Social Themes

César Gaviria Trujillo

Presidente de Colombia (Pereira, 1947). Estudió economía en la Universidad de los Andes. Fue jefe de Planeación en Risaralda;
concejal de Pereira (1970-1974) y asistente del Departamento Nacional de Planeación (1970-1971); representante a la Cámara entre
1974 y 1990; alcalde de Pereira (1975-1976); viceministro de Desarrollo en el gobierno de Turbay Ayala; director del diario La
Tarde de Pereira.

Como ministro de Hacienda (1986 y 1987) presentó dos importantes proyectos al Congreso: el de reforma Agraria y el de reforma
Tributaria. En 1987 fue nombrado ministro de Gobierno del presidente Barco, cargo desde el cual presentó ante el Congreso el
Proyecto de Reforma Constitucional. Tras el asesinato de Luis Carlos Galán, en 1989, Gaviria fue nombrado por el galanismo para
remplazarle. Triunfó en las elecciones presidenciales para el periodo 1990-1994.

Durante su mandato se creó la Asamblea Nacional Constituyente, que elaboró la Constitución Nacional de 1991. Se fortaleció la
democracia directa y participativa; asimismo se dio un mayor impulso a la apertura económica, pensando en la modernización
empresarial y en el proceso de integración económica en el plano regional.

El gobierno Gaviria acometió notables reformas: constitucional, seguridad social, laboral, financiera, cambiaria y otras que
modernizaron la legislación y el cambio estructural en las instituciones. Además, buscó consolidar la integración latinoamericana y la
comunidad iberoamericana; controló la inflación, lo que supuso un gran paso para la estabilidad de la economía nacional.

The constitution of 1991

Main article: Colombian Constitution of 1991

During peace negotiations with various rebel groups during the mandate of president Virgilio Barco Vargas, the guerrilla

detachment M-19 insisted that one of the main requirements for them to lay down arms was the creation of a Constituent Assembly of

Colombia in order to modify the constitution which until then did not guarantee the creation and development of political parties other

than the two traditional ones, nor gave representation to minorities.

The government initially refused to put in motion the process for constitutional change. Students, in particular those at the universities,

decided to begin a national popular movement proposing the formation of a Constituent National Assembly to resolve the

constitutional issue. More than 50% of the voters approved the "Seventh Paper Ballot" and president Cesar Gaviria Trujillo was forced

by the Supreme Court to fulfill the popular mandate. Thus it was possible not only to obtain constitutional change, but also the guerrilla

detachment M-19 laid down their arms and were integrated into the national political life, and the indigenous communities were

henceforth guaranteed representation in Congress.

The Constitution of 1991 is called the Constitution of the Rights, as it recognizes and consecrates fundamental rights such as

freedom of religion and freedom of expression. It also details economic and social rights specific to the social rule of law enshrined in

Article 1 of the Constitution, and collective rights, some of which include public morality, free economic competition and the right to a

healthy environment. In addition it creates the necessary mechanisms to ensure and protect those rights.

The student and political movement begun in 1989 resulted in 1990 in a Constituent Assembly of Colombia elected by direct popular

vote, which one year later promulgated the Colombian Constitution of 1991 in Bogotá. The country kept the name "Republic of

Colombia".

The Reform of 2005

In 2004, president Álvaro Uribe from the independent party Colombia First proposed a constitutional reform to allow the re-election of

the President in immediately subsequent periods. The proposal was approved according to the constitution procedures and the

Constitutional Court declared it executable as of October 19, 2005. The first reelected president was Álvaro Uribe himself on May 28,

2006, obtaining a voting of 62.1%. Next in the polls was Carlos Gaviria Diaz, a candidate for the leftist party Alternative Democratic

Pole, who obtained 22% of the vote.

The fact that Uribe and Gaviria were from independent parties highlights that an important era of ideological transformation occurred in

the history of Colombia, even to the point where some mass media announced that bipartisanism had been hurt to the death.

It is also evident that a level of maturity had been reached in the electoral process, which had earned the confidence of the population

and of opposition parties. The speed of the delivery of electoral data from the National Registration Office was also outstanding, as

even observers abroad knew less than two hours before the ballot boxes had closed the results of 85% of the ballots.

RESEARCH ABOUT THE MOST IMPORTANT CHANGES IN THE CONSTITUTION FROM THE PREVIOUS ONE

Math Themes

Pascal's Triangle

One of the most interesting Number Patterns is Pascal's Triangle (named

after Blaise Pascal, a famous French Mathematician and Philosopher).

To build the triangle, start with "1" at the top, then continue placing numbers
below it in a triangular pattern.

Each number is just the two numbers above it added together (except for the
edges, which are all "1").

(Here I have highlighted that 1+3 = 4)

For reference, I have included row 0 to 14 of Pascal's Triangle

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1
1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1
1 11 55 165 330 462 462 330 165 55 11 1
1 12 66 220 495 792 924 792 495 220 66 12 1
1 13 78 286 715 1287 1716 1716 1287 715 286 78 13 1
1 14 91 364 1001 2002 3003 3432 3003 2002 1001 364 91 14 1
 Pythagoras' Theorem

Years ago, a man named Pythagoras found an amazing fact about triangles:

If the triangle had a right angle (90°) ...

... and you made a square on each of the three sides, then ...

... the biggest square had the exact same area as the other two squares put together!

It is called "Pythagoras' Theorem" and can be written in one short equation:

2 2 2
a +b =c

Note:

 c is the longest side of the triangle

 a and b are the other two sides

Definition

The longest side of the triangle is called the "hypotenuse", so the formal definition is:

In a right angled triangle:

the square of the hypotenuse is equal to
the sum of the squares of the other two sides.
 Sure ... ?

Let's see if it really works using an example.

Example: A "3,4,5" triangle has a right angle in it.

Let's check if the areas are the same:

2 2 2
3 +4 =5
Calculating this becomes:
9 + 16 = 25
It works ... like Magic!

Why Is This Useful?

If we know the lengths of two sides of a right angled triangle, we can find the length of the third side. (But remember it only works on
right angled triangles!)

How Do I Use it?

Write it down as an equation:

2 2 2
a +b =c

Now you can use algebra to find any missing value, as in the following examples:

Example: Solve this triangle.

2 2 2
a +b =c
2 2 2
5 + 12 = c
2
25 + 144 = c
2
169 = c
2
c = 169
c = √169
c = 13

You can also read about Squares and Square Roots to find out why √169 = 13
Example: Solve this triangle.

2 2 2
a +b =c
2 2 2
9 + b = 15
2
81 + b = 225
Take 81 from both sides:
2
b = 144
b = √144
b = 12
Example: Does this triangle have a Right Angle?
2 2 2
Does a + b = c ?

 2 2 2 2
a + b = 10 + 24 = 100 + 576
= 676
 2 2
c = 26 = 676

They are equal, so ...

Yes, it does have a Right Angle!

[1]
Aurelio Baldor (October 22, 1906, Havana, Cuba – April 2, 1978, Miami) was a Cuban mathematician, educator and lawyer. Baldor

is the author of a secondary school algebra textbook, titled Algebra, used throughout the Spanish-speaking world and published for

the first time in 1941.

He was the youngest child of Daniel and Gertrudis Baldor, and the meaning of his last name is "valley of gold". He was the founder

and director of the prestigious Baldor School in the exclusive Vedado section of Havana. In its heyday, the school had 3,500 students

and used 23 buses to provide transportation to its students. In 1959, with the arrival of Fidel Castro's communist regime, Aurelio

Baldor and his family began experiencing some problems. Raúl Castro had intended to arrest Baldor, but Camilo Cienfuegos—one of

Fidel Castro's own top commanders—prevented the arrest, as he highly admired and respected Baldor for his accomplishments as an

educator.

After the sudden and mysterious death of Camilo Cienfuegos approximately one month later in an airplane which disappeared over

the sea, Baldor and his family left Cuba and were exiled in Mexico for a short time, and then they migrated to New Orleans, Louisiana.

Afterward, they moved on to New York (Brooklyn) and New Jersey, where Baldor continued teaching at Saint Peter's College in Jersey

City.He also taught daily classes in mathematics at the now defunct Stevens Academy, in Hoboken, New Jersey.

He spent much time writing mathematical theorems and exercises. Once a tall and imposing man weighing some 220 lbs., Baldor

slowly began losing weight as his health declined. He died from pulmonary emphysema in Miami, FL, on April 2, 1978. His seven

children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren still reside in Miami.

Baldor's algebra textbook "Algebra" (With Graphics and 6523 excersises and answers) published by Compania Cultural Editora y

Distribuidora de Textos Americanos, S. A. continues being used to this day in secondary schools throughout Latin America
 th
APRIL 4

On this day in history in 1617, died John Napier

Napier, sometimes spelt Neper, was a mathematician and theologian who correctly forecast that the ‗decimal point‘ would
revolutionise mathematics, and who wrongly predicted the end of the world.

Napier was born at Merchiston Tower, Edinburgh. On the death of his father, he became the Laird of Merchiston. Napier spent a brief
period at St Andrew‘s University and travelled on the Continent, as was the way of the landed gentry of the day.

Napier beguiled his time with mathematical calculations. He was fascinated by the decimal, recently discovered by the Flemish
mathematician, Stevin. Napier discovered the relationship between arithmetical and geometrical progressions and, using the
correlation, invented a system, which could reduce multiplication to addition. His discovery is now called the logarithms. Napier also
invented a system of rods, like an abacus, whereby calculations were facilitated. His device, known as ‗Napier‘s Bones‘ was the
precursor of the slide rule.

Napier was panic stricken at the thought of a Catholic invasion of Scotland. He believed rightly that James VI of Scots was looking to
be crowned king of England and believed wrongly that James was seeking the aid of Catholic monarchs to help him to the crown.
Napier used his mathematical skills to invent devices of war for the defence of Scotland. These inventions included a burning mirror, a
submarine and a ‗metal chariot from which shot may be discharged‘, what today we would call a tank, although Napier never
constructed a working model.

Napier begged King James to purge his court of ‗Papistes and Atheistes‘, whom he claimed were a sign of forthcoming destruction.
Napier claimed to have retranslated The Book of Revelations and discovered that the end of the world would occur in 1688 or 1700. In
fact 1689 marked the end of the Stuart dynasty and 1707 was the end of the independent kingdom of Scotland, so Napier was nearly
right.

Napier‘s birthplace, Merchiston Tower [10 Colington Road, Edinburgh EH10 5DT], now forms part of Napier University.

Decimal Point

A point or dot used to separate the

whole number part from the fractional
part of a number.

Example: in the number 36.9 the dot

separates the 36 (the whole number
part from the 9 (the fractional part,
which really means 9/10)

Science Themes

Introduction to Cells

Cells are the basic units of life.

There are seven characteristics of life which all cells and life forms do.
1) Living things require food for energy.

2) Living things respire. Respiration is the breakdown and use of energy contained in food.

3) Living things respond to the environment.

- Plants turn towards the sun.
- animals move to avoid danger and to obtain food.

4) Living things produce waste.

5) Living Things are able to repair themselves.

6) Living things grow and reproduce.

7) Living things have a limited lifespan.

ANIMAL CELL

The cell is the basic unit of life. All organisms are made up of cells (or in some cases, a single cell). Most cells are very small; most are
invisible without using a microscope. Cells are covered by a cell membrane and come in many different shapes. The contents of a cell
are called the protoplasm.

The following is a glossary of animal cell terms:

cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the cell. The cell membrane is semipermeable, allowing some
substances to pass into the cell and blocking others.
centrosome - (also called the "microtubule organizing center") a small body located near the nucleus - it has a dense center and
radiating tubules. The centrosomes is where microtubules are made. During cell division (mitosis), the centrosome divides and the two
parts move to opposite sides of the dividing cell. The centriole is the dense center of the centrosome.
cytoplasm - the jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles are located.
Golgi body - (also called the Golgi apparatus or golgi complex) a flattened, layered, sac-like organelle that looks like a stack of
pancakes and is located near the nucleus. It produces the membranes that surround the lysosomes. The Golgi body packages
proteins and carbohydrates into membrane-bound vesicles for "export" from the cell.
lysosome - (also called cell vesicles) round organelles surrounded by a membrane and containing digestive enzymes. This is where
the digestion of cell nutrients takes place.
mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. The inner membrane is infolded many times, forming a
series of projections (called cristae). The mitochondrion converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for
the cell.
nuclear membrane - the membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus - it is where ribosomal RNA is produced. Some cells have more than one nucleolus.
nucleus - spherical body containing many organelles, including the nucleolus. The nucleus controls many of the functions of the cell
(by controlling protein synthesis) and contains DNA (in chromosomes). The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane.
ribosome - small organelles composed of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that are sites of protein synthesis.
rough endoplasmic reticulum - (rough ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted sacks that are
located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). Rough ER is covered with ribosomes that give
it a rough appearance. Rough ER transports materials through the cell and produces proteins in sacks called cisternae (which are sent
to the Golgi body, or inserted into the cell membrane).
smooth endoplasmic reticulum - (smooth ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted tubes that
are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). The space within the ER is called the ER
lumen. Smooth ER transports materials through the cell. It contains enzymes and produces and digests lipids (fats) and membrane
proteins; smooth ER buds off from rough ER, moving the newly-made proteins and lipids to the Golgi body, lysosomes, and
membranes.
vacuole - fluid-filled, membrane-surrounded cavities inside a cell. The vacuole fills with food being digested and waste material that is
on its way out of the cell.

PLANT CELL

Unlike animal cells, plant cells have a cell wall. The cell wall is made of cellulose, a rigid fiber layer. It gives the cell structure and
allows for adhesion with other plant cells. Inside the cell wall is the cell membrane, a fluid structure made up of lipids and proteins. Cell
membranes have channels and pumps that allow certain molecules in and out of the cell. Most pumps and channels are specific to
certain molecules, like sodium and potassium.

All the components inside the plant cell, called organelles, sit in a jelly-like fluid called cytoplasm. The vacuole, a fluid-containing
organelle, takes up most of the cell and allows the cell to maintain its shape.

The nucleus contains the DNA, the genetic material that encodes for all the plant‘s proteins and also contains other organelles. The
nuclear membrane encloses it. Inside the nucleus is an organelle called the nucleolus, where the DNA synthesizes RNA. The smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is where the RNA goes to make proteins and the rough ER transports molecules throughout the cell. Next
to the nucleus is the Golgi Body, whose function is to package proteins and carbohydrates that will be leaving the cell. An organelle
called a centrosome sits near the nucleus and is important for cell division.

Two organelles only found in plants are amyloplast, which store starch compounds, and chloroplasts. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll
and convert sunlight into energy the plant cell can use in a process called photosynthesis.

The mitochondrion is known as the ―powerhouse‖ in all cells. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is produced from glucose specifically in
the christae, the little projections that are inside the mitochondrial membrane. ATP drives many important chemical reactions in cells.

CELL NUTRITION
We discussed how small particles can diffuse across the cell membrane through either passive transport or active transport. However,
large food particles, whether they be grains of sugar or other organisms, cannot simply diffuse across the membrane; they are just too
big. Instead, they are engulfed by the cell membrane through a process known as endocytosis.

As a cell approaches a food particle, either the food particle pushes into the cell membrane forming
an indentation, or pseudopodia are extended from the cell around the particle. When the two
extensions of the cell membrane meet on the other side of the particle, they close and form
a vacuole around the food inside the cell. This process of called endocytosis.

Exocytosis is a very similar process. In fact, it's just endocytosis run in reverse order.
A vacuole within the cell moves toward and fuses with the cell membrane. In this manner, the
contents of thevacuole are expelled into the external environment. This may occur, for example,
after a cell has taken in a large particle through endocytosis, digested it using the enzymes in
the lysosome, and then needs to expel the waste products.

Endocytosis and exocytosis are general terms which refer to the process by which anything is taken into or expelled from
the cell through the action of vacuoles. Phagocytosis refers to endocytosis of a solid particle.Pinocytosis indicates the taking in of
liquid and dissolved molecules through endocytosis.

CELL REPRODUCTION

Before we can fully discuss cell reproduction, we must look briefly at the organization of DNA in cells. Recall from Chapter One
that DNA is an indirect way of controlling what proteins a cell will produce; based upon the DNA's genetic code (which will be
discussed in Chapter Six), different proteins will be produced.

When a cell reproduces, it basically just splits down the middle. While the process is of course a bit more complex than that, what is
important to realize is that two cells form from the original parent. The parent cell cannot simply cut it's DNA in half and pass half to
either of the new cells; doing so would result in cells which do not have the "code" for all of the proteins. Instead, cells must actually
make a complete copy of their DNA so that each new cell has a full copy of the entire "code."

In prokaryotes, the organization of DNA is fairly simple. It is just one long circular molecule. As you might
expect, eukaryotes have developed a more complex way of organizing their DNA. When the cell is not dividing,
the DNA of a eukaryote appears is a large mass called chromatin. However, immediately before the cell reproduces,
the chromatin (which has already been replicated) condenses into distinct structures. Each of these structures
contains two identical copies of portions of the cell's DNA. The individual copies are known as sister chromatids, and
they are attached at a region called the centromere. During division, the chromatids split, and each half is referred to
as a chromosome. In this manner, each new cell gets an exact copy of the original cell's DNA.

Cell division in prokaryotic organisms is significantly simpler than that in eukaryotes. This is
because prokaryotes have much less complex DNA, and they do not have to worry about ensuring that each of the newcells receives
an approximately equal number of organelles.

All cells reproduce by actually dividing down the middle until the cell membrane pinches closed and two new "daughter" cells are
formed. In prokaryotes, there is very little else to discuss. Once the DNA of thecell is replicated (using a process which will be
discussed in the next chapter), each copy moves toward an opposite side of the cell by attaching to the cell membrane. The cell then
elongates until it is approximately double its original size. Finally, the cell membrane on either side pinches inward and forms two
new cells.

During their lifetime, cells undergo a process of growth which ends either in death or reproduction. Since the general stages of this
cycle are the same for all eukaryotic cells, it has been called the cell cycle. It has two main stages. The first stage, mitosis, refers to
the division of the nucleus and the DNA. The other stage is called interphase (which literally means "the phase between each
division"), which is in turn divided into three smaller periods. The three periods, listed in the order in which they occur, are G1, S, and
G2.

After a cell divides, the daughter cells enter a period of growth called the G1 period. Since each daughter cell is roughly half the size of
the normal-sized parent, the daughter cells must grow and synthesize new organelles. Once the cell has grown to normal size, it may
remain stagnant (stationary) in the G1 phase. However, usually some change (which is currently being researched) occurs in
the cell which causes it to enter the S phase. The S phase simply refers to the time when the cell's DNA is replicated in preparation
for cell division. Once this is completed, the cell enters the G2 phase, in which it synthesizes the structures required for cell division.

Mitosis is the process by which the cell gives identical copies of its DNA to each of the daughter cells. Although the process does not
start and stop into different stages, biologists have separated it into four phases in which major changes occur. These phases
are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

During prophase, the chromatin mass in the nucleus condenses into sister chromatid structures. Both
the nucleolus and the nuclear membrane disappear during prophase. Also, two structures called
the centrioles (which were previously adjacent to one another near the nucleus) begin to move toward
opposite ends of the cell. As they do this, a network of fibers begins to form between them. These fibers
are called the spindle fibers, and they become very important later on.

When prophase ends, the centrioles are at opposite ends of the cell and
the chromatin has fully condensed. The cell is now said to enter metaphase, during
which the spindle fibersattach to the centromeres (or rather a part of
the centromere called the kinetochore) and pull the sister chromatids to the center of
the cell. Metaphase ends when all of the chromatid pairs are aligned in the center.

During the next phase, called anaphase, the centromeres of all of the sister chromatid pairs break
simultaneously. Once separated, each chromatid is referred to as a chromosome. Thechromosomes from
each pair are tugged toward opposite ends of the cell by the spindle fibers still attached to it. At the end
of anaphase, the chromosomes are completely at opposite ends of the cell.

The final stage of mitosis is telophase. The spindle fibers, no longer needed to direct the motion of
the chromosomes, break apart. New membranes begin to form around each of the two sets
of chromosomes, which begin to disperse back into the mass of chromatin. Nucleoli reappear
around each set as well, and a second centriole is formed next to each of the existing in preparation for the
next division. Finally, cytokinesis (the division of the cytoplasm, which is discussed in the next section) begins
to occur.

Cytokinesis is the final stage of cell reproduction; it is the division of the cytoplasm into approximately equal
halves, resulting in a roughly equal distribution of organelles in each of the daughter cells. Cytokinesis usually begins intelophase. We
will discuss cytokinesis separately for organisms which do not have a cell wall (mostly heterotrophs) and those which do have a cell
wall (generally autotrophs).

For a cell without a cell wall, cytokinesis begins with the pinching inward of the cell membrane caused by the action of a ring of special
contractile proteins called actin and myosin. The pinching inward forms a deep grove, often called the cleavage furrow. Eventually, the
opposite sides of the furrow meet and the cell splits into two new daughter cells.

Whereas cytokinesis in cells lacking a cell wall occurs through a pinching inward, organisms with a cell wall undergo a process
through which a so-called cell plate is built from the middle of the cell outward to the membrane.Vesicles from the Golgi bodies flatten
and fuse in the center of the cell, forming the cell plate, which elongates toward the cell membrane as more vesicle are added. When
the cell plate reaches the cell membrane, the parentcell is effectively separated into two new daughter cells, which then proceed to
build a cell wall along the cell plate.