33 88
15
their preferences concerning two cheeses —
matured and tasty. The following Karnaugh map 24
is a summary of the supermarket’s survey.
T T′ Total
M 175 50 225
M′ 75 200 275
Total 250 250 500
a How many shoppers were surveyed?
b How many shoppers preferred the tasty cheese?
c How many didn’t like the matured cheese?
d How many liked only the matured cheese?
e How many liked the tasty but not the matured cheese?
f How many shoppers didn’t like either of the cheeses?
7 The students in homeroom 8-Red conducted a taste test to determine the preference
for two new types of potato chips — hot and spicy (H) or extra cheesy (C). The
results are summarised in this Karnaugh map.
C C′ Total
H 4 12 16
H′ 8 5 13
Total 12 17 29
a How many students undertook the
taste test?
b How many students liked both types
of chips?
c What number of students didn’t like
either flavour?
d How many liked only the extra
cheesy flavour?
e Which of the two flavours was the
most popular?
f What total number of students didn’t prefer the extra cheesy flavour?
8 The following Karnaugh map shows the number of swimming pools (P) and spas (S)
in a local community.
P P′ Total
S 286 104 390
S′ 324 269 593
Total 610 373 983
a How many households are there in the

community?
b What number of these households has
neither a spa nor a pool?
c How many have both a pool and a spa?
d What is the total number of households in
the community with a pool?
e Which is more popular in the community
— a pool or a spa?
f How many households do not have a spa?
Questions 9 and 10 refer to the following Karnaugh map.
A A′ Total
B 421 813
B′ 188
Total 1274
9 multiple choice
The number of data that corresponds to B′ ∩ A′ is:
A 665 B 609 C 461 D 392 E 273
10 multiple choice SHEE

T 3.2
Work
The number of data that correspond to A′ is:

A 1274 B 813 C 665 D 392 E 273
Tree diagrams
Another way to show the relationship between sets is to construct a tree diagram. A
tree diagram is a branching diagram that lists all possible combinations of two or more
events (sets) and their complements. This is particularly useful for displaying over-
lapping and disjoint sets.
WORKED Example 16
ξ = {letters of the English alphabet}
C = {consonants}
V = {vowels}
L = {letters of the word peaches}
a Display these sets using a tree diagram.
b Indicate the relationship between the sets.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Draw a dot to indicate the beginning a C
of the tree diagram and label it as ξ,
ξ
the universal set.
2 Use a pair of branches to show how V
the universal set can be divided into
two separate sets. Label each of
these branches.
Note: In this case the universal set,
that is, the alphabet, will be divided
into consonants (C) and vowels (V).
3 Link the consonants branch with L
another pair of branches and label. C
Note: Here the consonants will be L'
divided into consonants containing
letters from the word peaches (L) V
and consonants not containing letters
from the word peaches (L′).
4 Link the vowels branch with another Possible sets

pair of branches and label.
L C ∩ L: {p, c, h, s}
Note: Here the vowels will be
{
divided into vowels containing C
L' C ∩ L': q, r, t, v, w, x, y, z
{
b, d, f, g, j, k, l, m, n,
letters from the word peaches (L)
and vowels not containing letters L V ∩ L: {a, e}
from the word peaches (L′). V
L' V ∩ L: {a, e, i, o, u}
5 List all the possible sets and their
elements.
Note: Two branches linking
represents an intersection of the sets.
THINK WRITE
b 1 Refer to the tree diagram and b
determine whether the 3 sets overlap
or are disjoint (have no common
elements).
2 Answer the question. Sets C and V are disjoint as they contain no
common elements. Set L overlaps both set C
and set V as the word peaches contains
vowels and consonants.
Tree diagrams are useful also in determining the number of possible combinations of
the elements in a group of sets as illustrated in the following examples.
WORKED Example 17
Isabella’s part-time job requires her to wear a uniform. The uniform consists of the
following choices:
1 skirt and 1 pair of pants 3 shirt styles 2 types of jackets
Draw a tree diagram to determine the number of different variations of the uniform
assuming that one piece of clothing from each category is worn.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a dot to indicate the beginning of skirt
the tree diagram and label it as ξ.
2 Use a pair of branches to show how the pants

universal set can be divided into two
separate sets. Label each of these
branches.
Note: The universal set, that is, the
uniform, will first be divided into skirt
and pants.
3 Link the ‘skirt’ branch with three shirt 1
branches and label.
skirt shirt 2
Note: Here the branch will be divided
into ‘skirt and shirt 1’, ‘skirt and shirt shirt 3
2’, and ‘skirt and shirt 3’. shirt 1
pants shirt 2
4 Link the ‘pants’ branch with three
shirt 3
branches and label.
Note: Here the branch will be divided
into ‘pants and shirt 1’, ‘pants and shirt
2’, and ‘pants and shirt 3’.
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
5 Link each ‘shirt’ branch with a pair of Sets
branches and label. jacket 1 S ∩ S1 ∩ J1
Note: Here the branch will be divided shirt 1 jacket 2 S ∩ S1 ∩ J2
into ‘shirt 1 and jacket 1’, ‘shirt 1 and jacket 1 S ∩ S2 ∩ J1
skirt shirt 2 jacket 2 S ∩ S2 ∩ J2
jacket 2’, and so on. jacket 1 S ∩ S3 ∩ J1
shirt 3
6 List all the possible sets. jacket 2 S ∩ S3 ∩ J2
jacket 1 P ∩ S1 ∩ J1
shirt 1 jacket 2 P ∩ S1 ∩ J2
pants shirt 2 jacket 2 P ∩ S2 ∩ J2
shirt 3 jacket 2 P ∩ S3 ∩ J2
7 Count the number of combinations and There are 12 different combinations that
answer the question. Isabella could wear to work.
In worked example 17 the tree diagram was used as a ‘decision tree’. First Isabella had
to decide on wearing a skirt or pair of pants, then which shirt and finally which jacket.
Tree diagrams, like Karnaugh maps, may be used to display as well as store data
from surveys.
WORKED Example 18
While sorting through Year 8 language-elective forms, Bruno observes that, of the 168 stu-
dents, 108 chose to study Italian, 97 chose Japanese and 49 chose both.
a Represent this information on a tree diagram.
b Use the tree diagram to answer the following questions.
iii How many students chose Italian only?
iii How many students chose Japanese only?
iii How many students chose neither language?
THINK WRITE
a 1 Draw a dot to indicate the beginning a I
of the tree diagram and label it ξ.
2 Use a pair of branches to show how ξ
the universal set can be divided into
two separate sets, that is, students I'
choosing Italian (I) and students not
choosing Italian (I′). Label the
branches.
3 Link the ‘choosing Italian’ branch J
with another pair of branches and I
label. J'
Note: Here the students will be ξ
divided into students choosing both
Italian and Japanese (J) and students I'
choosing Italian but not Japanese
(J′).
THINK WRITE
4 Link the ‘not choosing Italian’ J

branch with another pair of I
branches and label. J'
Note: Here the students will be ξ
J
divided into students not
I'
choosing Italian but choosing J'
Japanese (J), and students
choosing neither Italian nor
Japanese (J′).
5 List all the possible sets and Of the 168 Year 8 students, 108 chose Italian and
determine the number of therefore 60 (that is, 168 − 108) didn’t. Of the 108
students in sets I, I′, J and J′. students who chose to study Italian, 49 also chose
Note: The total sum must to study Japanese; therefore, 59 (that is, 108 − 49)
correspond to the number of chose not to study Japanese. Given that 97 stu-
Year 8 students, that is, 168. dents in total chose Japanese and 49 of those chose
both languages, 48 students (that is, 97 − 49)
chose to study Japanese only. Of the 60 students
who didn’t choose Italian we know 48 chose Japa-
nese, leaving 12 students who chose neither lan-
guage.
Sets Interpretation
49 J I∩J 49 students out of 168
chose Italian and Japanese.
I
108
59 J' I ∩ J' 59 students out of 168
ξ chose Italian only.
48 J I ' ∩ J 48 students out of 168
60 chose Japanese only.
I'
12 J' I ' ∩ J' 12 students out of 168
chose neither language.
b iii Refer to the tree diagram and b iii 59 students chose to study Italian only; this
answer the question. corresponds to the set I ∩ J′.
iii Refer to the tree diagram and iii 48 students chose to study Japanese only; this
answer the question. corresponds to the set I′ ∩ J.
iii Refer to the tree diagram and iii 12 students chose to study neither language;
answer the question. this corresponds to the set I′ ∩ J′.
remember
1. Tree diagrams provide a visual representation of disjoint and overlapping sets.
2. Tree diagrams can be used to determine the number of different combinations
of the elements in a group of sets.
3. Tree diagrams, like Karnaugh maps, may be used to display as well as store
data from surveys.
3E Tree diagrams
WORKED 1 Consider the following sets.
Example
16
ii Display these sets using a tree diagram.
ii Indicate the relationship between the sets.
a ξ = {alphabet letters a to j} b ξ = {counting numbers less than or
equal to 10}
C = {consonants} O = {odd numbers}
V = {vowels} E = {even numbers}
W = {letters of the word deed} S = {square numbers}
c ξ = {integers 1 to 10} d ξ = {square and prime numbers less

ξ = than 20}
P = {prime numbers} E = {even numbers}
C = {composite numbers} O = {odd numbers}
N = {1}
e ξ = {alphabet letters a to j} f ξ = {counting numbers less than or

ξ = equal to 10}
V = {vowels} O = {odd numbers}
C = {consonants} E = {even numbers}
B = {x : x is a letter of the word bed} F = {factors of 12}
WORKED 2 The staff corporate uniform for the ABC bank consists of the following choices:
Example
17
2 skirt lengths and 2 pants styles 3 shirt styles 2 types of jackets
Draw a tree diagram to determine the number of different variations of the uniform,
assuming that one piece of clothing from each category is worn.
3 A restaurant has a menu with a choice of 3

entrees, 3 main courses and 3 desserts. If
you choose one dish from each category, how
many different combinations are possible?
4 In Joe’s wardrobe there are 2 pairs of dress

shoes and 3 pairs of sneakers. He has 3
pairs of socks he can wear with his dress
shoes and 5 pairs of socks to wear with his
sneakers. How many different combinations
of shoes and socks can Joe wear?
5 Meg is drawing up a tennis-championship

chart. There are 16 players in the singles
competition. How many rounds will be
needed to determine the winner?
WORKED 6 While sorting through Year 8 language-elective forms, Ashan observes that, of the 189
Example
students, 136 chose to study Indonesian, 93 chose German and 58 chose both.
18
iii How many students chose Indonesian only?
iii How many students chose German only?
iii How many students chose neither language?
7 876 cinemagoers were surveyed to determine which

ending the directors should use for a new adventure
movie. The results showed that 488 of the audience
preferred Ending A, 533 of the audience preferred
Ending B and 372 liked both endings.
iii How many audience members preferred Ending A only?
iii How many audience members preferred Ending B only?
iii How many audience members didn’t like either ending?
Questions 8–11 refer to the following
information.
A mobile-phone retailer surveyed its
customers to find out which package,
A or B, they preferred. The results were
displayed on the tree diagram below.
162 B
216 A
54 B'
ξ
36 B
360 A'
324 B'
8 multiple choice
The total number of customers surveyed
is:
A 360 B 198 C 378
D 576 E 216
9 multiple choice
The number of customers who preferred Package A only is:
A 162 B 54 C 36 D 324 E 162
10 multiple choice
The number of customers who preferred Package B only is:
A 162 B 54 C 36 D 324 E 162
11 multiple choice
The number of customers who did not like either package is:
A 162 B 216 C 324 D 360 E 576
2
A confectionary manufacturer surveyed its customers to determine the popularity of two
new flavours of chocolate bars: pineapple coconut (P) and raspberry twist (R). The
results are shown in the following Karnaugh map.
R R′ Total
P 26 15 41
P′ 37 22 59
Total 63 37 100
1 How many people were surveyed?
2 What number of the people liked both bars?
3 How many didn’t like either of the bars?
4 How many liked only the pineapple coconut bar?
5 Which was the more popular bar?
6 Represent the Karnaugh map as a Venn diagram.

ξ = {multiples of 3 less than 20}
E = {even numbers}
O = {odd numbers}
N = {multiples of 9}
7 List the elements in each of the sets.
8 Draw a Venn diagram to display the data.
9 Represent the data using a tree diagram.
10 A fast-food outlet sells 3 different flavours of smoothies: pineapple, chocolate and

strawberry. Each of these is available using a milk base or a soy base. A topping of
whipped cream is optional. How many different varieties of smoothies are available at
the outlet?
Logic
Logic is the study of methods and principles used to distinguish valid (correct) argu-
ments and reasoning from invalid (incorrect) arguments and reasoning. The main con-
cern in logic is not whether a conclusion is in fact accurate, but whether the process by
which it is derived from a set of initial assumptions is correct. These initial assump-
tions are called premises. The premises, together with the conclusion, form what is
known as a syllogism.
Consider the following syllogism:
All mammals are warm-blooded. Premise 1
All horses are mammals. Premise 2
∴ All horses are warm-blooded. Conclusion
Note: The symbol ∴ is used to denote ‘therefore’.
The first two statements are true. The conclusion reached by combining these two
statements is also true. This means that the argument or logic used to reach this conclu-
sion is valid.
Consider another syllogism:
All dogs are animals. Premise 1
All cats are animals. Premise 2
∴ All cats are dogs. Conclusion
The first two statements in this case are true. The conclusion, however, is not true.
This means that the argument used to reach the conclusion is invalid.
Representing logic statements using Venn diagrams

Logic statements frequently use the terms all, none (or no) and some. With the aid of
Venn diagrams and set notation we are able to determine whether the argument used in
reaching a conclusion from a set of premises is valid or invalid.
The premise ‘all mammals are warm-blooded’ ξ
means that every element of the mammals set (M)
W
is contained within the warm-blooded set (W).
Using set notation the premise can be written as ‘M M
is a subset of W’, that is, M ⊂ W, and can be
illustrated using a Venn diagram as shown at right.
The premise ‘no athlete is overweight’ means no

element of the athlete set (A) is contained within ξ
the overweight set (O). As they have no common
A B
elements, sets A and O are disjoint. This is
displayed in the Venn diagram at right.
The term some is defined as ‘at least one’. A
premise such as ‘some Australians are doctors’ is
interpreted as ‘at least one Australian is a doctor’
and represented as ‘x = an Australian who is a
doctor’.
Let us look at a variety of logic statements with valid and invalid conclusions.
WORKED Example 19
Determine whether the conclusion reached in the following set of logic statements is valid
or invalid. Draw a Venn diagram to support your conclusion.
a All mammals are warm-blooded. b All Jacarandas are trees.
All cats are mammals. All Norfolk pines are trees.
∴ All cats are warm-blooded. ∴ All Norfolk pines are Jacarandas.
c All athletes are fit.
No lazy person is fit.
∴ No lazy person is an athlete.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Allocate set names to the categories a Let W = {warm-blooded animals}
mentioned. M = {mammals}
C = {cats}
2 Consider the relationship between M⊂W
these sets and determine whether C⊂M
they are subsets, overlapping or
disjoint.
3 Draw the Venn diagram that ξ
illustrates the relationship between
each of the sets. W
M
C
4 Determine whether the argument is From the diagram it is clear that C ⊂ W. This
valid. means that all cats are warm-blooded. The
conclusion is valid.
b 1 Allocate set names to the categories b Let T = {trees}

mentioned. J = {Jacaranda trees}
N = {Norfolk pines}
2 Consider the relationship between J⊂T
these sets and determine whether N⊂T
they are subsets, overlapping or There is no relationship implied between N
disjoint. and J.
each of the sets. T
N
J
4 Determine whether the argument is N⊄J

valid. This shows that the conclusion is invalid.
THINK WRITE
c 1 Allocate set names to the categories c Let F = {fit people}
mentioned. A = {athletes}
L = {lazy people}
2 Consider the relationship between A⊂F
these sets and determine whether Sets L and F are disjoint.
they are subsets, overlapping or
disjoint.
each of the sets. F
A L
4 Determine whether the argument is Sets L and A are disjoint. This shows that the
valid. conclusion is valid.
Logic statements involving both the ‘some’ premise and the ‘all’ premise, or the ‘some’
premise and ‘none’ (or ‘no’) premise, need to be dealt with carefully. The ‘all’ premise
and ‘none’ premise should be drawn as a Venn diagram first. The symbol x should then
be positioned to represent the ‘some’ of the other premise. Its position depends on the
wording of the premise.
WORKED Example 20
State whether the conclusion reached in the following set of logic
statements is valid or invalid. Draw a Venn diagram to support
your conclusion.
All brain surgeons are clever.
Some Australians are brain surgeons.
∴ Some Australians are clever.
THINK WRITE
1 Allocate set names to the categories Let C = {clever people}
mentioned. If a premise includes B = {brain surgeons}
‘some’, let x represent one of this x = an Australian who is a brain surgeon
particular category.
2 Consider the relationship between these B⊂C
sets and determine whether they are x∈B
subsets, overlapping sets or disjoint
sets. Decide which set the element x
belongs to.
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
3 Draw the Venn diagram that illustrates
the relationship between each of the C
sets.
B
x
4 Determine whether the argument is It is clear from the diagram that x ∈ C. This
valid. shows that the conclusion is valid.
WORKED Example 21
Show that the conclusion reached in the following set of logic statements is invalid. Draw a
Venn diagram to support your conclusion.
Some footballers are overweight
No athlete is overweight
∴ No athletes are footballers
THINK WRITE
1 Allocate set names to the categories Let O = {overweight people}
mentioned in premises. If a premise F = {footballers}
includes some, let x represent one of A = {athletes}
this particular category. x = one overweight footballer
2 Consider the relationship between these A and O are disjoint
sets and determine whether they are F and O overlap
subsets, overlapping sets or disjoint x∈O
sets. Decide which set the element x
belongs to.
3 Draw the Venn diagram that illustrates
the relationship between each of the
sets. A
O
F
x
The Venn diagram is incomplete as the

relationship between A and F is unclear.
There are a few possibilities as can be seen by
the 3 different dotted circles.
4 Determine whether the argument is If this conclusion were to be valid, A and F
valid. would be disjoint. However, as stated
previously, there is insufficient information to
know whether this is so. This means that the
conclusion is invalid.
remember
1. A set of logic statements consists of two premises and a conclusion.
2. These statements involve the terms all, none (no) or some.
3. A statement such as ‘all elements of A are contained in B’ implies A ⊂ B (that
is, A is a subset of B).
4. A statement such as ‘no element of A is contained in B’ implies that A and B
are disjoint.
5. The term some means ‘at least one’ and is represented by the symbol x.
6. When representing the premises as a Venn diagram, the position of x should be
considered last.
3F Logic
1 Refer to the given Venn diagram to answer true
or false to each of the following.
K B
a J is a subset of B.
b D and B are disjoint sets.
c D is a subset of K. D
J
d J and D are disjoint sets.
e B is a subset of K.
f K, J and B are all disjoint sets.
2 Write premise statements for each of the following, using

the sets shown.
A = {animals}
B = {birds}
C = {cats}
D = {dogs}
F = {four-legged}
T = {two-legged}
a All C is contained in A b No D is contained in C
c Some A is contained in F d No B is contained in F
e Some A is contained in T f All B is contained in A
3 Use the sets indicated to write the following premises.

C = {circles}
P = {polygons}
Q = {quadrilaterals}
R = {rectangles}
S = {squares}
a No C is contained in P. b Some R is contained in S.
c All S is contained in R. d Some P is contained in Q.
e No Q is contained in C. f All R is contained in P.
4 Consider the following statements. Write a logic

premise for each one.
a {plants} and {animals} are disjoint.
b {ants} ⊂ {insects}
c {pigs} is a subset of {animals}.
d {odd numbers} and {even numbers} are disjoint.
e {prime numbers} ⊄ {even numbers} and the sets
are not disjoint.
f {vowels} and {consonants} are disjoint.
5 Consider the following set of logic statements.
All mammals are warm-blooded
All whales are mammals
∴ All whales are warm-blooded.
a Which is premise 1? b Give premise 2.
c State the conclusion.
WORKED 6 Determine whether the conclusion reached in the following set of logic statements is
Example
19a
true. Draw a Venn diagram to support your conclusion.
All trees are plants.
All coconut palms are trees.
∴ All coconut palms are plants.
WORKED 7 Show that the conclusion reached in the following set of logic statements is invalid.
Example
19b
Draw a Venn diagram to support your conclusion.
All frogs are animals.
All snakes are animals.
∴ All snakes are frogs.
WORKED 8 Show that the conclusion reached in the
Example
19c
following set of logic statements is valid.
Draw a Venn diagram to support your
conclusion.
All chickens have feathers.
No horses have feathers.
∴ No horses are chickens.
WORKED 9 State whether the conclusion reached in the
Example
20
following set of logic statements is valid or
invalid. Draw a Venn diagram to support your
conclusion.
All pop stars are talented.
Some Australians are pop stars.
∴ Some Australians are talented.
WORKED 10 Show that the conclusion reached in the
Example
21
following set of logic statements is invalid.
Draw a Venn diagram to support your conclu-
T 3.3 sion.
SHEE
Some swimmers are thin.
Work
No weightlifter is thin.
∴ No weightlifters are swimmers.
Truth functions
Computers use the principles of logic when performing tasks. The reasoning process
takes place in electronic circuits. We will consider a variety of logic gates that enable
computers to undertake complex calculations.
Logic gates
Logic gates consist of wires that carry an input signal to the gate and a single wire that
carries the output wire from the gate. Current flowing along a wire is assigned a value
of 1, and current not flowing is assigned a value of 0. There are no other options —
either there is a current or there is no current. This is a two-state system.
The OR gate
Examples of this type of gate can be represented as follows. Input Output
This electronic circuit gives an output pulse (that is, a OR
reading of 1) if one or more input wires to the OR gate carry
an electric pulse. Quite simply, as long as there is one input
Input Output
wire with a 1, the output wire will be 1.
OR
WORKED Example 22
Determine the resulting outputs from the inputs to the following OR gates.
a 0 b 0
0 OR 0 OR
1
THINK WRITE
a 1 Carefully analyse the diagram and a

take note of the input wires.
Note: As long as there is one input
wire with a 1, the output wire will
be 1.
2 Answer the question. Each of the input wires is 0, meaning no cur-
rent is flowing into the gate; therefore, the
output is 0.
b 1 Carefully analyse the diagram and b

Note: As long as there is one input
wire with a 1, the output wire will
be 1.
2 Answer the question. One of the input wires is 1, meaning current
is flowing into the gate; therefore, the output
is 1.
The AND gate

This electronic circuit gives an output pulse (that is, a reading of 1) if all input wires to
the AND gate carry an electric pulse. That is, all inputs must be 1 for the output to be 1.
WORKED Example 23
Determine the resulting outputs from the inputs to the following AND gates.
a 1 b 0
1 AND 1 AND
1
THINK WRITE
a 1 Carefully analyse the diagram and a
Note: All inputs must be 1 for the
output to be 1.
2 Answer the question. Both input wires are 1, meaning current is
flowing into the gate; therefore, the output
is 1.
b 1 Carefully analyse the diagram and b
Note: All inputs must be 1 for the
output to be 1.
2 Answer the question. Only two of the three inputs are 1; therefore,
the output is 0.
The NOT gate

This electronic circuit has only one input wire and one output 0 NOT 1
wire. The NOT gate changes an input of 0 to an output of 1
and vice versa.
1 0
NOT
Combining these gates
Circuits in a computer are quite complex. We will consider some simple ones
consisting of a combination of AND, OR and NOT gates.
WORKED Example 24
Determine the output in the circuit at right. 1
0 OR
AND
0
NOT
THINK WRITE
1 Carefully analyse the diagram and take
note of the input wires.
2 Consider the output from the OR gate. The output from the OR gate is 1, since one of
Note: As long as there is one input wire the inputs is 1.
with a 1, the output wire will be 1.
THINK WRITE
3 Consider the NOT gate. The NOT gate changes 0 to 1, therefore the
Note: The NOT gate changes an input output becomes 1.
of 0 to an output of 1 and vice versa.
4 Consider the AND gate. All inputs to the AND gate are 1, so the output
Note: All inputs must be 1 for the from the AND gate is 1.
output to be 1.
5 Write the final answer. The overall output of the circuit is 1.
Truth tables
We can now transfer this knowledge of electronic circuits to the construction of truth
tables. The digits 1 and 0 are replaced by T (true) and F (false) respectively. The
number of inputs can be represented by the letters p, q, r, …
Consider the following truth table.
p q
T T
T F
F T
F F
This table represents all the combinations of the two inputs. As we did with the logic
gates, we will now look at some logical operators on these two inputs.
The AND operator, ∧
This table represents the possible combinations for p and q and takes the symbol p ∧ q.
p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Notice the similarity to the AND gate. Here the output is only T if both inputs are T.
The OR operator, ∨
This table represents the possible combinations for p or q and takes the symbol p ∨ q.
p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Notice the similarity to the OR gate. The output is T if at least one of the inputs is T.
The NOT operator, ¬

As with the NOT gate, this operator changes T to F and F to T.
p ¬p
T F
F T
The IMPLIES operator, →
p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
The IMPLIES operator reasons that:

1. a true (T) premise implies a true (T) conclusion. So, T → T is T.
2. a true (T) premise cannot imply a false (F) conclusion. So, T → F is F.
3. you are able to conclude anything from a false assumption. So, F → anything is T.
The EQUIVALENCE operator, ↔
This operator works on the basis that p ↔ q is true if p and q are the same.
p q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
WORKED Example 25
If p represents the statement ‘Jack went to the party’ and q represents the statement
‘Susan went to the party’, then write English statements for the following.
a p∧q b p∨q c ¬p ∨ q
THINK WRITE
a Interpret the operator sign and answer a Jack and Susan went to the party.
the question.
b Interpret the operator sign and answer b Jack or Susan went to the party.
the question.
c Interpret each of the operator signs and c Jack did not go to the party or Susan went to
answer the question. the party.
WORKED Example 26
Complete the following truth table.
p q ¬p ∨ q
T T
T F
F T
F F
THINK WRITE
1 Interpret the first operator sign, that is, NOT p for each of the inputs gives:
¬p (NOT p). T becomes F
Note: The NOT operator changes T to F T becomes F
and F to T. F becomes T
F becomes T
2 Interpret the next operator sign, that is, F ∨ T gives T
combine each NOT p value with the q F ∨ F gives F
values. T ∨ T gives T
Note: The output is T if at least one of T ∨ F gives T
the inputs is T.
3 Complete the table.
p q ¬p ∨ q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
remember
1. Logic gates enable computers to undertake complex calculations.
2. Logic gates consist of wires that carry an input signal to the gate and a single
wire that carries the output wire from the gate.
3. Current flowing along a wire is assigned a value of 1 and current not flowing is
assigned a value of 0.
4. The OR gate gives an output of 1 if there is at least one input of 1.
5. The AND gate only gives an output of 1 if all inputs are 1.
6. The NOT gate changes 0 to 1 and vice versa.
7. Truth tables show logical operations on statements represented by the
letters p, q, r, …
8. Operators used in truth tables include AND (∧), OR (∨), NOT (¬), IMPLIES
(→) and EQUIVALENCE (↔).
3G Truth functions
WORKED 1 Determine the resulting outputs from the inputs to the following OR gates.
Example
22 a 1 OR
b 1
0 0 OR
1
WORKED 2 Determine the resulting outputs from the inputs to the following AND gates.
Example
23 a 1 AND
b 1
0 1 AND
1
WORKED 3 Determine the output in the following
Example
circuit. 1
24 NOT
0 OR
1 AND
4 Determine the output in the following 1

circuit. 0 OR NOT
1 OR
WORKED 5 If p represents the statement ‘Tom 1 NOT
Example
has a biro’ and q represents the 0 AND
25
statement ‘Chris has a pencil’, then 1
write English statements for the

following:
a p∧q b p∨q c ¬p ∨ q
6 If p represents the statement ‘Jan went to the skating rink’ and q represents the
statement ‘Pat went to work’, then write English statements for the following:
a p∧q b p ∨ ¬q c ¬p ∧ ¬q
WORKED 7 Complete the following truth table.
Example
26
p q p ∧ ¬q
T T
T F
F T
F F
8 Complete the following truth table.
p q ¬p ∨ ¬q
T T
T F
F T
F F
9 multiple choice
The entries of the final column of the given truth table in the correct order are:
A T, F, T, F
p q ¬p ↔ ¬q
B F, T, F, T
T T
C T, F, F, T
T F
D T, T, F, F
F T
E F, F, T, T
F F
10 multiple choice
The entries of the final column of the given truth table in the correct order are:
A T, F, T, F
p q ÿp → q
B T, T, F, T
T T
C F, F, F, T GAME
T F
time
D T, T, T, F
F T Set notation
E F, F, T, T and theory
F F — 002
COMMUNICATION Boolean algebra and

the World Wide Web
The World Wide Web can be thought of as the universal set of web pages
(elements). When we use a search engine such as Google or Yahoo, we are finding
subsets consisting of web pages (elements). For example, if we search using the
word football, the search engine gives us a list of all the web pages containing the
word football. These elements form the subset, Football.
1 Consider the following sets:
a Richmond
b Tigers
c +Richmond +Tigers, that is, Richmond AND Tigers (Richmond ∩ Tigers)
d Richmond Tigers, that is, Richmond OR Tigers (Richmond ∪ Tigers)
e Richmond –Tigers, that is, Richmond but NOT Tigers (Richmond ∩ Tigers′)
ii Using either search engine, determine the number of elements
ii contained in each set.
ii Display each of the sets defined in parts c, d and e as a Venn diagram.
2 Using an appropriate search engine, which keyword (AND, OR, or NOT) would
be used to obtain information represented by the following Venn diagrams?
a i ii
Egypt Pharaohs Egypt Pharaohs
Pyramids Pyramids
b i ii
Record Bands Record Bands
sales sales
The The
Beatles Beatles
c i ii
Camberwell Melbourne Camberwell Melbourne
Victoria Victoria
COMMUNICATION Binary number adder

Calculators and computers use sophisticated circuitry and gates to run programs
and perform calculations. However, all their circuits are designed around binary
numbers. (Remember that binary numbers are made up of 0s and 1s, called ‘bits’,
a contraction of binary digits). Current flowing along a wire is assigned a value of
1, and current not flowing is assigned a value of 0.
Circuitry can be used when adding two binary numbers.
reads
L Sp he
et
EXCE
Task A Circuit 1
Circuits
Open the Excel file ‘Circuits’ on the Maths Quest 8 CD-ROM and follow the
instructions for Circuit 1. This activity was designed to assist you in tracing
through a diagram for all the possible inputs. Once this has been completed, you
may progress to Task B.
Task B Two bits

The circuit below illustrates the addition of two bits that is, 1 and 0.
Bit one 1 0 Carry to next

column bit
NOT
Bit two 0 OR AND 1 Sum bit
1 Which of the following gates (AND, OR, NOT) is required to produce the
output bits illustrated in the diagram above?
2 List each of the possible input combinations that exist for the diagram above.
3 Carefully trace through the given diagram for each of the possible input
combinations and record the outputs produced in the table below.
Note: The example illustrated in the given diagram has been entered in the table to
assist you.
Inputs Outputs
Bit one Bit two Carry to next column bit Sum bit
0 0
0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1
This circuit is called ‘the half adder’.
Task C Circuit 2
Open the Excel file ‘Circuits’ and follow the instructions for Circuit 2. Once this
has been completed, you may progress to Task D.
Task D The Full Adder

This circuit represents the ‘full adder’.
1 0 0
Bit one 1 AND OR 0 Carry
0 to next
0
column
NOT AND bit
1 1
1 1 0 NOT
Bit two 0 OR AND 1
0 AND 0 Sum bit
1
OR 1
Carry from
previous 0
column bit
Carefully trace through the given diagram for each of the possible input
combinations and record the outputs produced in the table below.
Inputs Outputs
Bit Bit Carry from Carry to Sum
one two previous column bit next column bit bit
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1
summary
Copy the sentences below. Fill in the gaps by choosing the correct word or
expression from the word list that follows.
1 A set is enclosed in (curly brackets) and the members of the set

are known as of the set.
2 The members of the set are listed only and can appear in any
.
3 A set containing no elements is known as an empty or set; a set

with only one element is known as a set.
4 A set can be stated in three ways: , or .
5 A set with a fixed number of elements is known as a set. If the

number of elements is not fixed, it is known as an set.
6 The number of elements in the set is called its number.
7 The set is the one that contains all the elements referring to
the particular problem.
8 A set that contains part of the elements of another set is a of

the larger set.
9 Two sets that have no elements in common are called sets. If

there are common elements between the two sets, they are said to be
sets.
10 The set of set A contains all the elements that are not in set A
itself.
11 sets have the same elements; sets have the same

number of elements but not necessarily the same kind of elements.
12 A diagram depicting sets as a rectangle with circles inside is called a

diagram.
13 The universal set is given the symbol . The intersection of two

sets is represented by the symbol . The union of two sets is
represented by the symbol .
14 A map displays the intersection of sets and their complements

in the form of a table.
15 A diagram displays sets as a series of branches.
16 A logic statement consists of two and a . These

statements use three particular terms: , and
.
17 There are three types of logic gates: , and .
18 Truth tables show logical operations on statements represented by the

pronumerals and . Symbols are used for the
operators — AND ( ), OR ( ), NOT ( ),
IMPLIES ( ) and EQUIVALENCE ( ).
WORD LIST
p Venn ↔ finite
AND equivalent elements →
Karnaugh unit all NOT
complement disjoint q ∪
subset premises some none
once « equal null
described tree ∧ overlapping
braces ¬ conclusion listed
infinite cardinal ∨ ξ
universal order OR set builder
CHAPTER
review
1 State whether each of the following sets is in listed, described or set builder form.
3A a {seasons of the year}
b {Saturday, Sunday}
c {n : n is a number on the side of a die}
2 State true or false for each of the following.

3A a 1 ∈ {prime numbers}
b 20 ∉ {s : s is a square number}
c 9 ∈ {perfect cubes}
3 State the number of elements in each of the following sets.

3A a {integers that are not prime and not composite}
b {polygons with curved sides}
c {counting numbers less than 5}
4 Classify the following sets as finite or infinite.

3B a X = {even numbers}
b V = {vowels in the alphabet}
c F = {factors of 15}
5 Give the cardinal number of each of the following sets.

3B a C = {consonants in the English alphabet}
b P = {prime numbers less than 20}
c E = {even multiples of 5 less than 100}
6 If C = {counting numbers less than or equal to 10}

3B F = {factors of 15}
M = {multiples of 15}
E = {even numbers less than 8}
a List the elements in each of the sets.
b Name a subset of C.
c How would you describe the relationship between set F and set E?
d How would you describe the relationship between set F and set M?
7 If ξ = {counting numbers less than or equal to 10}
S = {square numbers} 3B
E = {even numbers}
a Determine n(S).
b List the elements in the set S′.
c Describe the relationship between sets S and E.
8 Represent the sets in question 7 as a Venn diagram.
3C
9 From your Venn diagram in question 8, list the elements in the following sets.
a E′ b S∩E c S∪E 3C
d S′ ∪ E e S ∪ E′ f S′ ∪ E′
10 Copy and complete the entries in the following Karnaugh map.
3D
E E′ Total
D 29
D′ 16
Total 63 155
11 Shoppers in a supermarket were given a taste test of two varieties of jellybeans — home
brand (H) and brand X. Of the 168 shoppers to undertake the test, 111 liked the home 3D
brand, 84 liked brand X and 39 liked both.
12 The local car yard surveyed residents to discover their preferences for the new Holden (H)
and the new Ford (F). The results are summarised in this Karnaugh map. 3D
F F′ Total
H 162 228 390
H′ 306 154 460
Total 468 382 850
a How many residents participated in the
survey?
b How many don’t like the Holden or the
Ford?
c How many people like the Holden?
d How many didn’t like the Ford?
e Which was the more popular car?
13 Consider the following sets.
ξ = {alphabet letters} 3E
C = {consonants}
V = {vowels}
L = {letters of the word book}
a Display these sets using a tree diagram.
b Indicate the relationship between the sets.
14 Robyn represents her school in the interschool tennis championships. Her uniform consists
3E of socks, skirt, shirt and cap. In her wardrobe she has 3 pairs of socks, 2 skirts, 3 shirts and
2 caps. How many different combinations of her uniform are possible?
15 Write premise statements for each of the following using the sets shown.
3F A = {animals}
B = {bears}
F = {fish}
S = {scales}
a All F is contained in S
b No B is contained in S
c Some A is contained in S
16 Consider the following set of logic statements.
3F All polygons have straight sides.
All triangles are polygons.
∴ All triangles have straight sides.
a Which is premise 1?
b Which is premise 2?
c State the conclusion.
d Draw a Venn diagram to display the statements.
e Explain whether the conclusion reached is valid or invalid.
17 Determine the output in the following logic circuit.
3G
1
1 OR
1
0
0 OR NOT OR
0
1 NOT
0 AND
0
18 Complete the following truth table.

3G
p q ¬p ∧ ¬q
T T
T F
test
yourself
F T
CHAPTER
3 F F

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eTHINKING 3

Are you ready? READY?

The questions below refer to the following groups of numbers.

3.1 Even and odd numbers

3.2 Consecutive numbers

3.3 Square numbers

3.5 Prime and composite numbers

3.6 Factor pairs

3.7 Perfect cubes

3.8 Disjoint and overlapping sets

WORKED 2 State whether each of the following

Even and d {school sports}

Consecutive c {Tuesday, Thursday} d {1, 4, 9, 16}

Square m {beaker, test tube, Bunsen burner} n {mm, cm, m, km}

Multiples j {w: w is a month of winter}

5 Consider your answers to question

6 Write each of the sets in question 3 using set builder notation.

7 Write each of the following as listed sets.

Prime and h {numbers that are both prime and even}

9 Which of the following describes a

Some special sets

Finite and infinite sets

The universal set

b Select all the prime numbers from the b H = {prime numbers}

Subsets (Ã) and supersets (…)

b Use the results obtained in part a to b Since J is contained in G, G is a superset of

Disjoint and overlapping sets

b 1 List the elements of set Q and b Q = {1, 4, 9}

Equal and equivalent sets

3B Some special sets

n (A ) = n (B) = n(D ) = n (E) =

n (F) = n (G ) = n(H) = n (I) =

= The set containing = The set containing = The set containing

3 Draw and label a circle within the rectangle ξ

4 Draw and label a circle within the rectangle ξ

5 Enter the elements into the appropriate ξ

2 Draw the universal set as a rectangle. ξ

b iii Carefully analyse the Venn diagram and b iii B′ = {a, e, i}

5 The Venn diagram at right shows the following

6 The Venn diagram at right shows the following ξ

WORKED 12 A tyre manufacturer conducting a survey of 2200 customers obtained

13 A sporting club has its members playing different

14 a Draw a Venn diagram that displays the following information.

15 a Use the universal set to find the sets as defined below:

R = {numbers not belonging to sets N, J, Q} Set

COMMUNICATION Taking orders

Continued over page

2 Copy and complete the entries in the following Karnaugh map.

a How many households are there in the

Questions 9 and 10 refer to the following Karnaugh map.

10 multiple choice SHEE

The number of data that correspond to A′ is:

4 Link the vowels branch with another Possible sets

2 Use a pair of branches to show how the pants

4 Link the ‘not choosing Italian’ J

c ξ = {integers 1 to 10} d ξ = {square and prime numbers less

e ξ = {alphabet letters a to j} f ξ = {counting numbers less than or

3 A restaurant has a menu with a choice of 3

4 In Joe’s wardrobe there are 2 pairs of dress

5 Meg is drawing up a tennis-championship

7 876 cinemagoers were surveyed to determine which

1 How many people were surveyed?

2 What number of the people liked both bars?