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Memory and Illusions Framing Effects Prospect Theory Fuzzy-trace theory

Discussion

Information theorists used memory variations to explain errors in decision-making, and

performance on many difficult cognitive tasks (Reyna & Brainerd, 1995). The historical
background of information theory can be traced back to cognitive development theories.
Research in cognitive development focused on the emergence of analytic and logical thought, as
reflected in theories of conscious experience (Anooshian, 1998). Traditional theorists like
piagetians and constructivists believed that reasoning shaped memory and that memory was
subordinated to reasoning (Reyna & Brainerd, 1995). They focused on non-memorial
explanations for reasoning while acknowledging the necessity of memory. In other terms,
memory was necessary but not sufficient for reasoning. The following statement exemplifies
this conclusion.

The schemata used by the memory are borrowed from the

intelligence.
- Piaget & Inhelder, 1973 (Reyna & Brainerd, 1995, page 3)

Unlike constructivists and piagetian theorists, information-processing theorists viewed memory

as crucial for reasoning (Healy & McNamara, 1996). They characterized reasoning almost in
terms of the ways in which a computer processes information. Information is inputted,
computations occur, and information is elicited (Reyna & Brainerd, 1995). Without memory,
reasoning would not take place. They believed this relationship between memory and reasoning
to be a delicate one. Most information-processing explanations of reasoning revolved around the
capacity-limitations of short-term (or working) memory (Cox, 1980; Garner, 1970; Jou et. al.,
1996; Miller, 1956; Reyna & Brainerd, 1995). They believed that these limitations put heavy
constraints on both memory and reasoning. Information processing theorists discussed the
organized knowledge structures stored in memory that are used to guide comprehension and
memory. Miller (1956) provided an excellent discussion on information measurement and how
we can interpret this theory in psychological terms. Briefly, information theory can help us
understand how information can be seen as variance, and the amount of transmitted information
as either correlation or covariance (see Figure 1). Therefore, output will depend on the input, or
will be correlated with the input (Miller, 1956). Thus, the measure of transmitted information is
simply the input-output correlation.

Figure 1. Input-Output Correlation Diagram

Source: Stephanie Barclay McKeown, Interpretation of George Miller's 1956 article.

Garner (1970) argued that too much emphasis has been placed on how we process information,
but little has been placed on the nature of the stimulus. Without the input, no processing would
ever take place. He stressed the need to consider how the stimulus should be defined in
information processing as an empirical question that could not be answered a priori. He argued
that we do not make generalizations from a study with only one subject, so we should not make
generalizations about one stimulus or one task, but we should investigate the roles of many
stimuli and a multitude of tasks. He stressed that researchers have also not given sufficient
consideration in studies of information processing that humans are capable of many different
types of information processing. He asked why so many asked the question whether humans
process information linearly (in serial) or in parallel. One of the assumptions asserted in Reyna
and Brainerd’s understanding of memory was that experiences are encoded roughly in parallel
(Reyna & Brainerd, 1995). Garner (1970) thought possibly we could do both depending on the
task and the stimuli – or perhaps we could do them simultaneously. Similarly to Reyna &
Brainerd, he believed that stimuli are not all equivalent, and all information cannot be processed
in the same way. We shouldn’t be seeking a single solution but a diversity of answers to
understanding stimuli in information processing. He stressed that we must be prepared to ask
when and under what circumstances do we process
information in a particular way.

From an information processing perspective, if the

question posed to the respondent and type of response
alternatives are accurate, then nearly all the input
information will be transmitted and will be recoverable
from the responses. However, if the information is not
accurate, if the information provided is inadequate or
ambiguous, then the transmitted information will be considerably less than we require when
making accurate inferences about how people process information. Further to this, if the
response options available to the participant do not fully satisfy the respondent’s decision choice,
we gain little knowledge about decision making. In line with Garner’s view of investigating
different types of stimuli are researchers who have investigated different levels of information
provided to the respondent in a decision making scenario (Kuhberger, 1995; Levin et. al., 1985;
Levin et. al., 1986).

The experimental problem is to increase the amount of input information, and to measure the
amount of transmitted information. However, through information processing, when we increase
the input information the transmitted information also increases but eventually levels off at a
particular value (Miller, 1956). This value is the channel capacity. The channel capacity of the
observer represents the greatest amount of information that can be given about the stimulus on
the basis of absolute judgment. In terms of stimulus-centered framing problems, channel
capacity is the greatest amount of information that can be conveyed accurately through the
provision of the appropriate number of response alternatives. As mentioned previously, if the
information provided to the participant is inadequate or ambiguous, the respondent will be
unable to understand the problem, and will be unable to provide accurate information on the
basis of the available response options. If the channel capacity is maximized, then measurement
error could occur. The difficulty with providing the appropriate information can be seen as
noise. Through investigation and careful question and response construction, noise can be
decreased to an acceptable level determined by the researcher (see Figure 2).
Figure 2. Diagram of Information Processing Theory

Source: EPSE 501 Class Web site WebCT

The channel capacity is the upper limit on the extent to which the respondent can match his/her
responses to the response alternatives provided (Cox, 1980). If information is not transmitted
appropriately due to the maximized channel capacity (measurement error) the data obtained from
any analysis using that particular problem formulation might not be useful for any inferences at
all. The limitations of information theory are that it is imprecise and one-dimensional.
According to information theory, the optimal number of response categories is very much
connected to the number of stimuli being scaled. In other words, if only one stimulus was being
scaled, only one response category would be needed (absolute judgment). However, these
options may not provide the respondent with the natural response he/she may wish to select.
Also, information theory supports the notion that once the channel capacity is maximized the
respondent will not process any more information (Cox, 1980; Miller, 1956). A way around
overburdening the channel capacity is to increase the dimensionality of the stimulus. The notion
of increasing dimensionality of the stimuli is presented through discussion of the absolute
judgment paradigm.

In his discussion of absolute judgment paradigm, Garner (1970) discussed how these were used
frequently with multidimensional stimuli. The primary experimental problem studied with this
technique has been to ask whether information transmission is increased when new stimulus
dimensions are added to an existing one. The experimental literature reviewed by Garner
showed that when dimensions are added orthogonally, and judgment of all dimensions is
required, performance improves, but not as much as would be expected if the subject were able
to deal with each dimension (also see Miller, 1956). On the other hand, if a new dimension is
added redundantly by being correlated with an existing dimension, there sometimes is gain in
performance, but in other cases there is little or no gain. However, redundancy should not be
seen as negative. It is useful in increasing the amount of information transmitted to the
respondent (Garner, 1970). Absolute judgment is limited by the amount of information provided
to the respondent.
 USING THE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH IN THE CLASSROOM
Principle
1. Gain the students' attention.
2. Bring to mind relevant prior
learning.
3. Point out important information.
4. Present information in an organized
manner.
5. Show student how to categorize
(chunk) related information.
6. Provide opportunities for students
to elaborate on new information.
7. Show students how to use coding
when memorizing lists.
8. Provide for repetition of learning.
9. Provide opportunities for
overlearning of fundamental concepts
and skills.
Example
 Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin.
 Move around the room and use voice
inflections.
• Review previous day's lesson.
• Have a discussion about previously covered
content.
• Provide handouts.
• Write on the board or use transparencies.
• Show a logical sequence to concepts and skills.
• Go from simple to complex when presenting new
material.
• Present information in categories.
• Teach inductive reasoning.
• Connect new information to something already
known.
• Look for similarities and differences among
concepts.
• Make up silly sentences with first letter of each
word in the list.
• Use mental imagery techniques such as the
keyword method.
• State important principles several times in different
ways during the presentation of information
(STM).
• Have items on each days's lesson from preivous
less (LTM).
• Schedule periodic reviews of previously learned
concepts and skills (LTM).
• Use daily drills for arithmetic facts.
• Play form of trivial pursuit with content related to
class.
Source: http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/infoproc.html