1
Potentials and Promises of Computational
Intelligence for Smart Grids
Ganesh K. Venayagamoorthy, Senior Member, IEEE
Abstract-- The electric power grid is a complex adaptive system
under semi-autonomous distributed control. It is spatially and
temporally complex, non-convex, nonlinear and non-stationary with a
lot of uncertainties. The integration of renewable energy such as wind
farms, and plug-in hybrid and electric vehicles further adds complexity
and challenges to the various controllers at all levels of the power
grid. A lot of efforts have gone into the development of a smart grid
to align the interests of the electric utilities, consumers and
environmentalists. Advanced computational methods are required for
planning and optimization, fast control of power system elements,
processing of field data and coordination across the grid. Distributed
and coordinated intelligence at all levels and across levels of the
electric power grid – generation, transmission and distribution is
inevitable if a true smart grid is to be reality. Computational
intelligence (CI) is the study of adaptive mechanisms to enable or
facilitate intelligent behavior in complex, uncertain and changing
environments. These adaptive mechanisms include artificial and bio-
inspired intelligence paradigms that exhibit an ability to learn or adapt
to new situations, to generalize, abstract, discover and associate. The
paradigms of CI mimic nature for solving complex problems. CI is
successor of artificial intelligence and is the way of the future
computing. This paper presents the potentials and promises of CI to
realize an intelligent smart grid.
Index Terms—adaptive control, adaptive critic designs,
computational intelligence, FACTS, plug-in vehicles, renewable
energy, wide area monitoring and control.
I. INTRODUCTION
T HE North American electric power grid is the world’s
largest single machine ever built by man. It is a complex
adaptive system under semi-autonomous control. It is
spatially and temporally complex, nonconvex, nonlinear and
non-stationary with uncertainties at many levels. Its efficient,
reliable and safe operation and control is a challenge today as
seen from the 2003 Northeast American Blackout [1]. The
complexity grows with growing demand to integrate of
renewable sources of energy such as wind and solar farms.
To overcome the challenges brought about complexity,
shear size of the network and others, the power system needs
intelligence at all levels – horizontally and vertically, be it at
component, area, or system level. This means intelligent
This work was supported by the National Science Foundation, USA under
CAREER Grant ECCS # 0348221 and EFRI # 0836017.
G. K. Venayagamoorthy is the Director of the Real-Time and Intelligent
Systems Laboratory, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO
65409-0249 USA (e-mail: gkumar@ieee.org).
978-1-4244-4241-6/09/$25.00 ©2009 IEEE
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information processing is needed everywhere a critical
decision is made for performance control, locally or globally.
For this to be possible, large number of distributed sensors
and actuators are required on the network. Equipped with
features to handle this complexity, the traditional grid is
elevated to or referred to as a smart grid.
The traditional way of modeling, control and optimization
needs to be augmented, or even replaced in some cases, with
intelligent techniques capable of rapid adaptation, having
dynamic foresight, being fault-tolerant and robust to
disturbances and randomness. This paper describes the
potentials and promises of the computational intelligence for
smart grid operation and control.
II. SMART GRID
The smart grid can be viewed as a digital upgrade of the
existing electricity infrastructure to allow for dynamic
optimization of current operations as well as incorporate
dynamic gateways for alternative sources of energy
production. The telecommunication industry today is already
using ‘smart’ technologies, some of which can be borrowed
for smart operation of the electricity industry. The objectives
of a smart grid are to minimize the cost of energy and reduce
emissions.
A smart grid or sometimes referred to as the Intelligent
Grid/Intelligrid and FutureGrid must have certain basic
functions for modernization of the grid (as indicated in the
Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007), including:
• Have a self-healing capability.
• Be fault-tolerant by resisting attacks.
• Allow for integration of all energy generation and storage
options including plug-in vehicles.
• Allow for dynamic optimization of grid operation and
resources with full cyber-security.
• Allow for incorporation of demand-response, demand-
side resources and energy-efficient resources.
• Allow electricity clients to actively participate in the grid
operations by providing timely information and control
options.
• Improve reliability, power quality, security and efficiency
of the electricity infrastructure.
In order to carry out the functions mentioned above,
advanced monitoring, forecasting, decision making, control
and optimization algorithms are required. These algorithms
must be fast, scalable and dynamic. In this paper,
 2

computational intelligence based algorithms that deliver the

above mentioned features for smart grid operations are Electricity
Y
discussed. TDL
ref Infrastructure Y(t)

III. COMPUTATIONAL INTELLIGENCE METHODS

ACTION CRITIC
NETWORK J(t)
NETWORK
Computational intelligence (CI) is the study of adaptive 1
mechanisms to enable or facilitate intelligent behavior in
Real-
Real-Time Intelligent
complex, uncertain and changing environments. These Technologies
TDL
adaptive mechanisms include those bio-inspired and artificial System
intelligence paradigms that exhibit an ability to learn or adapt Model
to new situations, to generalize, abstract, discover and
associate [2]. The typical paradigms of CI are illustrated in
Fig. 2. A typical adaptive critic design framework.
Fig. 1 [3]. These paradigms can be combined to form hybrids
as shown in Fig. 1 resulting in Neuro-Fuzzy systems, Neuro-
Swarm systems, Fuzzy-PSO systems, Fuzzy-GA systems,
IV. CI METHODS FOR SMART GRIDS
Neuro-Genetic systems, etc.

CI and advanced CI techniques have been applied to

Immunized-
Neuro
Immune Immunized-
Swarm
solving challenging problems today in electric power systems.
Systems
Systems Systems CI methods can contribute to electric power systems and
smart grids in a number of ways as illustrated in Fig. 3. A few
of these problems addressed by author and other researchers
Neuro-Swarm
Systems are discussed below. Many of these solutions are directly
Swarm
Neural Networks Intelligence applicable to smart grids – modernization of the grid using
full digital technology.
Neuro-Genetic
Evolutionary-Swarm
Systems
Systems Neuro-Fuzzy Fuzzy-PSO
Systems Systems Behavioral
Modeling
Identification/
Evolutionary Prediction
Fuzzy-GA Immunity of
Systems
computing Nonlinear
Fuzzy Systems Dynamics

Self- Computational Intelligence

Fig. 1. Five main CI paradigms and typical hybrids. Healing Techniques Robust/Optimal/Adaptive/
Coordinated
Nonlinear Control
Other advanced CI techniques include adaptive critic
designs [4], reinforcement learning and approximate dynamic
programming [5]. Adaptive critic designs (ACDs) use neural
Fast and Accurate
networks based designs for optimization over time using Decision Complex and Large Scale
Making Emission Optimization
combined concepts of reinforcement learning and Reduction
approximate dynamic programming [4-5]. ACDs use two
neural networks, the critic and action networks, to solve the Fig. 3. Capabilities of CI methods for smart grids.
Hamilton-Jacobi-Bellman equation of optimal control. The
critic network approximates the cost-to-go function J of As known widely, the nonlinear modeling of the time
Bellman’s equation of dynamic programming (1) and is varying dynamics of an electric power system is still a
referred to as the heuristic dynamic programming (HDP) challenge using classical techniques but computational
approach in ACDs, intelligence paradigms such as neural networks have been
shown to successful model the nonlinear dynamics offline or
∑γ
∞
J (t ) = k
U (t + k ) , (1)
online. Multilayer perceptrons, radial basis functions (RBFs),
k =1
simultaneous recurrent neural networks (SRNs) and echo state
where γ is a discount factor between 0 and 1, and U(t) is a
networks have all been reported very effective models for the
utility function or a local performance index. The action
design of nonlinear, adaptive and/or optimal controllers such
network provides optimal control to minimize or maximize
as for generator excitation systems, turbines and FACTS
the cost-to-go function J. Fig. 2 shows the HDP based ACD
devices [6-8]. Most of the identification/modeling techniques
approach. There are several other members of the ACD
are based on supervised learning techniques as illustrated in
family that vary in complexity and power [4].
Fig. 4. Neural networks can be trained online to track the

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 3

changing dynamics which is a beauty and a power of a CI transmission delays. The WAC operates at a global level to
approach for system identification. coordinate the actions of local power system controllers
including those on the wind farm. Each local controller
Plant Inputs Plant outputs communicates with the WAC, receives remote control signals
Plant
from the WAC to enhance its dynamic performance, and
therefore helps improve system-wide dynamic and transient
Time delay Time delay performance.
line line

+ Damping System Oscillation

Neural Network
Model −
∑ u3 (t )

neural network Wide Area Controller

Parameters
outputs u1 (t) ^
Δ ω1(t +10ΔT )
^⎛
adjustment 3⎜⎝ t −τ1 +10ΔT⎟⎠
Δω ⎞

Optimization errors Wide Area Monitor e − sτ1

Δω3 (t − τ1)
Algorithm Δω1(t) e − sτ 2

8 Δω3(t)
7 9 u3 (t-τ2)
1 5 6 10 11 3
Fig. 4. Identification of power system dynamics of interest.
G1 G3
The increasing complexity and highly nonlinear nature of
Load in Area 1 Load in Area 2
electric power systems today requires a fast and an accurate AREA 1 AREA 2

online monitoring system, a wide area monitor (WAM), for 2 4

effective control of power networks with an adaptive wide G2 G4

area controller (WAC). Similar approaches as illustrated in Fig. 5. Two-area four-machine power system with communication delays in
Fig. 4 are suitable for WAM [9, 10]. WAM is essential for WAC [13].
smart grids to the functions mentioned in Section II such as
380 PSS
self-healing, fault-tolerance and dynamic optimization. PSS and WACS for 0.02s delay
379.5
Speed of G1 in rad/s

As several generation sources connect and disconnect to PSS and WACS for 0.5s delay
PSS and WACS for 1.0s delay
a smart grid, it will become necessary to identify the dynamics 379

of the system at any given point in time and adjust the 378.5

parameters, and maybe even the structures, of the local and 378

auxiliary controllers. Preliminary results of an external 377.5

damping controller on a traditional power system have been 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

demonstrated in a real-time on a laboratory platform [11, 12]. Time in seconds

Furthermore, it has been shown that critic networks based Fig. 6. Speed of generator G1 during a disturbance with different communication
delays.
on advanced neural network architectures, such as
simultaneous recurrent neural network, are capable of
Control of electric power systems relies on the availability
optimizing the performance multiple local controllers on
and quality of sensor measurements. However, measurements
generators and FACT devices to improve system damping
are inevitably subjected to faults caused by broken or bad
[13]. SRNs are powerful neural networks for prediction based
connections, bad communication, sensor failure, or
on recurrence and have been shown to overcome the varying
malfunction of some hardware or software. These faults in
time delays in the communication channels for WAC. The
turn may cause the failure of power system controllers and
real-time implementation of a two-area four machine power
consequently lead to severe contingencies in the power
system shown in Fig. 5 was carried out at the author’s lab -
system. To avoid such contingencies, a sensor evaluation and
Real-Time Power and Intelligent Systems Laboratory at
(missing sensor) restoration scheme (SERS) by using auto-
Missouri University of Science and Technology. Despite
associative neural networks (auto-encoders) and particle
varying time delays, a system damping higher than that
swarm optimization. Based on the SERS, a missing-sensor-
provided by local controllers (see Fig. 6) can be guaranteed
fault-tolerant control (MSFTC) was developed for controlling
with WAC over a significant range of delays [14]. This is
a static synchronous series compensator (SSSC) connected to
possible due to multi-step prediction capabilities of SRNs.
a power network. This MSFTC improved the reliability,
Wide-area coordinating control is becoming an important
maintainability and survivability of the SSSC and the power
issue and a challenging problem especially when large wind
network. The details of this work are presented in [16]. Such
farms are connected to the power grid. An optimal wide-area
fault-tolerant technologies will be needed in a smart grid to
monitor based on a RBF neural network has been developed
improve its reliability and security.
in [15] to identify the input-output dynamics of the nonlinear
The future grid will have the capability where plug-in
power system. Its parameters are optimized through particle
vehicles can charge from it or discharge to it. An intelligent
swarm optimization. Based on the WAM, a WAC is then
method for scheduling optimal usage of energy stored in these
designed by using the dual heuristic programming (DHP)
vehicles is necessary. The batteries on these vehicles can
method and RBFs, while considering the effect of signal
either provide power to the grid when parked, known as

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 4

vehicle- to-grid (V2G) concept or take power from the grid to Climate dioxide (CO2) is now widely accepted as a real
charge the batteries on the vehicles, known as grid-to- vehicle condition that has potentially serious consequences for human
(G2V). Finding optimal times to charge or discharge in order society and industries need to factor this into their strategic
to maximize profits to vehicle owners while satisfying system plans. The power and energy industry represents a major
and vehicle owners’ constraints was studied. In order to do portion of global emission, which is responsible for 40% of
this, binary particle swarm optimization was applied in [17]. the global CO2 production followed by the transportation
Price curves from the California ISO database are used in this sector (24%) [19]. Economic growth does not have to be
study to have realistic price fluctuations. Different fleets of linked to an increase of GHG emissions and can be attained in
vehicles are used to approximate varying customer base and addition to the usage of renewable energy sources by using
demonstrate the scalability of parking lots for V2G. The energy efficiency technologies for power system generation,
results for consistency and scalability are included. Fig. 7 transmission, and distribution. The development of intelligent
shows a typical parking lot for plug-in electric vehicles energy-efficient control technologies will both soften negative
connected to the utility grid. Table I shows the profit made by effects of the climate change on the economy and enhance
the vehicle owners based on a PSO scheduling on a given day. energy security. A summary of the impacts on CO2 reduction
More details on this work are given in [17]. by the applications of intelligent techniques has been reported
in [20]. Furthermore, UC with V2G can take into account
TABLE I besides fuel cost minimization, the reduction of emissions by
RESULTS WITH THE THREE PARKING LOTS SIZED DIFFERENTLY AND THE
PROFITS MADE ON A GIVEN DAY
explicitly factoring cost of emissions in the cost function.
# of Case Power Power out Net Power Profit
Table II shows some typical results on a small 10-unit and 20-
Vehicles Study into Lot of Lot Out (MW) unit systems with 50,000 and 100,000 gridable vehicles.
(MWh) (MWh) Intelligent optimization become very useful as the parameters
50 CS1 0.0089 0.1131 0.1042 $11.41 to optimize grows enormously.
CS2 0.3492 0.3421 -0.0072 $19.09 Maintenance scheduling of generating units and other
500 CS1 0.0984 1.2533 1.1549 $128.42
CS2 3.5167 3.8271 0.3104 $234.22
elements in a power system is an important task, and plays
5000 CS1 1.0359 12.1769 11.1401 $1223.49 important role in the operation and planning activities of the
CS2 31.9632 35.2408 3.2777 $2200.40 electric power utility and the future smart grid. Computational
intelligence tools are excellent for determining optimal
maintenance schedules [21]. In a smart, resources need to be
scheduled including real and reactive power generation, and
energy storage.
Other computational intelligence applications for smart
grid include forecasting dynamic loads and electric energy.
Typically, amount of load is dependent on a number of factors
including time of the day, day type (weekday or weekend),
temperature, humidity, season and location. Neural networks
have been extensively studied and shown to provide accurate
load predictions [22, 23]. Neural networks have also shown to
be promising tools for wind and solar energy predictions [24,
25]. When alternative sources of energy are connected to the
power grid, be it wind farms or plug-in vehicles, dynamic load
and electric energy at a given time needs to be predicted in
order to carry out an efficient and economical operation of a
Fig. 7. A typical parking lot with plug-in electric vehicles [15]. smart grid.
There are several other CI applications for the smart grid
V2G can reduce dependencies on small expensive units in including energy and power flow management algorithms.
the existing and future power systems as energy storage that Adaptive critic designs and PSO-based fuzzy logic have been
can decrease running costs. It can contribute to efficient demonstrated to carry out optimal energy dispatch in a grid
management of load fluctuation, peak load; however, it independent photovoltaic system [26]. Numerous researchers
increase spinning reserves and reliability. As number of have reported on the successful use of CI approaches for
gridable vehicles in V2G is much higher than small units of voltage and reactive power control [27]. Reconfiguration of
existing systems, unit commitment (UC) with V2G is more distribution systems have carried out with PSO and genetic
complex than basic UC for only thermal units. Particle swarm algorithms. CI techniques have the potential to carry out
optimization was proposed in [18] to solve the V2G dynamic reconfiguration and restoration of terrestrial and
scheduling problem, as PSO can reliably and accurately solve industrial power systems [28] after small and large
complex constrained optimization problems easily and quickly disturbances. All these problems and solutions are applicable
without any dimension limitation and physical computer to smart grids.
memory limit.

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TABLE II
RESULTS WITH THE PSO TECHNIQUE FOR UNIT COMMITMENT WITH V2G
V. CONCLUSIONS
The electric power grid is rapidly growing and demanding
new technologies for efficient, reliable and secure operation
and control as the demand for electricity increases. The
complexity of a smart power grid is much more than that of
the traditional power grid as time-varying sources of energy
and new dynamic loads are integrated into it. Advanced
intelligent techniques are required to handle the smart grid
operation in an efficient and economical manner. The
potentials of computational intelligence paradigms have been
demonstrated for various challenges in the traditional power
system. Such techniques are promising solutions to deliver the
expectations of a smart grid.
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BIOGRAPHY
Ganesh Kumar Venayagamoorthy (S’91,
M’97, SM’02) received the Ph.D. degree in
electrical engineering from the University of
KwaZulu Natal, Durban, South Africa, in 2002.
Currently, he is an Associate Professor of
Electrical and Computer Engineering, and the
Director of the Real-Time Power and Intelligent
Systems (RTPIS) Laboratory at Missouri
University of Science and Technology (Missouri
S&T). He was a Visiting Researcher with ABB
Corporate Research, Sweden, in 2007. His research interests are in the
development and applications of advanced computational algorithms for real-
world applications, including power systems stability and control, power
electronics, alternative sources of energy, sensor networks, signal processing,
and evolvable hardware. He has published 2 edited books, 5 book chapters, 65
refereed journals papers, and over 230 refereed international conference
proceeding papers. He has attracted in excess US $6.75 Million in competitive
research funding from external funding agencies in the last six years.
Dr. Venayagamoorthy is a recipient of several awards including a 2007 US
Office of Naval Research Young Investigator Program Award, a 2004 NSF
CAREER Award, the 2008 IEEE St. Louis Section Outstanding Educator
Award, the 2006 IEEE Power Engineering Society Walter Fee Outstanding
Young Engineer Award, the 2005 IEEE Industry Applications Society (IAS)
Outstanding Young Member Award, the 2003 International Neural Network
Society Young Investigator Award, and a 2008, 2007 and 2005 Missouri S&T
Faculty Excellence Award.
Dr. Venayagamoorthy has involved in the leadership and organization of
many conferences including the General Chair of the 2008 IEEE Swarm
Intelligence Symposium (St. Louis, USA) and the Program Chair of 2009
International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (Atlanta, USA). He is
currently the Chair of the IEEE Power Engineering Society (PES) Working
Group on Intelligent Control Systems, the Chair of IEEE Computational
Intelligence Society (CIS) Task Force on Power Systems Applications, the Vice-
Chair of the IEEE PES Intelligent Systems Subcommittee, Vice-Chair of the
IEEE PES Students Subcommittee and the Chapter Chairs of IEEE CIS and
IEEE Industry Applications Society St. Louis Chapters.
He is a Fellow of the Institute of Engineering and Technology (IET), UK and
the South African Institute of Electrical Engineers.

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