Buddhism

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A statue of Gautama Buddha in Bodhgaya, India. Bodhgaya is traditionally considered the

place of his awakening[1]
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Buddhism

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Timeline · Councils
Gautama Buddha
Disciples
Later Buddhists
Dharma or Concepts
Four Noble Truths
Dependent Origination
Impermanence
Suffering · Middle Way
Non-self · Emptiness
Five Aggregates
Karma · Rebirth
Samsara · Cosmology
Practices
Three Jewels
Precepts · Perfections
Meditation · Wisdom
Noble Eightfold Path
Wings to Awakening
Monasticism · Laity

Nirvāṇa
Four Stages · Arhat
Buddha · Bodhisattva

Schools · Canons
Theravāda · Pali
Mahāyāna · Chinese
Vajrayāna · Tibetan
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Cultural elements
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v•d•e

Buddhism (Pali/Sanskrit: बौद धमर Buddh Dharma) is a religion and philosophy encompassing
a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to
Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha (Pāli/Sanskrit "the awakened one").
The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the
6th and 4th centuries BCE.[2] He is recognized by adherents as an awakened teacher who
shared his insights to help sentient beings end suffering (or dukkha), achieve nirvana, and
escape what is seen as a cycle of suffering and rebirth.
Two major branches of Buddhism are recognized: Theravada ("The School of the Elders")
and Mahayana ("The Great Vehicle"). Theravada—the oldest surviving branch—has a
widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, and Mahayana is found throughout
East Asia and includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Tibetan
Buddhism, Shingon, Tendai and Shinnyo-en. In some classifications Vajrayana, a
subcategory of Mahayana, is recognized as a third branch. While Buddhism remains most
popular within Asia, both branches are now found throughout the world. Various sources put
the number of Buddhists in the world at between 230 million and 500 million,[3] making it the
world's fourth-largest religion.
Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and
canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices.[4] The
foundations of Buddhist tradition and practice are the Three Jewels: the Buddha, the Dharma
(the teachings), and the Sangha (the community).[5][6] Taking "refuge in the triple gem" has
traditionally been a declaration and commitment to being on the Buddhist path and in general
distinguishes a Buddhist from a non-Buddhist.[7] Other practices may include following
ethical precepts, support of the monastic community, renouncing conventional living and
becoming a monastic, meditation (this category includes mindfulness), cultivation of higher
wisdom and discernment, study of scriptures, devotional practices, ceremonies, and in the
Mahayana tradition, invocation of buddhas and bodhisattvas.

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Life of the Buddha

Ascetic Gautama with his five companions, who later comprised the first Sangha. Wall
painting in a Laotian temple
Main article: Gautama Buddha
The evidence of the early texts suggests that the Buddha was born in a community that was
on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern Indian subcontinent
in the 5th century BCE.[8] It was either a small republic, in which case his father was an
elected chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father was an oligarch.[8]
This community was not yet likely to have been absorbed into Brahmanical culture (the
tradition that would evolve into Hinduism),[9] and it is even possible that the Buddha's mother
tongue was not Indo-Aryan.[8]
According to the Theravada Tipitaka scriptures (from Pali, meaning "three baskets"), the
Buddha was born in Lumbini, around the year 563 BCE, and raised in Kapilavastu, both in
modern-day Nepal.[10][11]
According to this narrative, shortly after the birth of young prince Siddhartha Gautama, an
astrologer visited the young prince's father—King Śuddhodana—and prophesied that
Siddhartha would either become a great king or renounce the material world to become a
holy man, depending on whether he saw what life was like outside the palace walls.
Śuddhodana was determined to see his son become a king so he prevented him from leaving
the palace grounds. But at age 29, despite his father's efforts, Siddhartha ventured beyond the
palace several times. In a series of encounters—known in Buddhist literature as the four
sights he learned of the suffering of ordinary people, encountering an old man, a sick man, a
corpse and, finally, an ascetic holy man, apparently content and at peace with the world.
These experiences prompted Gautama to abandon royal life and take up a spiritual quest.
Gautama first went to study with famous religious teachers of the day, and mastered the
meditative attainments they taught. But he found that they did not provide a permanent end to
suffering, so he continued his quest. He next attempted an extreme asceticism, which was a
religious pursuit common among the Shramanas, a religious culture distinct from the Vedic
one. Gautama underwent prolonged fasting, breath-holding, and exposure to pain. He almost
starved himself to death in the process. He realized that he had taken this kind of practice to
its limit, and had not put an end to suffering. So in a pivotal moment he accepted milk and
rice from a village girl and changed his approach. He devoted himself to anapanasati
meditation, through which he discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way ("madhyam
path"): a path of moderation between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.
Gautama was now determined to complete his spiritual quest. At the age of 35, he famously
sat in meditation under a sacred fig tree — known as the Bodhi tree — in the town of Bodh
Gaya, India, and vowed not to rise before achieving enlightenment. After many days, he
finally destroyed the fetters of his mind, thereby liberating himself from the cycle of suffering
and rebirth, and arose as a fully enlightened being. Soon thereafter, he attracted a band of
followers and instituted a monastic order. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his life
teaching the path of awakening he discovered, traveling throughout the northeastern part of
the Indian subcontinent,[12][13] and died at the age of 80 (483 BCE) in Kushinagar, India.
The above narrative draws on the early scriptures. However, later texts, such as the
Mahayana Lalitavistara Sutra, give different accounts.
Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's
life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order but do not consistently
accept all of the details contained in his biographies.[14][15] According to author Michael
Carrithers, while there are good reasons to doubt the traditional account, "the outline of the
life must be true: birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching,
death."[16]
In writing her biography of Buddha, Karen Armstrong noted, "It is obviously difficult,
therefore, to write a biography of the Buddha that will meet modern criteria, because we have
very little information that can be considered historically sound... [but] we can be reasonably
confident Siddhatta Gotama did indeed exist and that his disciples preserved the memory of
his life and teachings as well as they could"[17]
Buddhist concepts
Main article: Buddhist terms and concepts
Life and the world
Traditional Tibetan Buddhist Thangka depicting the "Wheel of Life" with its six realms
Karma as the law of cause and effect
Main article: Karma in Buddhism
Karma (from Sanskrit: "action, work") in Buddhism is the force that drives saṃsāra—the
cycle of suffering and rebirth for each being. Good, skillful deeds (Pāli: "kusala") and bad,
unskillful (Pāli: "akusala") actions produce "seeds" in the mind which come to fruition either
in this life or in a subsequent rebirth.[18] The avoidance of unwholesome actions and the
cultivation of positive actions is called śīla (from Sanskrit: "ethical conduct").
In Buddhism, karma specifically refers to those actions (of body, speech, and mind) that
spring from mental intent ("cetana"),[19] and which bring about a consequence (or fruit,
"phala") or result ("vipāka"). Every time a person acts there is some quality of intention at the
base of the mind and it is that quality rather than the outward appearance of the action that
determines its effect[citation needed].
In Theravada Buddhism there can be no divine salvation or forgiveness for one's karma, since
it is a purely impersonal process that is a part of the makeup of the universe. Some Mahayana
traditions hold different views. For example, the texts of certain Mahayana sutras (such as the
Lotus Sutra, the Angulimaliya Sutra and the Nirvana Sutra) claim that reciting or merely
hearing their texts can expunge great swathes of negative karma. Some forms of Buddhism
(for example, Vajrayana) regard the recitation of mantras as a means for cutting off previous
negative karma.[20] The Japanese Pure Land teacher Genshin taught that Amida Buddha has
the power to destroy the karma that would otherwise bind one in saṃsāra.[21][22]
Rebirth
Two Buddhist monks in traditional clothing.
Main article: Rebirth (Buddhism)
Rebirth refers to a process whereby beings go through a succession of lifetimes as one of
many possible forms of sentient life, each running from conception[23] to death. Buddhism
rejects the concepts of a permanent self or an unchanging, eternal soul, as it is called in
Hinduism and Christianity. According to Buddhism there ultimately is no such thing as a self
independent from the rest of the universe (the doctrine of anatta). Rebirth in subsequent
existences must be understood as the continuation of a dynamic, ever-changing process of
"dependent arising" ("pratītyasamutpāda") determined by the laws of cause and effect
(karma) rather than that of one being, transmigrating or incarnating from one existence to the
next.
Each rebirth takes place within one of five realms according to Theravadins, or six according
to other schools.[24][25] These are further subdivided into 31 planes of existence:[26]
1. Naraka beings: those who live in one of many Narakas (Hells)
2. Preta: sometimes sharing some space with humans, but invisible to most people; an
important variety is the hungry ghost[27]
3. Animals: sharing space with humans, but considered another type of life
4. Human beings: one of the realms of rebirth in which attaining Nirvana is possible
5. Asuras: variously translated as lowly deities, demons, titans, antigods; not recognized
by Theravāda (Mahavihara) tradition as a separate realm[28]
6. Devas including Brahmas: variously translated as gods, deities, spirits, angels, or left
untranslated
Rebirths in some of the higher heavens, known as the Śuddhāvāsa Worlds (Pure Abodes), can
be attained only by skilled Buddhist practitioners known as anāgāmis (non-returners).
Rebirths in the arupa-dhatu (formless realms) can be attained only by those who can meditate
on the arūpajhānas, the highest object of meditation.
According to East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism, there is an intermediate state (Tibetan
"Bardo") between one life and the next. The orthodox Theravada position rejects this;
however there are passages in the Samyutta Nikaya of the Pali Canon (the collection of texts
on which the Theravada tradition is based), that seem to lend support to the idea that the
Buddha taught of an intermediate stage between one life and the next.[29][30]
The cycle of saṃsāra
Main article: Saṃsāra (Buddhism)
Sentient beings crave pleasure and are averse to pain from birth to death. In being controlled
by these attitudes, they perpetuate the cycle of conditioned existence and suffering (saṃsāra),
and produce the causes and conditions of the next rebirth after death. Each rebirth repeats this
process in an involuntary cycle, which Buddhists strive to end by eradicating these causes
and conditions, applying the methods laid out by the Buddha and subsequent Buddhists.
Suffering's causes and solution
The Four Noble Truths

Polish Buddhists
Main article: Four Noble Truths
According to the Pali Tipitaka[31] and the Āgamas of other early Buddhist schools, the Four
Noble Truths were the first teaching of Gautama Buddha after attaining Nirvana. They are
sometimes considered to contain the essence of the Buddha's teachings:
1. Life as we know it ultimately is or leads to suffering/uneasiness (dukkha) in one way
or another.
2. Suffering is caused by craving. This is often expressed as a deluded clinging to a
certain sense of existence, to selfhood, or to the things or phenomena that we consider
the cause of happiness or unhappiness. Craving also has its negative aspect, i.e. one
craves that a certain state of affairs not exist.
3. Suffering ends when craving ends. This is achieved by eliminating delusion, thereby
reaching a liberated state of Enlightenment (bodhi);
4. Reaching this liberated state is achieved by following the path laid out by the Buddha.
This method is described by early Western scholars, and taught as an introduction to
Buddhism by some contemporary Mahayana teachers (for example, the Dalai Lama).[32]
According to other interpretations by Buddhist teachers and scholars, lately recognized by
some Western non-Buddhist scholars,[33] the "truths" do not represent mere statements, but are
categories or aspects that most worldly phenomena fall into, grouped in two:
1. Suffering and causes of suffering
2. Cessation and the paths towards liberation from suffering.
Thus, according to the Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism[34] they are
 1. "The noble truth that is suffering"
2. "The noble truth that is the arising of suffering"
3. "The noble truth that is the end of suffering"
4. "The noble truth that is the way leading to the end of suffering"
The early teaching[35] and the traditional Theravada understanding[36] is that the Four Noble
Truths are an advanced teaching for those who are ready for them. The East Asian Mahayana
position is that they are a preliminary teaching for people not yet ready for the higher and
more expansive Mahayana teachings.[37] They are little known in the Far East.[38] Within the
Nalanda/Tibetan tradition of Mahayana Buddhism, the Four Noble Truths remain essential to
the path.[39]
The Noble Eightfold Path
Main article: Noble Eightfold Path

The Dharmachakra represents the Noble Eightfold Path.

The Noble Eightfold Path—the fourth of the Buddha's Noble Truths—is the way to the
cessation of suffering (dukkha). It has eight sections, each starting with the word "samyak"
(Sanskrit, meaning "correctly", "properly", or "well", frequently translated into English as
"right"), and presented in three groups known as the three higher trainings. (NB: Pāli
transliterations appear in brackets after Sanskrit ones):
• Prajñā is the wisdom that purifies the mind, allowing it to attain spiritual insight into
the true nature of all things. It includes:
1. dṛṣṭi (ditthi): viewing reality as it is, not just as it appears to be.
2. saṃkalpa (sankappa): intention of renunciation, freedom and harmlessness.
• Śīla is the ethics or morality, or abstention from unwholesome deeds. It includes:
1. vāc (vāca): speaking in a truthful and non-hurtful way
2. karman (kammanta): acting in a non-harmful way
3. ājīvana (ājīva): a non-harmful livelihood
• Samādhi is the mental discipline required to develop mastery over one's own mind.
This is done through the practice of various contemplative and meditative practices,
and includes:
1. vyāyāma (vāyāma): making an effort to improve
 2. smṛti (sati): awareness to see things for what they are with clear consciousness,
being aware of the present reality within oneself, without any craving or aversion
3. samādhi (samādhi): correct meditation or concentration, explained as the first four
jhānas
The practice of the Eightfold Path is understood in two ways, as requiring either simultaneous
development (all eight items practiced in parallel), or as a progressive series of stages through
which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another.
The Eightfold Path is little known in the Far East.[40]
Middle Way
Main article: Middle Way
An important guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the Middle Way (or Middle Path),
which is said to have been discovered by Gautama Buddha prior to his enlightenment. The
Middle Way has several definitions:
1. The practice of non-extremism: a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-
indulgence and self-mortification
2. The middle ground between certain metaphysical views (for example, that things
ultimately either do or do not exist)[41]
3. An explanation of Nirvana (perfect enlightenment), a state wherein it becomes clear
that all dualities apparent in the world are delusory (see Seongcheol)
4. Another term for emptiness, the ultimate nature of all phenomena (in the Mahayana
branch), a lack of inherent existence, which avoids the extremes of permanence and
nihilism or inherent existence and nothingness
The way things are

Debating monks at Sera Monastery, Tibet

Buddhist scholars have produced a remarkable quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies
and world view concepts (see, for example, Abhidharma, Buddhist philosophy and Reality in
Buddhism). Some schools of Buddhism discourage doctrinal study, and some regard it as
essential, but most regard it as having a place, at least for some persons at some stages in
Buddhist practice.
In the earliest Buddhist teachings, shared to some extent by all extant schools, the concept of
liberation (Nirvana)—the goal of the Buddhist path—is closely related to the correct
understanding of how the mind causes stress. In awakening to the true nature of clinging, one
develops dispassion for the objects of clinging, and is liberated from suffering (dukkha) and
the cycle of incessant rebirths (saṃsāra). To this end, the Buddha recommended viewing
things as characterized by the three marks of existence.
Impermanence, suffering and not-self
Main article: Three marks of existence
Anicca (Pāli for "inconstancy", usually translated as impermanence) is one of the three marks
of existence. The term expresses the Buddhist notion that all compounded or conditioned
phenomena (all things and experiences) are inconstant, unsteady, and impermanent.
Everything we can experience through our senses is made up of parts, and its existence is
dependent on external conditions. Everything is in constant flux, and so conditions and the
thing itself are constantly changing. Things are constantly coming into being, and ceasing to
be. Since nothing lasts, there is no inherent or fixed nature to any object or experience.
According to the impermanence doctrine, human life embodies this flux in the aging process,
the cycle of rebirth (saṃsāra), and in any experience of loss. The doctrine asserts that
because things are impermanent, attachment to them is futile and leads to suffering (dukkha).
Suffering or dukkha (Pāli दुकख; Sanskrit दुःख duḥkha, which according to grammatical
tradition derived from dus-kha "uneasy", but according to Monier-Williams more likely a
Prakritized form of dus-stha "unsteady, disquieted") is a central concept in Buddhism. The
word roughly corresponds to a number of terms in English including suffering, pain,
unsatisfactoriness, sorrow, affliction, anxiety, dissatisfaction, discomfort, anguish, stress,
misery, and frustration. Although dukkha is often translated as "suffering", its philosophical
meaning is more analogous to "disquietude" as in the condition of being disturbed. As such,
"suffering" is too narrow a translation with "negative emotional connotations"[42] which can
give the impression that the Buddhist view is one of pessimism, but Buddhism seeks to be
neither pessimistic nor optimistic, but realistic. Thus in English-language Buddhist literature
"dukkha" is often left untranslated, so as to encompass its full range of meaning.[43][44][45]
Anatta (Pāli) or anātman (Sanskrit) refers to the notion of "not-self". Upon careful
examination, one finds that no phenomenon is really "I" or "mine"; these concepts are in fact
constructed by the mind. In the Nikayas anatta is not meant as a metaphysical assertion, but
as an approach for gaining release from suffering. In fact, the Buddha rejected both of the
metaphysical assertions "I have a Self" and "I have no Self" as ontological views that bind
one to suffering.[46] When asked if the self was identical with the body, the Buddha refused to
answer. By analyzing the constantly changing physical and mental constituents (skandhas) of
a person or object, the practitioner comes to the conclusion that neither the respective parts
nor the person as a whole comprise a self.
Dependent arising
Main article: Pratītyasamutpāda
The doctrine of pratītyasamutpāda (Sanskrit; Pali: paticcasamuppāda; Tibetan:
rten.cing.'brel.bar.'byung.ba; Chinese: 緣起) is an important part of Buddhist metaphysics. It
states that phenomena arise together in a mutually interdependent web of cause and effect. It
is variously rendered into English as "dependent origination", "conditioned genesis",
"dependent co-arising", "interdependent arising", or "contingency".
The best-known application of the concept of pratītyasamutpāda is the scheme of Twelve
Nidānas (from Pāli "nidāna" meaning "cause, foundation, source or origin"), which explain
the continuation of the cycle of suffering and rebirth (saṃsāra) in detail.[47]
Main article: Twelve Nidānas
The Twelve Nidānas describe a causal connection between the subsequent characteristics or
conditions of cyclic existence, each one giving rise to the next:
1. Avidyā: ignorance, specifically spiritual ignorance of the nature of reality[48]
2. Saṃskāras: literally formations, explained as referring to karma
3. Vijñāna: consciousness, specifically discriminative[49]
4. Nāmarūpa: literally name and form, referring to mind and body[50]
5. Ṣaḍāyatana: the six sense bases: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind-organ
6. Sparśa: variously translated contact, impression, stimulation (by a sense object)
7. Vedanā: usually translated feeling: this is the "hedonic tone", i.e. whether something
is pleasant, unpleasant or neutral
8. Tṛṣṇā: literally thirst, but in Buddhism nearly always used to mean craving
9. Upādāna: clinging or grasping; the word also means fuel, which feeds the continuing
cycle of rebirth
10. Bhava: literally being (existence) or becoming. (The Theravada explains this as
having two meanings: karma, which produces a new existence, and the existence
itself.)[51]
11. Jāti: literally birth, but life is understood as starting at conception[52]
12. Jarāmaraṇa: (old age and death) and also śokaparidevaduḥkhadaurmanasyopāyāsa
(sorrow, lamentation, pain, sadness, and misery)
Sentient beings always suffer throughout saṃsāra, until they free themselves from this
suffering by attaining Nirvana. Then the absence of the first Nidāna—ignorance—leads to the
absence of the others.
Emptiness

A monk in the Jade Buddha Temple, Shanghai, China.

Main article: Śūnyatā
Mahayana Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from Nagarjuna (perhaps c.
150–250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahayana tradition.
Nagarjuna's primary contribution to Buddhist philosophy was the systematic exposition of the
concept of śūnyatā, or "emptiness", widely attested in the Prajñāpāramitā sutras which were
emergent in his era. The concept of emptiness brings together other key Buddhist doctrines,
particularly anatta and pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination), to refute the metaphysics
of Sarvastivada and Sautrantika (extinct non-Mahayana schools). For Nagarjuna, it is not
merely sentient beings that are empty of ātman; all phenomena (dharmas) are without any
svabhava (literally "own-nature" or "self-nature"), and thus without any underlying essence;
they are "empty" of being independent; thus the heterodox theories of svabhava circulating at
the time were refuted on the basis of the doctrines of early Buddhism. Nagarjuna's school of
thought is known as the Mādhyamaka. Some of the writings attributed to Nagarjuna made
explicit references to Mahayana texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters
set out by the agamas. He may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a
consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the Canon. In the eyes of
Nagarjuna the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Mādhyamaka
system.[53]
Sarvastivada teachings—which were criticized by Nāgārjuna—were reformulated by scholars
such as Vasubandhu and Asanga and were adapted into the Yogacara (Sanskrit: yoga
practice) school. While the Mādhyamaka school held that asserting the existence or non-
existence of any ultimately real thing was inappropriate, some exponents of Yogacara
asserted that the mind and only the mind is ultimately real (a doctrine known as cittamatra).
Not all Yogacarins asserted that mind was truly existent; Vasubandhu and Asanga in
particular did not.[54] These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis
of subsequent Mahayana metaphysics in the Indo-Tibetan tradition.
Besides emptiness, Mahayana schools often place emphasis on the notions of perfected
spiritual insight (prajñāpāramitā) and Buddha-nature (tathāgatagarbha, meaning "Buddha
embryo" or "Buddha-matrix"). According to the Tathāgatagarbha Sutras, the Buddha
revealed the reality of the deathless Buddha-nature, which is said to be inherent in all sentient
beings and enables them all eventually to reach complete enlightenment, i.e. Buddhahood.
Buddha-nature is stated in the Mahayana Angulimaliya Sutra and Mahaparinirvana Sutra to
not be śūnya, but to be replete with eternal Buddhic virtues. In the Tathāgatagarbha Sutras
the Buddha is portrayed proclaiming that the teaching of the tathāgatagarbha constitutes the
"absolutely final culmination" of his Dharma—the highest presentation of truth (other sūtras
make similar statements about other teachings) and it has traditionally been regarded as the
highest teaching in East Asian Buddhism. However, in modern China all doctrines are
regarded as equally valid.[55] The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the
Buddha or Dharma which amounts to mysticism and gives expression to a form of mentalist
panentheism (see God in Buddhism).
Speculation versus direct experience in Buddhist epistemology
Decisive in distinguishing Buddhism from other schools of Indian philosophy is the issue of
epistemological justification. While all schools of Indian logic recognize various sets of valid
justifications for knowledge (pramana) Buddhism recognizes a smaller set than do the others.
All accept perception and inference, for example, but for some schools of Buddhism the
received textual tradition is an equally valid epistemological category.[56]
According to the scriptures, during his lifetime the Buddha remained silent when asked
several metaphysical questions. These regarded issues such as whether the universe is eternal
or non-eternal (or whether it is finite or infinite), the unity or separation of the body and the
self, the complete inexistence of a person after Nirvana and death, and others. One
explanation for this silence is that such questions distract from activity that is practical to
realizing enlightenment[57] and bring about the danger of substituting the experience of
liberation by conceptual understanding of the doctrine or by religious faith.[58] Another
explanation is that both affirmative and negative positions regarding these questions are
based on attachment to and misunderstanding of the aggregates and senses. That is, when one
sees these things for what they are, the idea of forming positions on such metaphysical
questions simply does not occur to one.[59] Another closely related explanation is that reality
is devoid of designations, or empty, and therefore language itself is a priori inadequate.[60]
Thus, the Buddha's silence does not indicate misology or disdain for philosophy. Rather, it
indicates that he viewed these questions as not leading to true knowledge.[60] Dependent
arising provides a framework for analysis of reality that is not based on metaphysical
assumptions regarding existence or non-existence, but instead on direct cognition of
phenomena as they are presented to the mind. This informs and supports the Buddhist
approach to liberation via the Noble Eightfold Path.
The Buddha of the earliest Buddhists texts describes Dharma (in the sense of "truth") as
"beyond reasoning" or "transcending logic", in the sense that reasoning is a subjectively
introduced aspect of the way humans perceive things, and the conceptual framework which
underpins it is a part of the cognitive process, rather than a feature of things as they really are.
Being "beyond reasoning" means in this context penetrating the nature of reasoning from the
inside, and removing the causes for experiencing any future stress as a result of it, rather than
functioning outside of the system as a whole.[61]
Most Buddhists agree that, to a greater or lesser extent, words are inadequate to describe the
goal of the Buddhist path, but concerning the usefulness of words in the path itself, schools
differ radically.[62]
In the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, the Buddha insists that while pondering upon
Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly
divorced from liberation and the Buddha-nature. The Tibetan tantra entitled the "All-Creating
King" (Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra) also emphasizes how Buddhist truth lies beyond the range of
discursive/verbal thought and is ultimately mysterious. Samantabhadra, states there: "The
mind of perfect purity ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable..."[63] Also later, the famous
Indian Buddhist practitioner and teacher, mahasiddha Tilopa discouraged any intellectual
activity in his six words of advice.
Professor C. D. Sebastian describes the nature of enlightenment according to one Mahayana
text:[64]
Bodhi is the final goal of a Bodhisattva's career and it is indicated by such words as buddha-
jnana (knowledge of Buddha), sarvjnata (omniscience), sarvakarajnata (the quality of
knowing things as they are), ... and acintyam jnanam (inconceivable knowledge) ... Bodhi is
pure universal and immediate knowledge, which extends over all time, all universes, all
beings and elements, conditioned and unconditioned. It is absolute and identical with Reality
and thus it is Tathata. Bodhi is immaculate and non-conceptual, and it, being not an outer
object, cannot be understood by discursive thought. It has neither beginning, nor middle nor
end and it is indivisbile. It is non-dual (advayam)... The only possible way to comprehend it
is through samadhi by the yogin
The early texts, in contrast, contain explicit repudiations of attributing omniscience to the
Buddha.[65][66] Furthermore, the non-duality ascribed to the nature of enlightenment in the
early texts is not ontological.[67]
Mahayana often adopts a pragmatic concept of truth:[68] doctrines are "true" in the sense of
being spiritually beneficial. In modern Chinese Buddhism, all doctrinal traditions are
regarded as equally valid.[55]
Theravada promotes the concept of vibhajjavada (Pāli, literally "Teaching of Analysis") to
non-Buddhists. This doctrine says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience,
critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. As the Buddha said according to
the canonical scriptures:[69]
Do not accept anything by mere tradition ... Do not accept anything just because it accords
with your scriptures ... Do not accept anything merely because it agrees with your pre-
conceived notions ... But when you know for yourselves—these things are moral, these things
are blameless, these things are praised by the wise, these things, when performed and
undertaken, conduce to well-being and happiness—then do you live acting accordingly.
Liberation

Mahabodhi temple in Bodhgaya, India, where Gautama Buddha attained Nirvana under the
Bodhi Tree (left)
Nirvana
Main article: Nirvana
Nirvana (Sanskrit; Pali: "Nibbana") means "cessation", "extinction" (of craving and
ignorance and therefore suffering and the cycle of involuntary rebirths (saṃsāra),
"extinguished", "quieted", "calmed"; it is also known as "Awakening" or "Enlightenment" in
the West. The term for anybody who has achieved nirvana, including the Buddha, is arahant.
Bodhi (Pāli and Sanskrit, in devanagari: बॊिध) is a term applied to the experience of
Awakening of arahants. Bodhi literally means "awakening", but it is more commonly
translated into English as "enlightenment". In Early Buddhism, bodhi carried a meaning
synonymous to nirvana, using only some different metaphors to describe the experience,
which implies the extinction of raga (greed, craving),[70] dosa (hate, aversion)[71] and moha
(delusion).[72] In the later school of Mahayana Buddhism, the status of nirvana was
downgraded in some scriptures, coming to refer only to the extinction of greed and hate,
implying that delusion was still present in one who attained nirvana, and that one needed to
attain bodhi to eradicate delusion:
An important development in the Mahayana [was] that it came to separate nirvana from bodhi
('awakening' to the truth, Enlightenment), and to put a lower value on the former (Gombrich,
1992d). Originally nirvana and bodhi refer to the same thing; they merely use different
metaphors for the experience. But the Mahayana tradition separated them and considered that
nirvana referred only to the extinction of craving (passion and hatred), with the resultant
escape from the cycle of rebirth. This interpretation ignores the third fire, delusion: the
extinction of delusion is of course in the early texts identical with what can be positively
expressed as gnosis, Enlightenment.
—Richard F. Gombrich, How Buddhism Began[73]
Therefore, according to Mahayana Buddhism, the arahant has attained only nirvana, thus
still being subject to delusion, while the bodhisattva not only achieves nirvana but full
liberation from delusion as well. He thus attains bodhi and becomes a buddha. In Theravada
Buddhism, bodhi and nirvana carry the same meaning as in the early texts, that of being freed
from greed, hate and delusion.
The term parinirvana is also encountered in Buddhism, and this generally refers to the
complete nirvana attained by the arhat at the moment of death, when the physical body
expires.
Buddhas

Gautama Buddha, 1st century CE, Gandhara

Main article: Buddhahood
Theravada
In Theravada doctrine, a person may awaken from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly
realizing the true nature of reality; such people are called arahants and occasionally buddhas.
After numerous lifetimes of spiritual striving, they have reached the end of the cycle of
rebirth, no longer reincarnating as human, animal, ghost, or other being. The commentaries to
the Pali Canon classify these awakened beings into three types:
• Sammasambuddha, usually just called Buddha, who discovers the truth by himself
and teaches the path to awakening to others
 • Paccekabuddha, who discovers the truth by himself but lacks the skill to teach others
• Savakabuddha, who receive the truth directly or indirectly from a Sammasambuddha
Bodhi and nirvana carry the same meaning, that of being freed from craving, hate, and
delusion. In attaining bodhi, the arahant has overcome these obstacles. As a further
distinction, the extinction of only hatred and greed (in the sensory context) with some residue
of delusion, is called anagami.
Mahayana

The Great Statue of Buddha Amitabha in Kamakura, Japan

In the Mahayana, the Buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human, but as the earthly
projection of a beginningless and endless, omnipresent being (see Dharmakaya) beyond the
range and reach of thought. Moreover, in certain Mahayana sutras, the Buddha, Dharma and
Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all three are seen as the eternal Buddha himself.
Celestial Buddhas are individuals who no longer exist on the material plane of existence, but
who still aid in the enlightenment of all beings.
Nirvana came to refer only to the extinction of greed and hate,[dubious – discuss] implying that
delusion was still present in one who attained Nirvana. Bodhi became a higher attainment
that eradicates delusion entirely.[73] Thus, the Arahant attains Nirvana but not Bodhi, thus still
being subject to delusion, while the Buddha attains Bodhi.[dubious – discuss]
The method of self-exertion or "self-power"—without reliance on an external force or being
—stands in contrast to another major form of Buddhism, Pure Land, which is characterised
by utmost trust in the salvific "other-power" of Amitabha Buddha. Pure Land Buddhism is a
very widespread and perhaps the most faith-orientated manifestation of Buddhism and
centres upon the conviction that faith in Amitabha Buddha and the chanting of homage to his
name will liberate one at death into the "happy land" (安樂) or "pure land" (淨土) of
Amitabha Buddha. This Buddhic realm is variously construed as a foretaste of Nirvana, or as
essentially Nirvana itself. The great vow of Amitabha Buddha to rescue all beings from
samsaric suffering is viewed within Pure Land Buddhism as universally efficacious, if only
one has faith in the power of that vow or chants his name.
Buddha eras
Buddhists believe Gautama Buddha was the first to achieve enlightenment in this Buddha era
and is therefore credited with the establishment of Buddhism. A Buddha era is the stretch of
history during which people remember and practice the teachings of the earliest known
Buddha. This Buddha era will end when all the knowledge, evidence and teachings of
Gautama Buddha have vanished. This belief therefore maintains that many Buddha eras have
started and ended throughout the course of human existence.[74][75] The Gautama Buddha,
then, is the Buddha of this era, who taught directly or indirectly to all other Buddhas in it (see
types of Buddhas).
In addition, Mahayana Buddhists believe there are innumerable other Buddhas in other
universes.[76] A Theravada commentary says that Buddhas arise one at a time in this world
element, and not at all in others.[77]
The idea of the decline and gradual disappearance of the teaching has been influential in East
Asian Buddhism. Pure Land Buddhism holds that it has declined to the point where few, if
any, are capable of following the path, so most or all must rely on the power of the Buddha
Amitabha. Zen and Nichiren traditionally hold that most are incapable of following the
"complicated" paths of some other schools and present what they view as a simple practice
instead.
Bodhisattvas
Main article: Bodhisattvas
Mahayana Buddhism puts great emphasis and, in fact, encourages anybody to follow the path
of a Bodhisattva.
Bodhisattva means either "enlightened (bodhi) existence (sattva)" or "enlightenment-being"
or, given the variant Sanskrit spelling satva rather than sattva, "heroic-minded one (satva) for
enlightenment (bodhi)". Another translation is "Wisdom-Being".[78]
The various divisions of Buddhism understand the word Bodhisattva in different ways.
Theravada and some Mahayana sources consider a Bodhisattva as someone on the path to
Buddhahood, while other Mahayana sources speak of Bodhisattvas renouncing Buddhahood,
[79][80]
but especially in Mahayana Buddhism, it mainly refers to a being that compassionately
refrains from entering nirvana in order to save others. So the Bodhisattva is a person who
already has a considerable degree of enlightenment and seeks to use their wisdom to help
other sentient beings to become liberated themselves.
While Theravada regards it as an option, Mahayana encourages everyone to follow a
Bodhisattva path and to take the Bodhisattva vows. With these vows, one makes the promise
to work for the complete enlightenment of all sentient beings.
A famous saying by the 8th-century Indian Buddhist scholar-saint Shantideva, which the 14th
Dalai Lama often cites as his favourite verse, summarizes the Bodhisattva's intention
(Bodhicitta) as follows: "For as long as space endures, and for as long as living beings
remain, until then may I too abide to dispel the misery of the world."
According to the Mahayana, a Bodhisattva practices in the six perfections: giving, morality,
patience, joyous effort, concentration and wisdom.
Practice
Devotion
Main article: Buddhist devotion
Devotion is an important part of the practice of most Buddhists.[81] Devotional practices
include bowing, offerings, pilgrimage, and chanting. In Pure Land Buddhism, devotion to the
Buddha Amitabha is the main practice. In Nichiren Buddhism, devotion to the Lotus Sutra is
the main practice.
Refuge in the Three Jewels

Footprint of the Buddha with Dharmachakra and triratna, 1st century CE, Gandhāra.
Main articles: Refuge (Buddhism) and Three Jewels
Traditionally, the first step in most Buddhist schools requires taking refuge in the Three
Jewels (Sanskrit: tri-ratna, Pāli: ti-ratana)[82] as the foundation of one's religious practice.
The practice of taking refuge on behalf of young or even unborn children is mentioned[83] in
the Majjhima Nikaya, recognized by most scholars as an early text (cf. Infant baptism).
Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the lama. In Mahayana, the person who
chooses the bodhisattva path makes a vow or pledge, considered the ultimate expression of
compassion. In Mahayana, too, the Three Jewels are perceived as possessed of an eternal and
unchanging essence and as having an irreversible effect: "The Three Jewels have the quality
of excellence. Just as real jewels never change their faculty and goodness, whether praised or
reviled, so are the Three Jewels (Refuges), because they have an eternal and immutable
essence. These Three Jewels bring a fruition that is changeless, for once one has reached
Buddhahood, there is no possibility of falling back to suffering."[84]
The Three Jewels are:
• The Buddha. This is a title for those who have attained Nirvana. See also the
Tathāgata and Gautama Buddha. The Buddha could also be represented as a concept
instead of a specific person: the perfect wisdom that understands Dharma and sees
reality in its true form. In Mahayana Buddhism, the Buddha can be viewed as the
supreme Refuge: "Buddha is the Unique Absolute Refuge. Buddha is the
Imperishable, Eternal, Indestructible and Absolute Refuge."[85]
• The Dharma. The teachings or law of nature as expounded by the Gautama Buddha. It
can also, especially in Mahayana, connote the ultimate and sustaining Reality which is
 inseparable from the Buddha. Further, from some Mahayana perspectives, the
Dharma embodied in the form of a great sutra (Buddhic scripture) can replace the
need for a personal teacher and can be a direct and spontaneous gateway into Truth
(Dharma). This is especially said to be the case with the Lotus Sutra. Dr. Hiroshi
Kanno writes of this view of the Lotus Sutra: "it is a Dharma-gate of sudden
enlightenment proper to the Great Vehicle; it is a Dharma-gate whereby one awakens
spontaneously, without resorting to a teacher".[86]
• The Sangha. Those who have attained to any of the Four stages of enlightenment, or
simply the congregation of monastic practitioners.
According to the scriptures, Gautama Buddha presented himself as a model. The Dharma
offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of
Nirvana. The Sangha is considered to provide a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings
of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is
attainable.
Buddhist ethics

Japanese Buddhist monk

Main article: The Five Precepts
Śīla (Sanskrit) or sīla (Pāli) is usually translated into English as "virtuous behavior",
"morality", "ethics" or "precept". It is an action committed through the body, speech, or mind,
and involves an intentional effort. It is one of the three practices (sila, samadhi, and panya)
and the second pāramitā. It refers to moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four
conditions of śīla are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment.
Śīla is the foundation of Samadhi/Bhāvana (Meditative cultivation) or mind cultivation.
Keeping the precepts promotes not only the peace of mind of the cultivator, which is internal,
but also peace in the community, which is external. According to the Law of Karma, keeping
the precepts are meritorious and it acts as causes which would bring about peaceful and
happy effects. Keeping these precepts keeps the cultivator from rebirth in the four woeful
realms of existence.
Śīla refers to overall principles of ethical behavior. There are several levels of sila, which
correspond to "basic morality" (five precepts), "basic morality with asceticism" (eight
precepts), "novice monkhood" (ten precepts) and "monkhood" (Vinaya or Patimokkha). Lay
people generally undertake to live by the five precepts, which are common to all Buddhist
schools. If they wish, they can choose to undertake the eight precepts, which add basic
asceticism.
The five precepts are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy, without
worries, and can meditate well:
1. To refrain from taking life (non-violence towards sentient life forms), or ahimsā
2. To refrain from taking that which is not given (not committing theft)
3. To refrain from sensual (including sexual) misconduct
4. To refrain from lying (speaking truth always)
5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness (specifically, drugs and
alcohol)
The precepts are not formulated as imperatives, but as training rules that laypeople undertake
voluntarily to facilitate practice.[87] In Buddhist thought, the cultivation of dana and ethical
conduct will themselves refine consciousness to such a level that rebirth in one of the lower
heavens is likely, even if there is no further Buddhist practice. There is nothing improper or
un-Buddhist about limiting one's aims to this level of attainment.[88]
In the eight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict, and
becomes a precept of celibacy. The three additional precepts are:
6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time (only eat from sunrise to noon)
7. To refrain from dancing and playing music, wearing jewelry and cosmetics,
attending shows and other performances
8. To refrain from using high or luxurious seats and bedding
The complete list of ten precepts may be observed by laypeople for short periods. For the
complete list, the seventh precept is partitioned into two, and a tenth added:
6. To refrain from taking food at an unseasonable time, that is after the mid-day meal
7. To refrain from dancing, music, singing and unseemly shows
8. To refrain from the use of garlands, perfumes, ointments, and from things that tend
to beautify and adorn (the person)
9. To refrain from (using) high and luxurious seats (and beds)
10. To refrain from accepting gold and silver[89]
Monastic life
Vinaya is the specific moral code for monks and nuns. It includes the Patimokkha, a set of
227 rules for monks in the Theravadin recension. The precise content of the vinayapitaka
(scriptures on Vinaya) differ slightly according to different schools, and different schools or
subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to Vinaya. Novice-monks use
the ten precepts, which are the basic precepts for monastics.
Regarding the monastic rules, the Buddha constantly reminds his hearers that it is the spirit
that counts. On the other hand, the rules themselves are designed to assure a satisfying life,
and provide a perfect springboard for the higher attainments. Monastics are instructed by the
Buddha to live as "islands unto themselves". In this sense, living life as the vinaya prescribes
it is, as one scholar puts it: "more than merely a means to an end: it is very nearly the end in
itself."[90]
In Eastern Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the
Mahayana Brahmajala Sutra (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for
Bodhisattvas, where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and vegetarianism is
actively encouraged (see vegetarianism in Buddhism). In Japan, this has almost completely
displaced the monastic vinaya, and allows clergy to marry.
Meditation

Buddhist monks praying in Thailand

Main article: Buddhist meditation
Buddhist meditation is fundamentally concerned with two themes: transforming the mind and
using it to explore itself and other phenomena.[91] According to Theravada Buddhism the
Buddha taught two types of meditation, samatha meditation (Sanskrit: śamatha) and
vipassanā meditation (Sanskrit: vipaśyanā). In Chinese Buddhism, these exist (translated
chih kuan), but Chan (Zen) meditation is more popular.[92] According to Peter Harvey,
whenever Buddhism has been healthy, not only monks, nuns, and married lamas, but also
more committed lay people have practiced meditation.[93] According to Routledge's
Encyclopedia of Buddhism, in contrast, throughout most of Buddhist history before modern
times, serious meditation by lay people has been unusual.[94] The evidence of the early texts
suggests that at the time of the Buddha, many male and female lay practitioners did practice
meditation, some even to the point of proficiency in all eight jhānas (see the next section
regarding these).[95]
Samādhi (meditative cultivation): samatha meditation
Main articles: Samādhi (Buddhism) and Dhyāna
In the language of the Noble Eightfold Path, samyaksamādhi is "right concentration". The
primary means of cultivating samādhi is meditation. Upon development of samādhi, one's
mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous.
Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration (jhāna, Sanskrit धयान
dhyāna), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight (vipassanā) into the ultimate nature
of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of mindfulness is
essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight.
Samatha meditation starts from being mindful of an object or idea, which is expanded to
one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and
tranquility (jhāna) There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-
legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to
concentrate on one's breath (anapanasati), because this practice can lead to both samatha and
vipassana'.
In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only
vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what
leads to knowledge (jñāna; Pāli ñāṇa) and understanding (prajñā Pāli paññā), and thus can
lead to nirvāṇa (Pāli nibbāna). When one is in jhana, all defilements are suppressed
temporarily. Only understanding (prajñā or vipassana) eradicates the defilements completely.
Jhanas are also states which Arahants abide in order to rest.
In Theravāda
Main article: Jhāna in Theravada
In Theravāda Buddhism, the cause of human existence and suffering is identified as craving,
which carries with it the various defilements. These various defilements are traditionally
summed up as greed, hatred and delusion. These are believed to be deeply rooted afflictions
of the mind that create suffering and stress. In order to be free from suffering and stress, these
defilements need to be permanently uprooted through internal investigation, analyzing,
experiencing, and understanding of the true nature of those defilements by using jhāna, a
technique which is part of the Noble Eightfold Path. It will then lead the meditator to realize
the Four Noble Truths, Enlightenment and Nibbana. Nibbana is the ultimate goal of
Theravadins.
Prajñā (Wisdom): vipassana meditation
Main articles: Prajñā and Vipassana
Prajñā (Sanskrit) or paññā (Pāli) means wisdom that is based on a realization of dependent
origination, The Four Noble Truths and the three marks of existence. Prajñā is the wisdom
that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about bodhi. It is spoken of as the principal
means of attaining nirvāṇa, through its revelation of the true nature of all things as dukkha
(unsatisfactoriness), anicca (impermanence) and anatta (not-self). Prajñā is also listed as the
sixth of the six pāramitās of the Mahayana.
Initially, prajñā is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma
talks), reading, studying, and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse.
Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist
can verify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level. Notably, one could in theory
attain Nirvana at any point of practice, whether deep in meditation, listening to a sermon,
conducting the business of one's daily life, or any other activity.
Zen
Main article: Zen
Zen Buddhism (禅), pronounced chán in Chinese, seon in Korean or zen in Japanese (derived
from the Sanskrit term dhyāna, meaning "meditation") is a form of Buddhism that became
popular in China, Korea and Japan and that lays special emphasis on meditation.[96] Zen
places less emphasis on scriptures than some other forms of Buddhism and prefers to focus
on direct spiritual breakthroughs to truth.
Zen Buddhism is divided into two main schools: Rinzai (臨済宗) and Soto (曹洞宗), the
former greatly favouring the use in meditation on the koan (公案, a meditative riddle or
puzzle) as a device for spiritual break-through, and the latter (while certainly employing
koans) focusing more on shikantaza or "just sitting".[97]
Zen Buddhist teaching is often full of paradox, in order to loosen the grip of the ego and to
facilitate the penetration into the realm of the True Self or Formless Self, which is equated
with the Buddha himself.[98] According to Zen master, Kosho Uchiyama, when thoughts and
fixation on the little 'I' are transcended, an Awakening to a universal, non-dual Self occurs: '
When we let go of thoughts and wake up to the reality of life that is working beyond them,
we discover the Self that is living universal non-dual life (before the separation into two) that
pervades all living creatures and all existence.'.[99] Thinking and thought must therefore not be
allowed to confine and bind one. Nevertheless, Zen does not neglect the scriptures.[100]
Vajrayana and Tantra
Though based upon Mahayana, Tibeto-Mongolian Buddhism is one of the schools that
practice Vajrayāna or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna,
Tantric Buddhism, or esoteric Buddhism). It accepts all the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but
also includes a vast array of spiritual and physical techniques designed to enhance Buddhist
practice. Tantric Buddhism is largely concerned with ritual and meditative practices.[101] One
component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy through ritual,
visualization, physical exercises, and meditation as a means of developing the mind. Using
these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or
even as little as three years. In the Tibetan tradition, these practices can include sexual yoga,
though only for some very advanced practitioners.[102]
History
Main article: History of Buddhism
Philosophical roots

The Buddhist "Carpenter's Cave" at Ellora in Maharashtra, India.

Historically, the roots of Buddhism lie in the religious thought of Ancient India during the
second half of the first millennium BC.[103] That was a period of social and religious turmoil,
as there was significant discontent with the sacrifices and rituals of Vedic Brahmanism.[104] It
was challenged by numerous new ascetic religious and philosophical groups and teachings
that broke with the Brahmanic tradition and rejected the authority of the Vedas and the
Brahmans.[105][106] These groups, whose members were known as shramanas, were a
continuation of a non-Vedic strand of Indian thought distinct from Indo-Aryan Brahmanism.
[107][108]
Scholars have reasons to believe that ideas such as samsara, karma (in the sense of the
influence of morality on rebirth), and moksha originated in the shramanas, and were later
adopted by Brahmin orthodoxy.[109][110][111][112][113][114] At the same time, they were influenced
by, and in some respects continued, earlier philosophical thought within the Vedic tradition
as reflected e.g. in the Upanishads.[115] These movements included, besides Buddhism,
various skeptics (such as Sanjaya Belatthiputta), atomists (such as Pakudha Kaccayana),
materialists (such as Ajita Kesakambali), antinomians (such as Purana Kassapa); the most
important ones in the 5th century BC were the Ajivikas, who emphasized the rule of fate, the
Lokayata (materialists), the Ajnanas (agnostics) and the Jains, who stressed that the soul must
be freed from matter.[116]
Many of these new movements shared the same conceptual vocabulary - atman ("Self"),
buddha ("awakened one"), dhamma ("rule" or "law"), karma ("action"), nirvana
("extinguishing"), samsara ("eternal recurrence") and yoga ("spiritual practice").[104] The
shramanas rejected the Veda, and the authority of the brahmans, who claimed to be in
possession of revealed truths not knowable by any ordinary human means; moreover, they
declared that the entire Brahmanical system was fraudulent: a conspiracy of the brahmans to
enrich themselves by charging exorbitant fees for the performance of bogus rites and the
giving of futile advice.[117] A particular criticism of the Buddha's was Vedic animal sacrifice.
[118]
Their leaders, including Buddha, were often known as śramaṇas.[119] The Buddha
declared that priests reciting the Vedas were like blind leading the blind.[120] According to
him, those priests who had memorized the Vedas really knew nothing.[121] He also mocked the
Vedic "hymn of the cosmic man".[122] He declared that the primary goal of Upanishadic
thought, the Atman, was in fact non-existent,[123] and, having explained that Brahminical
attempts to achieve liberation at death were futile, proposed his new idea of liberation in life.
[124][125]
At the same time, the traditional Brahminical religion itself gradually underwent
profound changes, transforming it into what is recognized as early Hinduism.[104][105][126] In
particular, the brahmans thus developed "philosophical systems of their own, meeting the
new ideas with adaptations of their doctrines".[127]
Indian Buddhism
Main article: History of Buddhism in India
The history of Indian Buddhism may be divided into five periods:[128] Early Buddhism
(occasionally called Pre-sectarian Buddhism), Nikaya Buddhism or Sectarian Buddhism: The
period of the Early Buddhist schools, Early Mahayana Buddhism, Later Mahayana
Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism (also called Vajrayana Buddhism).
Pre-sectarian Buddhism
Main article: Pre-sectarian Buddhism
Pre-sectarian Buddhism is the earliest phase of Buddhism, recognized by nearly all scholars.
Its main scriptures are the Vinaya Pitaka and the four principal Nikayas or Agamas. Certain
basic teachings appear in many places throughout the early texts, so most scholars conclude
that Gautama Buddha must have taught something similar to the Three marks of existence,
the Five aggregates, Dependent origination, Karma and Rebirth, the Four Noble Truths, the
Noble Eightfold Path, and Nirvana.[129] Some scholars disagree, and have proposed many
other theories.[130][131]
Early Buddhist schools
Main article: Early Buddhist schools
Main article: Buddhist councils
According to the scriptures, soon after the parinirvāṇa (from Sanskrit: "highest
extinguishment") of Gautama Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held. As with any
ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done orally. The primary purpose of
the assembly was to collectively recite the teachings to ensure that no errors occurred in oral
transmission. In the first council, Ānanda, a cousin of the Buddha and his personal attendant,
was called upon to recite the discourses (sūtras, Pāli suttas) of the Buddha, and, according to
some sources, the abhidhamma. Upāli, another disciple, recited the monastic rules (vinaya).
Scholars regard the traditional accounts of the council as greatly exaggerated if not entirely
fictitious.[132]
According to most scholars, at some period after the Second Council the Sangha began to
break into separate factions.[133] The various accounts differ as to when the actual schisms
occurred. According to the Dipavamsa of the Pāli tradition, they started immediately after the
Second Council, the Puggalavada tradition places it in 137 AN, the Sarvastivada tradition of
Vasumitra says it was in the time of Asoka and the Mahasanghika tradition places it much
later, nearly 100 BCE.
The root schism was between the Sthaviras and the Mahāsāṅghikas. The fortunate survival of
accounts from both sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions. The Sthavira group offers
two quite distinct reasons for the schism. The Dipavamsa of the Theravāda says that the
losing party in the Second Council dispute broke away in protest and formed the
Mahasanghika. This contradicts the Mahasanghikas' own vinaya, which shows them as on the
same, winning side. The Mahāsāṅghikas argued that the Sthaviras were trying to expand the
vinaya and may also have challenged what they perceived to be excessive claims or
inhumanly high criteria for arhatship. Both parties, therefore, appealed to tradition.[134]
The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which was the Theravāda school.
Originally, these schisms were caused by disputes over vinaya, and monks following
different schools of thought seem to have lived happily together in the same monasteries, but
eventually, by about 100 CE if not earlier, schisms were being caused by doctrinal
disagreements too.[135]
Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate an Abhidharma,
a detailed scholastic reworking of doctrinal material appearing in the Suttas, according to
schematic classifications. These Abhidharma texts do not contain systematic philosophical
treatises, but summaries or numerical lists. Scholars generally date these texts to around the
3rd century BCE, 100 to 200 years after the death of the Buddha. Therefore the seven
Abhidharma works are generally claimed not to represent the words of the Buddha himself,
but those of disciples and great scholars.[136] Every school had its own version of the
Adhidharma, with different theories and different texts. The different Adhidharmas of the
various schools did not agree with each other. Scholars disagree on whether the
Mahasanghika school had an Abhidhamma Pitaka or not.[136][137]
Early Mahayana Buddhism

Statue of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva, with Sanskrit in the Siddham script. Singapore.

Main article: Mahāyāna
The origins of Mahāyāna are still not completely understood.[138] The earliest views of
Mahāyāna Buddhism in the West assumed that it existed as a separate school in competition
with the so-called "Hīnayāna" schools. Due to the veneration of buddhas and bodhisattvas,
Mahāyāna was often interpreted as a more devotional, lay-inspired form of Buddhism, with
supposed origins in stūpa veneration,[139] or by making parallels with the history of the
European Protestant Reformation. These views have been largely dismissed in modern times
in light of a much broader range of early texts that are now available.[140] The old views of
Mahāyāna as a separate lay-inspired and devotional sect are now largely dismissed as
misguided and wrong on all counts.[141]
There is no evidence that Mahāyāna ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of
Buddhism, but rather that it existed as a certain set of ideals, and later doctrines, for
bodhisattvas.[142] Paul Williams has also noted that the Mahāyāna never had nor ever
attempted to have a separate Vinaya or ordination lineage from the early schools of
Buddhism, and therefore each bhikṣu or bhikṣuṇī adhering to the Mahāyāna formally
belonged to an early school. This continues today with the Dharmaguptaka ordination lineage
in East Asia, and the Mūlasarvāstivāda ordination lineage in Tibetan Buddhism. Therefore
Mahāyāna was never a separate rival sect of the early schools.[143] From Chinese monks
visiting India, we now know that both Mahāyāna and non-Mahāyāna monks in India often
lived in the same monasteries side by side.[144]
The Chinese monk Yijing who visited India in the 7th century CE, distinguishes Mahāyāna
from Hīnayāna as follows:[145]
Both adopt one and the same Vinaya, and they have in common the prohibitions of the five
offences, and also the practice of the Four Noble Truths. Those who venerate the bodhisattvas
and read the Mahāyāna sūtras are called the Mahāyānists, while those who do not perform
these are called the Hīnayānists.
Much of the early extant evidence for the origins of Mahāyāna comes from early Chinese
translations of Mahāyāna texts. These Mahāyāna teachings were first propagated into China
by Lokakṣema, the first translator of Mahāyāna sūtras into Chinese during the 2nd century
CE.[146] Some scholars have traditionally considered the earliest Mahāyāna sūtras to include
the very first versions of the Prajñāpāramitā series, along with texts concerning Akṣobhya
Buddha, which were probably composed in the 1st century BCE in the south of India.[147][148]
[149]

Late Mahayana Buddhism

During the period of Late Mahayana Buddhism, four major types of thought developed:
Madhyamaka, Yogacara, Tathagatagarbha, and Buddhist Logic as the last and most recent.[150]
In India, the two main philosophical schools of the Mahayana were the Madhyamaka and the
later Yogacara.[151] According to Dan Lusthaus, Madhyamaka and Yogacara have a great deal
in common, and the commonality stems from early Buddhism.[152] There were no great Indian
teachers associated with tathagatagarbha thought.[153]
Vajrayana (Esoteric Buddhism)
Scholarly research concerning Esoteric Buddhism is still in its early stages and has a number
of problems which make research difficult:[154]
1. Vajrayana Buddhism was influenced by Hinduism, and therefore the research has to
include research on Hinduism as well.
2. The scriptures of Vajrayana have not yet been put in any kind of order.
3. Ritual has to be examined as well, not just doctrine.
The early development of Buddhism
Main article: Timeline of Buddhism
Buddhist proselytism at the time of emperor Ashoka (260–218 BCE).

Buddhist tradition records in the Milinda Panha that the 2nd century BCE Indo-Greek king
Menander converted to the Buddhist faith and became an arhat.
Buddhism may have spread only slowly in India until the time of the Mauryan emperor
Ashoka, who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his
descendants led to the construction of more stūpas (Buddhist religious memorials) and to
efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into
neighboring lands—particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of Afghanistan and Central
Asia, beyond the Mauryas' northwest border, and to the island of Sri Lanka south of India.
These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the
spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravāda
Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia.
This period marks the first known spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the edicts
of Aśoka, emissaries were sent to various countries west of India in order to spread Buddhism
(Dharma), particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring Seleucid Empire, and even
farther to Hellenistic kingdoms of the Mediterranean. This led, a century later, to the
emergence of Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in the Indo-Greek Kingdom, and to the
development of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhāra. During this period Buddhism was
exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian and Greek civilization, and from changing
trends in non-Buddhist Indian religions—themselves influenced by Buddhism. It is a matter
of disagreement among scholars whether or not these emissaries were accompanied by
Buddhist missionaries.[155]
The Theravada school spread south from India in the 3rd century BC, to Sri Lanka and
Thailand and Burma and later also Indonesia. The Dharmagupta school spread (also in 3rd
century BC) north to Kashmir, Gandhara and Bactria (Afghanistan). In the 2nd century AD,
Mahayana Sutras spread from that general area to China, and then to Korea and Japan, and
were translated into Chinese. During the Indian period of Esoteric Buddhism (from 8th
century onwards), Buddhism spread from India to Tibet and Mongolia.
Buddhism today
Main article: Timeline of Buddhism:Common Era
By the late Middle Ages, Buddhism had become virtually extinct in India, and although it
continued to exist in surrounding countries, its influence was no longer expanding. It is now
again gaining strength in India and elsewhere.[156][157] Estimates of the number of Buddhist
followers by scholars range from 230 million to 500 million, with most around 350 million.
Most scholars classify similar numbers of people under a category they call "Chinese folk" or
"traditional" religion, an amalgam of various traditions that includes Buddhism.

Typical interior of a temple in Korea

Formal membership varies between communities, but basic lay adherence is often defined in
terms of a traditional formula in which the practitioner takes refuge in The Three Jewels: the
Buddha, the Dharma (the teachings of the Buddha), and the Sangha (the Buddhist
community).
Estimates are uncertain for several reasons:
• difficulties in defining who counts as a Buddhist;
• syncretism among the Eastern religions. Buddhism is practiced by adherents
alongside many other religious traditions- including Taoism, Confucianism, Shinto,
traditional religions, shamanism, and animism- throughout East and Southeast Asia.
[158][159][160][161][162][163][164]

• difficulties in estimating the number of Buddhists who do not have congregational

memberships and often do not participate in public ceremonies;[165]
• official policies on religion in several historically Buddhist countries that make
accurate assessments of religious adherence more difficult; most notably China,
Vietnam and North Korea.[166][167][168] In many current and former Communist
governments in Asia, government policies may discourage adherents from reporting
their religious identity, or may encourage official counts to underestimate religious
adherence.
Demographics
Buddhism is most prevalent in the Far East.
According to one analysis, Buddhism is the fourth-largest religion in the world behind
Christianity, Islam and Hinduism.[169] The monks' order (Sangha), which began during the
lifetime of the Buddha, is among the oldest organizations on earth.
• Theravāda Buddhism, using Pāli as its scriptural language, is the dominant form of
Buddhism in Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Sri Lanka, and Burma. The Dalit Buddhist
movement in India (inspired by B. R. Ambedkar) also practices Theravada.
Approximately 124 million adherents.[170]
• East Asian forms of Mahayana Buddhism that use Chinese scriptures are dominant in
most of China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Vietnam as well as such
communities within Indochina, Southeast Asia and the West. Approximately 185
million adherents.[170]
• Tibetan Buddhism is found in Tibet, Bhutan, Mongolia, surrounding areas in India,
China, Nepal, and the Russian Federation. Approximately 20 million adherents.[170]
Most Buddhist groups in the West are at least nominally affiliated with one of these three
traditions.
At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout
the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While in the
West Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East it is regarded as familiar
and traditional. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organized and well funded. In a number
of countries, it is recognized as an official religion and receives state support. Modern
influences increasingly lead to new forms of Buddhism that significantly depart from
traditional beliefs and practices.
Overall there is an overwhelming diversity of recent forms of Buddhism.[171]
Schools and traditions
Main article: Schools of Buddhism
Buddhists generally classify themselves as either Theravada or Mahayana.[172] This
classification is also used by some scholars[173][page needed] and is the one ordinarily used in the
English language.[174] An alternative scheme used by some scholars[175] divides Buddhism into
the following three traditions or geographical or cultural areas: Theravada, East Asian
Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism.
Some scholars[176] use other schemes. Buddhists themselves have a variety of other schemes.
Hinayana (literally "lesser vehicle") is used by Mahayana followers to name the family of
early philosophical schools and traditions from which contemporary Theravada emerged, but
as this term is rooted in the Mahayana viewpoint and can be considered derogatory, a variety
of other terms are increasingly used instead, including Śrāvakayāna, Nikaya Buddhism, early
Buddhist schools, sectarian Buddhism, conservative Buddhism, mainstream Buddhism and
non-Mahayana Buddhism.
Not all traditions of Buddhism share the same philosophical outlook, or treat the same
concepts as central. Each tradition, however, does have its own core concepts, and some
comparisons can be drawn between them.
Mahayana Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time,
and even more variation in terms of practice. While there is much agreement on general
principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative.
Despite differences among the Theravada and Mahayana schools there are, for example
according to one Buddhist ecumenical organization,[177] several concepts common to both
major Buddhist branches:
• Both accept the Buddha as their teacher.
• Both accept the Middle way, Dependent origination, the Four Noble Truths, the Noble
Eightfold Path and the Three marks of existence, in theory, though in practice these
have little or no importance in some traditions.
• Both accept that members of the laity and of the sangha can pursue the path toward
enlightenment (bodhi).
• Both consider buddhahood to be the highest attainment; however Theravadins
consider the nirvana (nibbana to the Theravadins) attained by arahants as identical to
that attained by the Buddha himself, as there is only one type of nirvana. According to
Theravadins, a buddha is someone who has discovered the path all by himself and
taught it to others.
Timeline
This is a rough timeline of the development of the different schools/traditions:

Timeline: Development and propagation of Buddhist traditions (ca. 450 BCE – ca. 1300 CE)

450 1200
[178] 250 BCE 100 CE 500 CE 700 CE 800 CE [179]
BCE CE

Mahayana Vajrayana
India
Early Early Buddhist schools
Sangha

Sri Lanka & Theravada

Southeast Asia Buddhism

Greco-Buddhism

Central Asia Tibetan Buddhism

Silk Road Buddhism

East Asia
Chán, Tendai, Pure Land, Shingon

Zen, Nichiren
 450 BCE 250 BCE 100 CE 500 CE 700 CE 800 CE 1200 CE

Legend: = Theravada tradition = Mahayana traditions = Vajrayana traditions

Theravada school
Main article: Theravada
Theravāda ("Doctrine of the Elders", or "Ancient Doctrine") is the oldest surviving Buddhist
school. It is relatively conservative, and generally closest to early Buddhism.[180] This school
is derived from the Vibhajjavāda grouping which emerged amongst the older Sthavira group
at the time of the Third Buddhist Council (c. 250 BCE). This school gradually declined on the
Indian subcontinent, but its branch in Sri Lanka and South East Asia continues to survive.
The Theravada school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the Pāli Canon and its
commentaries. After being orally transmitted for a few centuries, its scriptures, the Pali
Canon, were finally committed to writing in the last century BCE, in Sri Lanka, at what the
Theravada usually reckon as the fourth council. It is also one of the first Buddhist schools to
commit the complete set of its canon into writing. The Sutta collections and Vinaya texts of
the Pāli Canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the Tripitaka), are generally
considered by modern scholars to be the earliest Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as
authentic in every branch of Buddhism.
Theravāda is primarily practiced today in Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia as
well as small portions of China, Vietnam, Malaysia and Bangladesh. It has a growing
presence in Europe and America.
Mahayana school
Main article: Mahayana

Chinese Ming dynasty porcelain figure of Guanyin, "Goddess of Mercy."

Mahayana Buddhism flourished in India from the 5th century CE onwards, during the
dynasty of the Guptas. Mahāyāna centres of learning were established, the most important
one being the Nālandā University in north-eastern India.
Chinese seated Buddha, Tang Dynasty, Chinese Buddhism is of the Mahayana tradition, with
popular schools today being Pure Land and Zen.
Mahayana schools recognize all or part of the Mahayana Sutras. Some of these sutras became
for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha himself, and faith in and veneration of those
texts are stated in some sutras (e.g. the Lotus Sutra and the Mahaparinirvana Sutra) to lay the
foundations for the later attainment of Buddhahood itself.
Native Mahayana Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, Korea, Singapore, parts of
Russia and most of Vietnam (also commonly referred to as "Eastern Buddhism"). The
Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahayana in
origin, but will be discussed below under the heading of Vajrayana (also commonly referred
to as "Northern Buddhism". There are a variety of strands in Eastern Buddhism, of which
"the Pure Land school of Mahayana is the most widely practised today.".[181] In most of this
area however, they are fused into a single unified form of Buddhism. In Japan in particular,
they form separate denominations with the five major ones being: Nichiren, peculiar to Japan;
Pure Land; Shingon, a form of Vajrayana; Tendai; and Chan/Zen. In Korea, nearly all
Buddhists belong to the Chogye school, which is officially Son (Zen), but with substantial
elements from other traditions.[182]
Vajrayana school
Main article: Vajrayana

Bodhnath Stupa, Kathmandu, Nepal

The Vajrayana school of Buddhism spread to China, Mongolia, and Tibet. In Tibet,
Vajrayana has always been a main component of Tibetan Buddhism, while in China it formed
a separate sect. However, Vajrayana Buddhism became extinct in China but survived in
elements of Japan's Shingon and Tendai sects.
There are differing views as to just when Vajrayāna and its tantric practice started. In the
Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the historical Śākyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as
these are esoteric teachings, they were passed on orally first and only written down long after
the Buddha's other teachings. Nālandā University became a center for the development of
Vajrayāna theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayāna practices up through
the 11th century. These practices, scriptures and theories were transmitted to China, Tibet,
Indochina and Southeast Asia. China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th
century including tantric practice, while a vast amount of what is considered to be Tibetan
Buddhism (Vajrayāna) stems from the late (9th–12th century) Nālandā tradition.
In one of the first major contemporary academic treatises on the subject, Fairfield University
professor Ronald M. Davidson argues that the rise of Vajrayana was in part a reaction to the
changing political climate in India at the time. With the fall of the Gupta dynasty, in an
increasingly fractious political environment, institutional Buddhism had difficulty attracting
patronage, and the folk movement led by siddhas became more prominent. After perhaps two
hundred years, it had begun to get integrated into the monastic establishment.[183][page needed]
Vajrayana combined and developed a variety of elements, a number of which had already
existed for centuries.[184] In addition to the Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists
recognise a large body of Buddhist Tantras, some of which are also included in Chinese and
Japanese collections of Buddhist literature, and versions of a few even in the Pali Canon.
Buddhist texts
Main article: Buddhist texts
Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place
varying levels of value on learning the various texts. Some schools venerate certain texts as
religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. Buddhist
scriptures are written in these languages: Pāli, Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, along with some
texts that still exist in Sanskrit and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit.
Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by
all traditions. However, some scholars have referred to the Vinaya Pitaka and the first four
Nikayas of the Sutta Pitaka as the common core of all Buddhist traditions.[185] However, this
could be considered misleading, as Mahāyāna considers these merely a preliminary, and not a
core, teaching, the Tibetan Buddhists have not even translated most of the āgamas, though
theoretically they recognize them, and they play no part in the religious life of either clergy or
laity in China and Japan.[186] Other scholars say there is no universally accepted common
core.[187] The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including
Buddhist social reformer Babasaheb Ambedkar) as presenting barriers to the wider
understanding of Buddhist philosophy.
The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as
definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and
philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own vinaya. The Pāli sutras, along
with other, closely related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the āgamas.
Over the years, various attempts have been made to synthesize a single Buddhist text that can
encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In the Theravada tradition, condensed
'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes
that could be studied by novice monks. Later in Sri Lanka, the Dhammapada was
championed as a unifying scripture.
Dwight Goddard collected a sample of Buddhist scriptures, with the emphasis on Zen, along
with other classics of Eastern philosophy, such as the Tao Te Ching, into his 'Buddhist Bible'
in the 1920s. More recently, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to create a single, combined
document of Buddhist principles in "The Buddha and His Dhamma". Other such efforts have
persisted to present day, but currently there is no single text that represents all Buddhist
traditions.
Pāli Tipitaka
Main article: Pāli Canon

Pali Canon
Vinaya Pitaka

SV. Khandhaka Vin V

Sutta Pitaka

DN MN SN AN KN

Abhidhamma Pitaka

Dhk.
Dhs. Vbh. Kvu. Yam. Patthana
Pug.

view • talk • edit

The Pāli Tipitaka, which means "three baskets", refers to the Vinaya Pitaka, the Sutta Pitaka,
and the Abhidhamma Pitaka. The Vinaya Pitaka contains disciplinary rules for the Buddhist
monks and nuns, as well as explanations of why and how these rules were instituted,
supporting material, and doctrinal clarification. The Sutta Pitaka contains discourses ascribed
to Gautama Buddha. The Abhidhamma Pitaka contains material often described as systematic
expositions of the Gautama Buddha's teachings.
The Pāli Tipitaka is the only early Tipitaka (Sanskrit: Tripiṭaka) to survive intact in its
original language, but a number of early schools had their own recensions of the Tipitaka
featuring much of the same material. We have portions of the Tipitakas of the Sārvāstivāda,
Dharmaguptaka, Sammitya, Mahāsaṅghika, Kāśyapīya, and Mahīśāsaka schools, most of
which survive in Chinese translation only. According to some sources, some early schools of
Buddhism had five or seven pitakas.[188]
According to the scriptures, soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was
held; a monk named Mahākāśyapa (Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided. The goal of the council was
to record the Buddha's teachings. Upāli recited the vinaya. Ānanda, the Buddha's personal
attendant, was called upon to recite the dhamma. These became the basis of the Tripitaka.
However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed
to text in the last century BCE. Both the sūtras and the vinaya of every Buddhist school
contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on
other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Gautama Buddha's
previous lives, and various other subjects.
Much of the material in the Canon is not specifically "Theravadin", but is instead the
collection of teachings that this school preserved from the early, non-sectarian body of
teachings. According to Peter Harvey, it contains material which is at odds with later
Theravadin orthodoxy. He states: "The Theravadins, then, may have added texts to the Canon
for some time, but they do not appear to have tampered with what they already had from an
earlier period."[189]
Mahayana Sutras
Main article: Mahayana Sutras

Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy
of the Tibetan Kanjur.
The Mahayana sutras are a very broad genre of Buddhist scriptures that the Mahayana
Buddhist tradition holds are original teachings of the Buddha. The adherents of Mahayana
accept both the early teachings (including in this the Sarvastivada Abhidharma, which was
criticized by Nagarjuna and is in fact opposed to early Buddhist thought[190]) and the
Mahayana sutras as authentic teachings of Gautama Buddha, and claim they were designed
for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual understanding.
The Mahayana sutras often claim to articulate the Buddha's deeper, more advanced doctrines,
reserved for those who follow the bodhisattva path. That path is explained as being built upon
the motivation to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name Mahāyāna (lit.,
the Great Vehicle).
According to Mahayana tradition, the Mahayana sutras were transmitted in secret, came from
other Buddhas or Bodhisattvas, or were preserved in non-human worlds because human
beings at the time couldn't understand them:[191]
Some of our sources maintain the authenticity of certain other texts not found in the canons of
these schools (the early schools). These texts are those held genuine by the later school, not
one of the eighteen, which arrogated to itself the title of Mahayana, 'Great Vehicle'.
According to the Mahayana historians these texts were admittedly unknown to the early
schools of Buddhists. However, they had all been promulgated by the Buddha. [The
Buddha's] followers on earth, the sravakas ('pupils'), had not been sufficiently advanced to
understand them, and hence were not given them to remember, but they were taught to
various supernatural beings and then preserved in such places as the Dragon World.
Approximately six hundred Mahayana sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in Chinese or
Tibetan translations. In addition, East Asian Buddhism recognizes some sutras regarded by
scholars to be of Chinese rather than Indian origin.
Generally, scholars conclude that the Mahayana scriptures were composed from the 1st
century CE onwards: "Large numbers of Mahayana sutras were being composed in the period
between the beginning of the common era and the fifth century",[192] five centuries after the
historical Gautama Buddha. Some of these had their roots in other scriptures composed in the
1st century BCE. It was not until after the 5th century CE that the Mahayana sutras started to
influence the behavior of mainstream Buddhists in India: "But outside of texts, at least in
India, at exactly the same period, very different—in fact seemingly older—ideas and
aspirations appear to be motivating actual behavior, and old and established Hinnayana
groups appear to be the only ones that are patronized and supported."[192] These texts were
apparently not universally accepted among Indian Buddhists when they appeared; the
pejorative label hinayana was applied by Mahayana supporters to those who rejected the
Mahayana sutras.
Only the Theravada school does not include the Mahayana scriptures in its canon. As the
modern Theravada school is descended from a branch of Buddhism that diverged and
established itself in Sri Lanka prior to the emergence of the Mahayana texts, debate exists as
to whether the Theravada were historically included in the hinayana designation; in the
modern era, this label is seen as derogatory, and is generally avoided.
Comparative studies
Buddhism provides many opportunities for comparative study with a diverse range of
subjects. For example, dependent origination can be considered one of Buddhism's
contributions to metaphysics. Additionally, Buddhism's emphasis on the Middle way not only
provides a unique guideline for ethics but has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist
with various differing beliefs, customs and institutions in countries in which it has resided
throughout its history. Also, Its moral and spiritual parallels with other systems of thought—
for example, with various tenets of Christianity—have been subjects of close study.
List of Buddhism related topics in comparative studies
• Buddhism and Jainism
• Buddhism and Hinduism
• Buddhism and Christianity
• God in Buddhism (Buddhism, mysticism, and monotheism)
• Buddhism and Eastern teaching (Buddhism and East Asian teaching)
• Buddhism and psychology
• Buddhism and science
• Buddhist ethics (Buddhism and ethics)
• Buddhist philosophy (Buddhism and Western philosophy)
• Buddhism and Thelema[193]
See also
Book:Buddhism

Books are collections of articles that can be downloaded

 or ordered in print.

Buddhism portal

• Outline of Buddhism
• Index of Buddhism-related articles
• List of books related to Buddhism
• Theravada Buddhism
• Mahayana Buddhism
• Vajrayana Buddhism
• List of Buddhist temples
• Buddhism by country
• Buddhism by region
• Criticism of Buddhism
Footnotes
1. ^ "Info on Bodhgaya". Buddhanet.net. http://www.buddhanet.net/e-
learning/buddhistworld/bodgaya.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
2. ^ "Buddhism". (2009). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved November 26, 2009, from
Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition.
3. ^ Major Religions Ranked by Size; U.S. State Department's International Religious Freedom
Report 2004. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/ Accessed 20 September 2008; Garfinkel,
Perry. "Buddha Rising", National Geographic Dec. 2005: 88–109.; CIA - The World
Factbook
4. ^ Robinson et al., Buddhist Religions, page xx; Philosophy East and West, vol 54, ps 269f;
Williams, Mahayana Buddhism, Routledge, 1st ed., 1989, pp. 275f (2nd ed., 2008, p. 266)
5. ^ Buddhist faith and sudden enlightenment - Google Books. Books.google.com. 1983.
ISBN 9780873956734. http://books.google.com/?
id=_A2QS03MP5EC&pg=PA85#v=onepage&q=. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
6. ^ "Principal Vipassana Teacher S N Goenka". Vridhamma.org.
http://www.vridhamma.org/Teachers-4.aspx. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
7. ^ Light of Wisdom - Google Books. Books.google.com. 2004-05-18. ISBN 9789627341376.
http://books.google.com/?id=qjbBKG06To0C&pg=PA111#v=onepage&q=. Retrieved 2010-
08-25.
8. ^ a b c Richard Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to
Modern Colombo. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988, page 49.
9. ^ Sue Hamilton, Early Buddhism: A New Approach: The I of the Beholder. Routledge 2000,
page 47.
10.^ UNESCO, Lumbini is the birthplace of the Lord Buddha, Gethin Foundations, p. 19, which
states that in the mid-3rd century BCE the Emperor Ashoka determined that Lumbini was the
Buddha's birthplace and thus installed a pillar there with the inscription: "... this is where the
Buddha, sage of the Śākyas (Śākyamuni), was born."
11.^ For instance, Gethin Foundations, p. 14, states: "The earliest Buddhist sources state that the
future Buddha was born Siddhārtha Gautama (Pali Siddhattha Gotama), the son of a local
chieftain—a rājan—in Kapilavastu (Pali Kapilavatthu) what is now the Indian–Nepalese
 border." However, Professor Gombrich (Theravāda Buddhism, p. 1) and the old but
specialized study by Edward Thomas, The Life of the Buddha, ascribe the name Siattha/fitta
to later sources.
12.^ Keown, Dictionary of Buddhism, p. 267
13.^ Skilton, Concise, p. 25
14.^ Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism Vol. 1, p. 352
15.^ Lopez (1995). Buddhism in Practice. Princeton University Press. p. 16. ISBN 0691044422.
16.^ Carrithers, Michael. "The Buddha", in the Oxford University paperback Founders of Faith,
1986, p. 10.
17.^ Armstrong, Karen (September 28, 2004). Buddha. Penguin Press. p. xii.
ISBN 0143034367.
18.^ Journal of Buddhist Ethics: "Zen as a Social Ethics of Responsiveness" (PDF), T. P.
Kasulis, Ohio State University
19.^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 40
20.^ Dr. Richard K. Payne (ed.), Tantric Buddhism in East Asia, Wisdom Publications, Boston,
2006, p. 74
21.^ Lopez, Story of Buddhism. p. 239
22.^ Lopez, Buddhism. p. 248
23.^ Keown, Buddhism, Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 107
24.^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 34
25.^ Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (Volume Two), p. 711
26.^ The 31 Planes of Existence (PDF), Ven. Suvanno Mahathera
27.^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 33
28.^ André Bareau, Les Sectes bouddhiques du Petit Véhicule, École Française d'Extrême-
Orient, Saigon, 1955, pp. 212–223: the top of p. 212 says "Voici les thèses des Theravâdin du
Mahâvihâra:" ("Here are the theses of the Theravadins of the Mahavihara"); then begins a
numbered list of doctrines over the following pages, including on p. 223 "Il n'y a que cinq
(pañca) destinées (gati) ... les Asura Kâlakañjika ont même couleur (samânavanna), même
nourriture (samânabhoga), mêmes aliments (samânâhâra), même durée de vie (samânâyuka)
que les Peta avec lesquels ... ils se marient (âvâhavivâham gacchanti). Quant aux
Vepacittiparisa, ils ont même couleur, même nourriture, mêmes aliments, même durée de vie
que les Dieux, avec lesquels ils se marient." ("There are only five destinies ... the kalakanjika
asuras have the same colour, same nourishment, same foods, same lifespan as the petas, with
whom ... they marry. As for the Vepacittiparisa, they have the same colour, same
nourishment, same foods, same lifespan as the gods, with whom they marry.")
29.^ Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Vol. 1, p. 377
30.^ The Connected Discourses of the Buddha. A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Bhikkhu
Bodhi, Translator. Wisdom Publications.
31.^ Thera, Piyadassi (1999). "Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta". The Book of Protection.
Buddhist Publication Society.
http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn56/sn56.011.piya.html. In what is said in
Theravāda to be the Buddha's first sermon, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, which was
given to the five ascetics with whom he had practiced austerities. He talks about the Middle
Way, the noble eightfold path and the Four Noble Truths.
32.^ See for example: The Four Noble Truths
33.^ Gethin, Foundations, p. 60
34.^ (2004), Volume One, p. 296
35.^ Harvey, Introduction, p. 47
36.^ Hinnels, John R. (1998). The New Penguin Handbook of Living Religions. London: Penguin
Books. pp. 393f. ISBN 0140514805.
37.^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 92
38.^ Eliot, Japanese Buddhism, Edward Arnold, London, 1935, p. 60
39.^ "Once we reject the Four Noble Truths, the essential ingredients of Buddhist practice
becomes unintelligible." –Jay Garfield 1995, ISBN 0-19-509336-4 p294
40.^ Eliot, Japanese Buddhism, Edward Arnold, London, 1935, pages 59f
41.^ Kohn, Shambhala, pp. 131, 143
42.^ Jeffrey Po, "Is Buddhism a Pessimistic Way of Life?"
43.^ Rahula, Walpola (1959). "Chapter 2". What the Buddha Taught. Grove Press. ISBN 0-
8021-3031-3.
44.^ Prebish, Charles (1993). Historical Dictionary of Buddhism. The Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-
8108-2698-4.
45.^ Keown, Damien (2003). Dictionary of Buddhism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
860560-9.
46.^ Thanissaro Bhikkhu, The Not-Self Strategy, See Point 3 – The Canon quote Thanissaro
Bhikkhu draws attention to is the Sabbasava Sutta.
47.^ This twelve nidana scheme can be found, for instance, in multiple discourses in chapter 12
of the Samyutta Nikaya—Nidana Vagga (e.g., see SN 12.2, Thanissaro, 1997a). Other
"applications" of what might be termed "mundane dependent origination" include the nine-
nidana scheme of Digha Nikaya 15 (e.g., Thanissaro, 1997b) and the ten-nidana scheme of
Samyutta Nikaya 12.65 (e.g., Thanissaro, 1997c). So-called "transcendental dependent
origination" (also involving twelve nidanas) is described in Samyutta Nikaya 12.23 (e.g., see
Bodhi, 1995). In addition, Digha Nikaya 15 describes an eleven-nidana scheme (starting with
"feeling") that leads to interpersonal suffering ("the taking up of sticks and knives; conflicts,
quarrels, and disputes; accusations, divisive speech, and lies").
48.^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, page 56
49.^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 57
50.^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 58
51.^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 59
52.^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 60
53.^ Christian Lindtner, Master of Wisdom. Dharma Publishing 1997, p. 324.
54.^ Dan Lusthaus, "What is and isn't Yogacara"
55.^ a b Welch, Practice of Chinese Buddhism, Harvard, 1967, p. 395
56.^ The Theravada commentary on the Nettipakarana, ascribed to Dhammapala, says (Pali "-
pamāṇa" is equivalent to Sanskrit "-pramāṇa"): "na hi pāḷito aññaṃ pamāṇataraṃ atthi"
(quoted in Pali Text Society edition of the Nettipakarana, 1902, p. xi) which Nanamoli
translates as: "for there is no other criterion beyond a text" (The Guide, Pali Text Society,
1962, p. xi
57.^ MN 72 (Thanissaro, 1997). For further discussion of the context in which these statements
was made, see Thanissaro (2004).
58.^ "Experience is ... the path most elaborated in early Buddhism. The doctrine on the other
hand was kept low. The Buddha avoided doctrinal formulations concerning the final reality as
much as possible in order to prevent his followers from resting content with minor
 achievements on the path in which the absence of the final experience could be substituted by
conceptual understanding of the doctrine or by religious faith, a situation which sometimes
occurs, in both varieties, in the context of Hindu systems of doctrine", Karel Werner,
Mysticism and Indian Spirituality. In Karel Werner, ed., The Yogi and the Mystic. Curzon
Press, 1989: p. 27.
59.^ Thanissaro Bhikkhu, "Introduction to the Avyakata Samyutta"
60.^ a b Gadjin M. Nagao, Madhyamika and Yogachara. Leslie S. Kawamura, translator, SUNY
Press, Albany 1991, pp. 40–41.
61.^ Sue Hamilton, Early Buddhism. Routledge, 2000, page 135.
62.^ Philosophy East and West. Vol. 26, p. 138
63.^ The Sovereign All-Creating Mind tr. by E. K. Neumaier-Dargyay, pp. 111–112.
64.^ Professor C. D. Sebastian, Metaphysics and Mysticism in Mahayana Buddhism, Sri Satguru
Publications, Delhi, 2005, p. 274)
65.^ A. K. Warder, Indian Buddhism. Third edition published by Motilal Banarsidass Publ.,
2000, pages 132-133.
66.^ David J. Kalupahana, A History of Buddhist Philosophy: Continuities and Discontinuities.
University of Hawaii Press, 1992, page 43: [1].
67.^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. 2007, page 109.
68.^ Williams, Mahayana Buddhism, Routledge, 1989, p. 2
69.^ Kalama Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya III.65
70.^ raga, Pali-English Dictionary, The Pali Text Society
71.^ dosa, Pali-English Dictionary, The Pali Text Society
72.^ moha, Pali-English Dictionary, The Pali Text Society
73.^ a b Richard F. Gombrich, How Buddhism Began, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997, p. 67
74.^ "''Access to Insight'', a Theravada Buddhist website, discusses Buddha Eras".
Accesstoinsight.org. 2010-06-05.
http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bullitt/bfaq.html#maitreya. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
75.^ "Gautama Buddha discusses tne Maitreya Buddha in the Tipitaka". Accesstoinsight.org.
2010-06-08. http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.26.0.than.html. Retrieved 2010-
08-25.
76.^ Kogen Mizuno, Essentials of Buddhism, Shunju-sha, 1972, English translation, Kosei,
Tokyo, 1996, p. 57
77.^ Dispeller of Delusion. Vol. II. Pali Text Society, p. 184
78.^ Coomaraswamy, Ananda (1975). Buddha and the Gospel of Buddhism. Boston: University
Books, Inc.. p. 225. ISBN 080651101X.
79.^ Cook, Hua-yen Buddhism, Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977, p. 110f
80.^ Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Vol. 1, page 351
81.^ Harvey, p. 170
82.^ Bhikku, Thanissaro (2001). "Refuge". An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha.
Access to Insight. http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/refuge.html#goi.
83.^ Middle-Length Discourses of the Buddha, tr. Nanamoli, rev. Bodhi, Wisdom Publications,
1995, pp. 708f
84.^ Professor C.D. Sebastian, Metaphysics and Mysticism in Mahayana Buddhism, Sri Satguru
Publications, Bibliotheca Indo-Buddhica Series No. 238, Delhi, 2005, p. 83
85.^ Professor C.D. Sebastian, Metaphysics and Mysticism in Mahayana Buddhism, Delhi, 2005,
p. 82
86.^ Hiroshi Kanno, Huisi's Perspective on the Lotus Sutra as Seen Through the Meaning of the
Course of Ease and Bliss in the Lotus Sutra, p. 147, http://www.iop.or.jp/0414/kanno2.pdf,
consulted 5 February 2010
87.^ Stewart McFarlane in Peter Harvey, ed., Buddhism. Continuum, 2001, page 187.
88.^ Stewart McFarlane in Peter Harvey, ed., Buddhism. Continuum, 2001, pages 195-196.
89.^ Morgan, Peggy; Lawton, Clive A., eds (2007). Ethical Issues in Six Religious Traditions
(2nd ed.). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 62–63. ISBN 9780748623303.
90.^ Richard Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to
Modern Colombo. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988, page 89. He is quoting Carrithers.
91.^ B. Alan Wallace, Contemplative Science. Columbia University Press, 2007, p. 81.
92.^ Welch, Practice of Chinese Buddhism, Harvard, 1967, p. 396
93.^ Peter Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism. Cambridge University Press, 1990, page 144.
94.^ Damien Keown, Charles S Prebish, editors, Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Routledge, 2007. p.
502
95.^ Sarah Shaw, Buddhist Meditation: An Anthology of Texts from the Pāli Canon. Routledge,
2006, page 13. Shaw also notes that discourses on meditation are addressed to "bhikkhave",
but that in this context the terms is more generic than simply (male) "monks" and refers to all
practitioners, and that this is confirmed by Buddhaghosa.
96.^ According to Charles S. Prebish (in his Historical Dictionary of Buddhism, Sri Satguru
Publications, Delhi, 1993, p. 287): "Although a variety of Zen 'schools' developed in Japan,
they all emphasize Zen as a teaching that does not depend on sacred texts, that provides the
potential for direct realization, that the realization attained is none other than the Buddha
nature possessed by each sentient being ...".
97.^ Prebish comments (op. cit., p. 244): "It presumes that sitting in meditation itself (i.e. zazen)
is an expression of Buddha nature." The method is to detach the mind from conceptual modes
of thinking and perceive Reality directly. Speaking of Zen in general, Buddhist scholar
Stephen Hodge writes (Zen Masterclass, Godsfield Press, 2002, pp. 12–13): "... practitioners
of Zen believe that Enlightenment, the awakening of the Buddha-mind or Buddha-nature, is
our natural state, but has been covered over by layers of negative emotions and distorted
thoughts. According to this view, Enlightenment is not something that we must acquire a bit
at a time, but a state that can occur instantly when we cut through the dense veil of mental and
emotional obscurations."
98.^ (Critical Sermons on the Zen Tradition, Hisamatsu Shin'ichi, Palgrave Macmillan, New
York, 2002, passim) Commenting on Rinzai Zen and its Chinese founder, Linji, Hisamatsu
states: "Linji indicates our true way of being in such direct expressions as 'True Person' and
'True Self'. It is independent of words or letters and transmitted apart from scriptural teaching.
Buddhism doesn't really need scriptures. It is just our direct awakening to Self ..." (Hisamatsu,
op. cit., p. 46).
99.^ Kosho Uchiyama, Opening the Hand of Thought: Approach to Zen, Penguin Books, New
York, 1993, p. 98
100.^ Harvey, Introduction, pp. 165f
101.^ Williams, Mahayana Buddhism, Routledge, 1st ed., 1989, p. 185
102.^ Routledge Encyclopedia of Buddhism, p. 781 .
103.^ Gethin, Sayings of the Buddha, Oxford University Press, 2008, p. xv
104.^ a b c Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Buddhism: The foundations of Buddhism: The
cultural context. Retrieved 19-07-2009.
105.^ a b Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Hinduism: History of Hinduism: The Vedic period
(2nd millennium - 7th century BCE; Challenges to Brahmanism (6th - 2nd century BCE;
Early Hinduism (2nd century BCE - 4th century CE). Retrieved 19-07-2009.
106.^ Warder, A.K. 2000. Indian Buddhism. P.32
107.^ Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi,
ISBN 81-208-0815-0 Page 18. "There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever
subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of
India and have contributed to much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present
times."
108.^ S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism,
Philosophy East and West (1972): "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic
culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."
109.^ "This confirms that the doctrine of transmigration is non-aryan and was accepted by non-
vedics like Ajivikism, Jainism and Buddhism. The Indo-aryans have borrowed the theory of
re-birth after coming in contact with the aboriginal inhabitants of India. Certainly Jainism and
non-vedics [..] accepted the doctrine of rebirth as supreme postulate or article of faith."
Masih, page 37.
110.^ Karel Werner, The Longhaired Sage in The Yogi and the Mystic. Karel Werner, ed.,
Curzon Press, 1989, page 34. "Rahurkar speaks of them as belonging to two distinct 'cultural
strands' ... Wayman also found evidence for two distinct approaches to the spiritual dimension
in ancient India and calls them the traditions of 'truth and silence.' He traces them particularly
in the older Upanishads, in early Buddhism, and in some later literature."
111.^ Gavin D. Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University — Press :
UK ISBN 0-521-43878-0 - "The origin and doctrine of Karma and Samsara are obscure.
These concepts were certainly circulating amongst sramanas, and Jainism and Buddhism
developed specific and sophisticated ideas about the process of transmigration. It is very
possible that the karmas and reincarnation entered the mainstream brahaminical thought from
the sramana or the renouncer traditions." Page 86.
112.^ Padmanabh S. Jaini 2001 "Collected Paper on Buddhist Studies" Motilal Banarsidass Publ
576 pages ISBN 81-208-1776-1: "Yajnavalkya's reluctance and manner in expounding the
doctrine of karma in the assembly of Janaka (a reluctance not shown on any other occasion)
can perhaps be explained by the assumption that it was, like that of the transmigration of soul,
of non-brahmanical origin. In view of the fact that this doctrine is emblazoned on almost
every page of sramana scriptures, it is highly probable that it was derived from them." Page
51.
113.^ Govind Chandra Pande, (1994) Life and Thought of Sankaracarya, Motilal Banarsidass
ISBN 81-208-1104-6 : Early Upanishad thinkers like Yajnavalkya were acquainted with the
sramanic thinking and tried to incorporate these ideals of Karma, Samsara and Moksa into the
vedic thought implying a disparagement of the vedic ritualism and recognising the
mendicancy as an ideal. Page 135.
114.^ "The sudden appearance of this theory [of karma] in a full-fledged form is likely to be
due, as already pointed out, to an impact of the wandering muni-and-shramana-cult, coming
down from the pre-Vedic non-Aryan time." Kashi Nath Upadhyaya, Early Buddhism and the
Bhagavadgita. Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1998, page 76.
115.^ Warder, A.K. 2000. Indian Buddhism. P.30-32
116.^ Warder, A.K. 2000. Indian Buddhism. P.39
117.^ Warder, A.K. Indian Buddhism. P.33
118.^ Dharmacarini Manishini, Western Buddhist Review. Accessed at
http://www.westernbuddhistreview.com/vol4/kamma_in_context.html
119.^ Warder, A.K. 2000. Indian Buddhism. P.33
120.^ Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught, pages 9-10.
121.^ "The brahmin by caste alone, the teacher of the Veda, is (jokingly) etymologized as the
'non-meditator' (ajhāyaka). Brahmins who have memorized the three Vedas (tevijja) really
know nothing: it is the process of achieving Enlightenment — what the Buddha is said to
have achieved in the three watches of that night — which constitutes the true 'three
knowledges.'" R.F. Gombrich in Paul Williams, ed., "Buddhism: Critical Concepts in
Religious Studies." Taylor and Francis 2006, page 120.
122.^ Richard Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to
Modern Colombo. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988, page 85.
123.^ Richard Francis Gombrich, How Buddhism began: the conditioned genesis of the early
teachings Continuum International Publishing Group, 1996, pages 38-39
124.^ Michael Carrithers, The Buddha, 1983, pages 41-42. Found in Founders of Faith, Oxford
University Press, 1986.
125.^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, page 21.
126.^ Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Vedic religion. Retrieved 19-07-2009.
127.^ Warder, A.K. 2000. Indian Buddhism. P.35
128.^ A History of Indian Buddhism — Hirakawa Akira (translated and edited by Paul Groner) -
Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1993, p. 7
129.^ Mitchell, Buddhism, Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 34 & table of contents
130.^ Skorupski, Buddhist Forum, vol I, Heritage, Delhi/SOAS, London, 1990, p. 5; Journal of
the International Association of Buddhist Studies, vol 21 (1998), part 1, pp. 4, 11
131.^ see also the book Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks, University of Hawai'i Press, by Dr
Gregory Schopen
132.^ Encyclopedia of Religion, Macmillan, New York, sv Councils, Buddhist
133.^ Journal of the Pāli Text Society, volume XVI, p. 105)
134.^ Janice J. Nattier and Charles S. Prebish, 1977. Mahāsāṅghika Origins: the beginnings of
Buddhist sectarianism in History of Religions, Vol. 16, pp. 237–272
135.^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 74
136.^ a b "Abhidhamma Pitaka." Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago:
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008.
137.^ Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Routledge. p. 485.
138.^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993. A History of Indian
Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: p. 260
139.^ Akira, Hirakawa (1993), A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early
Mahayana: p. 271
140.^ e.g. Williams, Mahayana Buddhism
141.^ "One of the most frequent assertions about the Mahayana ... is that it was a lay-influenced,
or even lay-inspired and dominated, movement that arose in response to the increasingly
closed, cold, and scholastic character of monastic Buddhism. This, however, now appears to
be wrong on all counts." Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 494
142.^ Nattier, Jan (2003), A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of
Ugra: p. 193-194
143.^ Williams, Paul (2008) Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations: p. 4-5
144.^ Williams, Paul (2000) Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian
Tradition: p. 97
145.^ Williams, Paul (2008) Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations: p. 5
146.^ "The most important evidence — in fact the only evidence — for situating the emergence
of the Mahayana around the beginning of the common era was not Indian evidence at all, but
came from China. Already by the last quarter of the 2nd century CE, there was a small,
seemingly idiosyncratic collection of substantial Mahayana sutras translated into what Erik
Zürcher calls 'broken Chinese' by an Indoscythian, whose Indian name has been reconstructed
as Lokaksema." Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 492
147.^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993. A History of Indian
Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: p. 263, 268
148.^ "The south (of India) was then vigorously creative in producing Mahayana Sutras" –
Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999). Indian Buddhism: p. 335.
149.^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993. A History of Indian
Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: p. 253
150.^ A History of Indian Buddhism — Hirakawa Akira (translated and edited by Paul Groner) -
Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1993, p. 8,9
151.^ Peter Harvey, "An Introduction to Buddhism." Cambridge University Press, 1993, page
95.
152.^ Dan Lusthaus, Buddhist Phenomenology. Routledge, 2002, pages 236-237.
153.^ Peter Harvey, "An Introduction to Buddhism." Cambridge University Press, 1993, page
113. "There were no great Indian teachers associated with this strand of thought."
154.^ A History of Indian Buddhism — Hirakawa Akira (translated and edited by Paul Groner) -
Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1993, p. 9
155.^ Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism, Routledge, 2nd ed, 2006, page 135
156.^ Carol E. Henderson, Culture and Customs of India. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002,
page 42.
157.^ Joseph B. Tamney in William H. Swatos, editor, Encyclopedia of Religion and Society.
Rowman Altamira, 1998, page 68.
158.^ "Chinese Cultural Studies: The Spirits of Chinese Religion".
Academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu.
http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/core9/phalsall/texts/lopez.html. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
159.^ Windows on Asia - Chinese Religions[dead link]
160.^ "Religions and Beliefs in China". Travelchinaguide.com.
http://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/religion. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
161.^ "SACU Religion in China". Sacu.org. http://www.sacu.org/religion.html. Retrieved 2010-
08-25.
162.^ "Index-China Chinese Philosophies and religions". Index-china.com. http://www.index-
china.com/index-english/people-religions-s.html. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
163.^ "Buddhism in China". AskAsia. http://www.askasia.org/teachers/essays/essay.php?no=16.
Retrieved 2010-08-25.
164.^ "Buddhism And Its Spread Along The Silk Road". Globaled.org.
http://www.globaled.org/curriculum/china/bessay1.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
165.^ "U.S. Department of States - International Religious Freedom Report 2006: China
(includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)". State.gov.
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
166.^ State Attitudes to Religion (PDF), The Atlas of Religion, Joanne O'Brien & Martin
Palmer, openDemocracy.net
167.^ "Center for Religious Freedom - Survey Files". Crf.hudson.org.
http://crf.hudson.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=survey_files. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
168.^ "The Range of Religious Freedom".
http://crf.hudson.org/articledocs/TheRangeofReligiousFreedom.doc. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
169.^ Garfinkel, Perry (December 2005). "Buddha Rising". National Geographic: 88–109.
170.^ a b c Major Branches of Buddhism, Adherents.com, retrieved on 2008-01-15
171.^ Philosophy East and West, volume 54, page 270
172.^ Keown, Buddhism, Oxford University Press, 1996, page 12
173.^ Smith, Buddhism; Juergensmeyer, Oxford Handbook.
174.^ "Tibetan Buddhism". American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Houghton
Mifflin Company. 2004. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/tibetan%20buddhism.
Retrieved 2007-07-07.
175.^ (Harvey, 1990); (Gombrich,1984); Gethin (1998), pp. 1–2, identifies "three broad
traditions" as: (1) "The Theravāda tradition of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia, also sometimes
referred to as 'southern' Buddhism"; (2) "The East Asian tradition of China, Korea, Japan, and
Vietnam, also sometimes referred to as 'eastern' Buddhism"; and, (3) "The Tibetan tradition,
also sometimes referred to as 'northern' Buddhism."; Robinson & Johnson (1982) divide their
book into two parts: Part One is entitled "The Buddhism of South Asia" (which pertains to
Early Buddhism in India); and, Part Two is entitled "The Development of Buddhism Outside
of India" with chapters on "The Buddhism of Southeast Asia", "Buddhism in the Tibetan
Culture Area", "East Asian Buddhism" and "Buddhism Comes West; Penguin handbook of
Living Religions, 1984, page 279; Prebish & Keown, Introducing Buddhism, ebook, Journal
of Buddhist Ethics, 2005, printed ed, Harper, 2006
176.^ See e.g. the multi-dimensional classification in Encyclopedia of Religion, Macmillan, New
York, 1987, volume 2, pages 440ff
177.^ A Comparative Study of the Schools, Tan Swee Eng
178.^ Cousins, L.S. (1996); Buswell (2003), Vol. I, p. 82; and, Keown & Prebish (2004), p. 107.
See also, Gombrich (1988/2002), p. 32: “…[T]he best we can say is that [the Buddha] was
probably Enlightened between 550 and 450, more likely later rather than earlier."
179.^ Williams (2000, pp. 6-7) writes: "As a matter of fact Buddhism in mainland India itself
had all but ceased to exist by the thirteenth century CE, although by that time it had spread to
Tibet, China, Japan, and Southeast Asia." Embree et al. (1958/1988), "Chronology," p. xxix:
"c. 1000-1200: Buddhism disappears as [an] organized religious force in India." See also,
Robinson & Johnson (1970/1982), pp. 100-1, 108 Fig. 1; and, Harvey (1990/2007), pp. 139-
40.
180.^ Gethin, Foundations, page 1
181.^ Clarke & Beyer, The World's Religions, Routledge, 2009, page 86
182.^ Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (Volume One), pages 430, 435
183.^ Davidson, Ronald M. (2003). Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric
Movement. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231126190.
184.^ Prebish & Keown, Introducing Buddhism, page 89
185.^ A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition (2000)
186.^ Eliot, Japanese Buddhism, Edward Arnold, London, 1935, page 16
187.^ Gethin, Sayings of the Buddha, Oxford University Press, 2008, page xiv
188.^ Journal of the Pali Text Society, volume XVI, page 114
189.^ Peter Harvey, The Selfless Mind. Curzon Press, 1995, page 9.
 190.^ David Kalupahana, "Sarvastivada and its theory of sarvam asti." University of Ceylon
Review 24 1966, 94-105.
191.^ Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition, page 4
192.^ a b MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 494
193.^ Thelema & Buddhism (PDF) in Journal of Thelemic Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1, Autumn 2007,
pp. 18-32

References
• Armstrong, Karen (2001). Buddha. Penguin Books. p. 187. ISBN 0-14-303436-7.
• Bechert, Heinz & Richard Gombrich (ed.) (1984). The World of Buddhism, Thames &
Hudson.
• Buswell, Robert E. (ed.) (2003). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. MacMillan Reference
Books. ISBN 978-0028657189.
• Coogan, Michael D. (ed.) (2003). The Illustrated Guide to World Religions. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 1-84483-125-6.
• Cousins, L. S. (1996). "The Dating of the Historical Buddha: A Review Article". Journal
of the Royal Asiatic Society Series 3 (6.1): 57–63. http://indology.info/papers/cousins/.
Retrieved 2007-07-11. ; reprinted in Williams, Buddhism, volume I; NB in the online
transcript a little text has been accidentally omitted: in section 4, between "... none of the
other contributions in this section envisage a date before 420 B.C." and "to 350 B.C."
insert "Akira Hirakawa defends the short chronology and Heinz Bechert himself sets a
range from 400 B.C."
• Davidson, Ronald M. (2003). Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric
Movement. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231126190.
• de Give, Bernard (2006). Les rapports de l'Inde et de l'Occident des origines au règne
d'Asoka. Les Indes savants. ISBN 2846540365.
• Donath, Dorothy C. (1971). Buddhism for the West: Theravāda, Mahāyāna and
Vajrayāna; a comprehensive review of Buddhist history, philosophy, and teachings from
the time of the Buddha to the present day. Julian Press. ISBN 0-07-017533-0.
• Embree, Ainslie T. (ed.), Stephen N. Hay (ed.), Wm. Theodore de Bary (ed.), A.L.
Bashram, R.N. Dandekar, Peter Hardy, J.B. Harrison, V. Raghavan, Royal Weiler, and
Andrew Yarrow (1958; 2nd ed. 1988). Sources of Indian Tradition: From the Beginning to
1800 (vol. 1). NY: Columbia U. Press. ISBN 0-231-06651-1.
• Gethin, Rupert (1998). Foundations of Buddhism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
289223-1.
• Gombrich, Richard F. (1988; 6th reprint, 2002). Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History
from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo (London: Routledge). ISBN 0-415-07585-8.
• Harvey, Peter (1990). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52-131333-3.
• Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola (2002). Mindfulness in Plain English. Wisdom
Publications. ISBN 0-86171-321-4. Also available on this websites: saigon.com
urbandharma.org vipassana.com
• Gyatso, Geshe Kelsang. Introduction to Buddhism: An Explanation of the Buddhist Way
of Life, Tharpa Publications (2nd. ed., 2001, US ed. 2008) ISBN 978-0-9789067-7-1
• Indian Books Centre. Bibliotheca Indo Buddhica Series, Delhi.
• Juergensmeyer, Mark (2006). The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions. Oxford
Handbooks in Religion and Theology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195137989.
 • Keown, Damien and Charles S Prebish (eds.) (2004). Encyclopedia of Buddhism
(London: Routledge). ISBN 978-0-415-31414-5.
• Kohn, Michael H. (trans.) (1991). The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen.
Shambhala. ISBN 0-87773-520-4.
• Lamotte, Étienne (trans. from French) (1976). Teaching of Vimalakirti. trans. Sara Boin.
London: Pali Text Society. XCIII. ISBN 0710085400.
• Lowenstein, Tom (1996). The Vision of the Buddha. Duncan Baird Publishers. ISBN 1-
903296-91-9.
• Morgan, Kenneth W. (ed), The Path of the Buddha: Buddhism Interpreted by Buddhists,
Ronald Press, New York, 1956; reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi; distributed by
Wisdom Books
• Nattier, Jan (2003). A Few Good Men: The Bodhisattva Path according to The Inquiry of
Ugra (Ugrapariprccha). University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 0-8248-2607-8.
• Rahula, Walpola (1974). What the Buddha Taught. Grove Press. ISBN 9559219197.
ISBN 0-8021-3031-3.
• Ranjini. Jewels of the Doctrine. Sri Satguru Publications. ISBN 0791404900.
• Robinson, Richard H. and Willard L. Johnson (1970; 3rd ed., 1982). The Buddhist
Religion: A Historical Introduction (Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing). ISBN
0-534-01027-X.
• Ito, Shinjo (2009). Shinjo:Reflections. Somerset Hall Press. ISBN 1935244000.
• Sinha, H.P. (1993). Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā (Features of Indian Philosophy).
Motilal Banarasidas Publ.. ISBN 81-208-2144-0.
• Skilton, Andrew (1997). A Concise History of Buddhism. Windhorse Publications.
ISBN 0904766926. http://books.google.com/?
id=GEKd4iqH3C0C&dq=history+of+buddhism.
• Smith, Huston; Phillip Novak (2003). Buddhism: A Concise Introduction.
HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 978-0060730673.
• Thanissaro Bhikkhu (2001). Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha
(3rd ed., rev.).
• Thich Nhat Hanh (1974), The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching, Broadway Books ISBN
0-7679-0369-2.
• Thurman, Robert A. F. (translator) (1976). Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: Mahayana
Scripture. Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0-271-00601-3.
• White, Kenneth (2005). The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment Including a
Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-
kaijo. The Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 0-7734-5985-5.
• Williams, Paul (1989). Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations. London:
Routledge. ISBN 0415025370.
• Williams, Paul (ed.) (2005). Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies, 8
volumes, Routledge, London & New York.
• Williams, Paul with Anthony Tribe (2000). Buddhist Thought (London: Routledge).
ISBN 0-415-20701-0. Retrieved 29 Nov 2008 from "Google Books".
• Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page. The Mahayana
Mahaparinirvana Sutra. (Nirvana Publications 1999-2000).
• Yin Shun, Yeung H. Wing (translator) (1998). The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions
from a Modern Chinese Master. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-133-5.
Online
 • Berzin, Alexander (November 2001). "Historical Sketch of Buddhism and Islam in
Afghanistan". Berzin Archives.
http://www.berzinarchives.com/islam/history_afghanistan_buddhism.html.
• Wei, Wei Wu (1960). "Why Lazarus Laughed: The Essential Doctrine Zen-Advaita-
Tantra". Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London. Sentient Publications.
http://www.sentientpublications.com/catalog/lazarus.php.
• Dhammananda, K. Sri (2002). "What Buddhists Believe" (PDF). Buddhist Missionary
Society of Malaysia. http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/whatbelieve.pdf.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Buddhism

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Buddhism

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Buddhism.

• Orange Tip Editions Buddhism in everyday life

• Religion and Spirituality: Buddhism at Open Directory Project
• "Buddhism — objects, art and history". Asia. Victoria and Albert Museum.
http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/asia/asia_features/buddhism/index.html. Retrieved
2007-12-06.
• Buddhist texts at Sacred Texts.com
• Ethical Democracy Journal - Notes on Budhism
• Buddhism in various languages
• The Future of Buddhism series, from Patheos
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o Central African Republic · Chad · Comoros · Democratic Republic of the Congo · Republic
v of the Congo · Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) · Djibouti · Egypt1 · Equatorial Guinea · Eritrea ·
e Ethiopia · Gabon · The Gambia · Ghana · Guinea · Guinea-Bissau · Kenya · Lesotho ·
r Liberia · Libya · Madagascar · Malawi · Mali · Mauritania · Mauritius · Morocco ·
e Mozambique · Namibia · Niger · Nigeria · Rwanda · São Tomé and Príncipe · Senegal ·
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v Indonesia · Iran · Iraq · Israel · Japan · Jordan · Kazakhstan4 · North Korea · South Korea ·
e Kuwait · Kyrgyzstan · Laos · Lebanon · Malaysia · Maldives · Mongolia · Nepal · Oman ·
r Pakistan · Philippines · Qatar · Russia4 · Saudi Arabia · Singapore · Sri Lanka · Syria ·
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Buddhism in Europe

S Albania · Andorra · Armenia1 · Austria · Azerbaijan1 · Belarus · Belgium · Bosnia and

o Herzegovina · Bulgaria · Croatia · Cyprus1 · Czech Republic · Denmark · Estonia · Finland ·
v France · Georgia1 · Germany · Greece · Hungary · Iceland · Ireland · Italy · Kazakhstan2 ·
e Latvia · Liechtenstein · Lithuania · Luxembourg · Macedonia · Malta · Moldova · Monaco ·
r Montenegro · Netherlands · Norway · Poland · Portugal · Romania · Russia2 · San Marino ·
e Serbia · Slovakia · Slovenia · Spain · Sweden · Switzerland · Turkey2 · Ukraine · United
i Kingdom (England • Northern Ireland • Scotland • Wales)
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o Dominica · Dominican Republic · El Salvador · Grenada · Guatemala · Haiti · Honduras ·
v Jamaica · Mexico · Nicaragua · Panama1 · Saint Kitts and Nevis · Saint Lucia · Saint
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e Origination · Five Aggregates · Karma · Rebirth · Saṃsāra · Saṅkhāra · Defilements ·
y Ignorance · Craving · Five Hindrances · Ten Fetters · Faculties · Enlightenment
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Iconography · Films · Miracles · Disciples · Family · Places · Gautama Buddha in world
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Adolf Hitler
 Adolf Hitler

Führer of Germany

In office
2 August 1934 – 30 April 1945

Paul von Hindenburg

Preceded by
(as President)

Karl Dönitz
Succeeded by
(as President)

Chancellor of Nazi Germany

In office
30 January 1933 – 30 April 1945

Preceded by Kurt von Schleicher

Succeeded by Joseph Goebbels

Born 20 April 1889

 Braunau am Inn, Austria–Hungary

30 April 1945 (aged 56)

Died
Berlin, Germany

Austrian citizen until 7 April 1925[1]

Nationality
German citizen after 1932

National Socialist German Workers'

Political party
Party (1921–1945)

Other political
German Workers' Party (1920–1921)
affiliations

Eva Braun
Spouse(s)
(29–30 April 1945)

Occupation Politician, soldier, artist, writer

Religion See Adolf Hitler's religious views

Signature

Military service

Allegiance
German Empire

Service/branch Reichsheer

Years of service 1914–1918

Rank Gefreiter

Unit 16th Bavarian Reserve Regiment

Battles/wars World War I

Iron Cross First and Second Class

Awards
Wound Badge

Adolf Hitler (German pronunciation: [ˈadɔlf ˈhɪtlɐ]; 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an
Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers
Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, abbreviated NSDAP),
commonly known as the Nazi Party. He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 and,
after 1934, also head of state as Führer und Reichskanzler, ruling the country as an absolute
dictator.
A decorated veteran of World War I, Hitler joined the precursor of the Nazi Party (DAP) in
1919 and became leader of NSDAP in 1921. He attempted a failed coup called the Beer Hall
Putsch in Munich in 1923, for which he was imprisoned. Following his imprisonment, in
which he wrote Mein Kampf, he gained support by promoting German nationalism, anti-
semitism, anti-capitalism, and anti-communism with charismatic oratory and propaganda. He
was appointed chancellor in 1933, and quickly transformed the Weimar Republic into the
Third Reich, a single-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideals of
national socialism.
Hitler ultimately wanted to establish a New Order of absolute Nazi German hegemony in
continental Europe. To achieve this, he pursued a foreign policy with the declared goal of
seizing Lebensraum ("living space") for the Aryan people; directing the resources of the state
towards this goal. This included the rearmament of Germany, which culminated in 1939
when the Wehrmacht invaded Poland. In response, the United Kingdom and France declared
war against Germany, leading to the outbreak of World War II in Europe.[2]
Within three years, Germany and the Axis powers had occupied most of Europe, and most of
Northern Africa, East and Southeast Asia and the Pacific Ocean. However, with the reversal
of the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, the Allies gained the upper hand from 1942
onwards. By 1945, Allied armies had invaded German-held Europe from all sides. Nazi
forces engaged in numerous violent acts during the war, including the systematic murder of
as many as 17 million civilians,[3] including an estimated six million Jews targeted in the
Holocaust and between 500,000 and 1,500,000 Roma,[4] Poles, Soviet civilians, Soviet
prisoners of war, people with disabilities, homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, and other
political and religious opponents.
In the final days of the war, during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time
mistress Eva Braun and, to avoid capture by Soviet forces less than two days later, the two
committed suicide[5] on 30 April 1945.

Contents
[show]
• 1 Early
years
○ 1
.
1

A
n
c
e
s
t
r
y
○ 1
.
2
 C
h
i
l
d
h
o
o
d
○ 1
.
3

E
a
r
l
y

a
d
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l
t
h
o
o
d

i
n

V
i
e
n
n
a

a
n
d

M
u
n
i
c
h
○ 1
 .
4

W
o
r
l
d

W
a
r

I
• 2 Entry
into
politics
○ 2
.
1

B
e
e
r

H
a
l
l

P
u
t
s
c
h
○ 2
.
2

M
e
i
n

K
a
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p
 f
○ 2
.
3

R
e
b
u
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d
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g

o
f

t
h
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p
a
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t
y
• 3 Rise
to
power
○ 3
.
1

B
r
ü
n
i
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g

A
d
m
i
n
i
s
 t
r
a
t
i
o
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○ 3
.
2

A
p
p
o
i
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t
m
e
n
t

a
s

C
h
a
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c
e
l
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o
r
○ 3
.
3

R
e
i
c
h
s
t
a
g

f
 i
r
e

a
n
d

t
h
e

M
a
r
c
h

e
l
e
c
t
i
o
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s
○ 3
.
4

"
D
a
y

o
f

P
o
t
s
d
a
m
"

a
n
d
 t
h
e

E
n
a
b
l
i
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g

A
c
t
○ 3
.
5

R
e
m
o
v
a
l

o
f

r
e
m
a
i
n
i
n
g

l
i
m
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t
s
• 4 Third
Reich
○ 4
.
1

E
c
o
n
o
m
y

a
n
d

c
u
l
t
u
r
e
○ 4
.
2

R
e
a
r
m
a
m
e
n
t

a
n
d

n
e
w

a
l
l
i
a
 n
c
e
s
○ 4
.
3

T
h
e

H
o
l
o
c
a
u
s
t
• 5
World
War II
○ 5
.
1

E
a
r
l
y

d
i
p
l
o
m
a
t
i
c

t
r
i
u
m
p
h
s


○ 5
.
2

S
t
a
r
t

o
f

W
o
r
l
d

W
a
r

I
I
○ 5
.
3

P
a
t
h

t
o

d
e
f
e
 a
t
○ 5
.
4

A
t
t
e
m
p
t
e
d

a
s
s
a
s
s
i
n
a
t
i
o
n
○ 5
.
5

D
e
f
e
a
t

a
n
d

d
e
a
t
h
• 6
 Legacy
• 7
Religio
us
views
• 8
Attitud
e to
occulti
sm
• 9
Health
○ 9
.
1

S
y
p
h
i
l
i
s
○ 9
.
2

M
o
n
o
r
c
h
i
s
m
○ 9
.
3

P
a
r
k
i
n
s
 o
n
'
s

d
i
s
e
a
s
e
○ 9
.
4

O
t
h
e
r

c
o
m
p
l
a
i
n
t
s
○ 9
.
5

M
e
n
t
a
l

h
e
a
l
t
h
○ 9
 .
6

A
d
d
i
c
t
i
o
n

t
o

a
m
p
h
e
t
a
m
i
n
e
○ 9
.
7

H
i
s
t
o
r
i
a
n
s
'

v
i
e
w
s
• 10
Sexuali
 ty
• 11
Family
• 12
Hitler
in
media
○ 1
2
.
1

O
r
a
t
o
r
y

a
n
d

r
a
l
l
i
e
s
○ 1
2
.
2

R
e
c
o
r
d
e
d

i
n

p
r
 i
v
a
t
e

c
o
n
v
e
r
s
a
t
i
o
n
○ 1
2
.
3

P
a
t
r
i
a

p
i
c
t
u
r
e

d
i
s
c
○ 1
2
.
4

D
o
c
u
 m
e
n
t
a
r
i
e
s

d
u
r
i
n
g

t
h
e

T
h
i
r
d

R
e
i
c
h
○ 1
2
.
5

T
e
l
e
v
i
s
i
o
n
○ 1
2
.
6
 D
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
a
r
i
e
s

p
o
s
t

T
h
i
r
d

R
e
i
c
h
○ 1
2
.
7

F
i
l
m
s
• 13 See
also
• 14
Footno
tes
• 15
Refere
nces
• 16
 Further
reading
○ 1
6
.
1

M
e
d
i
c
a
l

b
o
o
k
s
• 17
Extern
al links

Early years
Ancestry
Hitler's father, Alois Hitler, was an illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber, so his
paternity was not listed on his birth certificate; he bore his mother's surname.[6][7] In 1842,
Johann Georg Hiedler married Maria and in 1876 Alois testified before a notary and three
witnesses that Johann was his father.[8] Despite this testimony, Alois' paternity has been the
subject of controversy. After receiving a "blackmail letter" from Hitler's nephew William
Patrick Hitler threatening to reveal embarrassing information about Hitler's family tree, Nazi
Party lawyer Hans Frank investigated, and, in his memoirs, claimed to have uncovered letters
revealing that Alois' mother was employed as a housekeeper for a Jewish family in Graz and
that the family's 19-year-old son, Leopold Frankenberger, fathered Alois.[7] No evidence had,
at that time, ever been produced to support Frank's claim, and Frank himself said Hitler's full
Aryan blood was obvious.[9] Frank's claims were widely believed in the 1950s, but by the
1990s, were generally doubted by historians.[10][11] Ian Kershaw dismissed the Frankenberger
story as a "smear" by Hitler's enemies, noting that all Jews had been expelled from Graz in
the 15th century and were not allowed to return until well after Alois was born.[11]
At age 39, Alois took the surname Hitler. This surname was variously spelled Hiedler,
Hüttler, Huettler and Hitler, and was probably regularized to Hitler by a clerk. The origin of
the name is either "one who lives in a hut" (Standard German Hütte), "shepherd" (Standard
German hüten "to guard", English heed), or is from the Slavic word Hidlar and Hidlarcek.
Childhood
Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 at half-past six in the evening at the Gasthof zum
Pommer, an inn in Braunau am Inn, Austria–Hungary, the fourth of Alois and Klara Hitler's
six children.
Adolf Hitler as an infant
At the age of three, his family moved to Kapuzinerstrasse 5[12] in Passau, Germany where the
young Hitler would acquire Lower Bavarian rather than Austrian as his lifelong native
dialect.[13] In 1894, the family moved to Leonding near Linz, then in June 1895, Alois retired
to a small landholding at Hafeld near Lambach, where he tried his hand at farming and
beekeeping. During this time, the young Hitler attended school in nearby Fischlham. As a
child, he played "Cowboys and Indians" and, by his own account, became fixated on war
after finding a picture book about the Franco-Prussian War in his father's things.[14]
His father's efforts at Hafeld ended in failure and the family moved to Lambach in 1897.
There, Hitler attended a Catholic school located in an 11th-century Benedictine cloister
whose walls were engraved in a number of places with crests containing the symbol of the
swastika.[15] It was in Lambach that the eight year-old Hitler sang in the church choir, took
singing lessons, and even entertained the fantasy of one day becoming a priest.[16] In 1898, the
family returned permanently to Leonding.
His younger brother Edmund died of measles on 2 February 1900, causing permanent
changes in Hitler. He went from a confident, outgoing boy who found school easy, to a
morose, detached, sullen boy who constantly battled his father and his teachers.[17]
Hitler was close to his mother, but had a troubled relationship with his authoritarian father,
who frequently beat him, especially in the years after Alois' retirement and disappointing
farming efforts.[18] Alois wanted his son to follow in his footsteps as an Austrian customs
official, and this became a huge source of conflict between them.[14] Despite his son's pleas to
go to classical high school and become an artist, his father sent him to the Realschule in Linz,
a technical high school of about 300 students, in September 1900. Hitler rebelled, and in
Mein Kampf confessed to failing his first year in hopes that once his father saw "what little
progress I was making at the technical school he would let me devote myself to the happiness
I dreamed of." Alois never relented, however, and Hitler became even more bitter and
rebellious.
German Nationalism quickly became an obsession for Hitler, and a way to rebel against his
father, who proudly served the Austrian government. Most people who lived along the
German-Austrian border considered themselves German-Austrians, but Hitler expressed
loyalty only to Germany. In defiance of the Austrian monarchy, and his father who
continually expressed loyalty to it, Hitler and his young friends liked to use the German
greeting "Heil", and sing the German anthem "Deutschland Über Alles" instead of the
Austrian Imperial anthem.[14]
After Alois' sudden death on 3 January 1903, Hitler's behaviour at the technical school
became even more disruptive, and he was asked to leave. He enrolled at the Realschule in
Steyr in 1904, but upon completing his second year, he and his friends went out for a night of
celebration and drinking, and an intoxicated Hitler tore his school certificate into four pieces
and used it as toilet paper. When someone turned the stained certificate in to the school's
director, he "... gave him such a dressing-down that the boy was reduced to shivering jelly. It
was probably the most painful and humiliating experience of his life."[19] Hitler was expelled,
never to return to school again.
At age 15, Hitler took part in his First Holy Communion on Whitsunday, 22 May 1904, at the
Linz Cathedral.[20] His sponsor was Emanuel Lugert, a friend of his late father.[21]
Early adulthood in Vienna and Munich
From 1905 on, Hitler lived a bohemian life in Vienna on an orphan's pension and support
from his mother. He was rejected twice by the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna (1907–1908),
citing "unfitness for painting", and was told his abilities lay instead in the field of
architecture.[22] Following the school rector's recommendation, he too became convinced this
was his path to pursue, yet he lacked the proper academic preparation for architecture school:
In a few days I myself knew that I should some day become an architect. To be sure, it was
an incredibly hard road; for the studies I had neglected out of spite at the Realschule were
sorely needed. One could not attend the Academy's architectural school without having
attended the building school at the Technic, and the latter required a high-school degree. I
had none of all this. The fulfilment of my artistic dream seemed physically impossible.[23]

The Courtyard of the Old Residency in Munich, by Adolf Hitler, 1914

On 21 December 1907, Hitler's mother died of breast cancer at age 47. Ordered by a court in
Linz, Hitler gave his share of the orphans' benefits to his sister Paula. When he was 21, he
inherited money from an aunt. He struggled as a painter in Vienna, copying scenes from
postcards and selling his paintings to merchants and tourists. After being rejected a second
time by the Academy of Arts, Hitler ran out of money. In 1909, he lived in a shelter for the
homeless. By 1910, he had settled into a house for poor working men on Meldemannstraße.
Another resident of the house, Reinhold Hanisch, sold Hitler's paintings until the two men
had a bitter falling-out.[24]
Hitler said he first became an anti-Semite in Vienna,[23] which had a large Jewish community,
including Orthodox Jews who had fled the pogroms in Russia. According to childhood friend
August Kubizek, however, Hitler was a "confirmed anti-Semite" before he left Linz.[23]
Vienna at that time was a hotbed of traditional religious prejudice and 19th century racism.
Hitler may have been influenced by the writings of the ideologist and anti-Semite Lanz von
Liebenfels and polemics from politicians such as Karl Lueger, founder of the Christian Social
Party and Mayor of Vienna; the composer Richard Wagner; and Georg Ritter von Schönerer,
leader of the pan-Germanic Away from Rome! movement. Hitler claims in Mein Kampf that
his transition from opposing antisemitism on religious grounds to supporting it on racial
grounds came from having seen an Orthodox Jew.
There were very few Jews in Linz. In the course of centuries the Jews who lived there had
become Europeanised in external appearance and were so much like other human beings that
I even looked upon them as Germans. The reason why I did not then perceive the absurdity of
such an illusion was that the only external mark which I recognized as distinguishing them
from us was the practice of their strange religion. As I thought that they were persecuted on
account of their faith my aversion to hearing remarks against them grew almost into a feeling
of abhorrence. I did not in the least suspect that there could be such a thing as a systematic
antisemitism. Once, when passing through the inner City, I suddenly encountered a
phenomenon in a long caftan and wearing black side-locks. My first thought was: Is this a
Jew? They certainly did not have this appearance in Linz. I carefully watched the man
stealthily and cautiously but the longer I gazed at the strange countenance and examined it
feature by feature, the more the question shaped itself in my brain: Is this a German?[23]
If this account is true, Hitler apparently did not act on his new belief. He often was a guest for
dinner in a noble Jewish house, and he interacted well with Jewish merchants who tried to
sell his paintings.[25]
Hitler may also have been influenced by Martin Luther's On the Jews and their Lies. In Mein
Kampf, Hitler refers to Martin Luther as a great warrior, a true statesman, and a great
reformer, alongside Richard Wagner and Frederick the Great.[26] Wilhelm Röpke, writing
after the Holocaust, concluded that "without any question, Lutheranism influenced the
political, spiritual and social history of Germany in a way that, after careful consideration of
everything, can be described only as fateful."[27][28]
Hitler claimed that Jews were enemies of the Aryan race. He held them responsible for
Austria's crisis. He also identified certain forms of socialism and Bolshevism, which had
many Jewish leaders, as Jewish movements, merging his antisemitism with anti-Marxism.
Later, blaming Germany's military defeat in World War I on the 1918 revolutions, he
considered Jews the culprits of Imperial Germany's downfall and subsequent economic
problems as well.
Generalising from tumultuous scenes in the parliament of the multi-national Austrian
monarchy, he decided that the democratic parliamentary system was unworkable. However,
according to August Kubizek, his one-time roommate, he was more interested in Wagner's
operas than in his politics.
Hitler received the final part of his father's estate in May 1913 and moved to Munich. He
wrote in Mein Kampf that he had always longed to live in a "real" German city. In Munich, he
became more interested in architecture and, he says, the writings of Houston Stewart
Chamberlain. Moving to Munich also helped him escape military service in Austria for a
time, but the Munich police (acting in cooperation with the Austrian authorities) eventually
arrested him. After a physical exam and a contrite plea, he was deemed unfit for service and
allowed to return to Munich. However, when Germany entered World War I in August 1914,
he petitioned King Ludwig III of Bavaria for permission to serve in a Bavarian regiment. This
request was granted, and Adolf Hitler enlisted in the Bavarian army.[29]
A young Hitler (left) posing with other German soldiers
World War I
Main article: Military career of Adolf Hitler
Hitler served in France and Belgium in the 16th Bavarian Reserve Regiment, on the Western
Front as a regimental runner. He was present at a number of major battles on the Western
Front, including the First Battle of Ypres, the Battle of the Somme, the Battle of Arras and
the Battle of Passchendaele.[30]

Hitler in the German Army, 1914, sitting at right

Hitler was twice decorated for bravery. He received the relatively common Iron Cross,
Second Class, in 1914 and Iron Cross, First Class, in 1918, an honour rarely given to a
Gefreiter.[31] Yet because the regimental staff thought Hitler lacked leadership skills, he was
never promoted to Unteroffizier (equivalent to a British corporal). According to Weber,
Hitler's First Class Iron Cross was recommended by Hugo Gutmann, a Jewish List adjutant,
and this rarer award was commonly awarded to those posted to regimental headquarters, such
as Hitler, who had more contact with more senior officers than combat soldiers.[32]
Hitler's duties at regimental headquarters gave him time to pursue his artwork. He drew
cartoons and instructional drawings for an army newspaper. In 1916, he was wounded in
either the groin area[33] or the left thigh[34] during the Battle of the Somme, but returned to the
front in March 1917. He received the Wound Badge later that year. German historian and
author, Sebastian Haffner, referring to Hitler's experience at the front, suggests that he had at
least some understanding of the military.
On 15 October 1918, Hitler was admitted to a field hospital, temporarily blinded by a
mustard gas attack. The English psychologist David Lewis and Bernhard Horstmann suggest
the blindness may have been the result of a conversion disorder (then known as "hysteria").[35]
In fact, Hitler said it was during this experience that he became convinced the purpose of his
life was to "save Germany." Some scholars, notably Lucy Dawidowicz,[36] argue that an
intention to exterminate Europe's Jews was fully formed in Hitler's mind at this time, though
he probably had not thought through how it could be done. Most historians think the decision
was made in 1941, and some think it came as late as 1942.
Hitler had long admired Germany, and during the war he had become a passionate German
patriot, although he did not become a German citizen until 1932. Hitler found the war to be
"the greatest of all experiences" and afterwards he was praised by a number of his
commanding officers for his bravery.[37] He was shocked by Germany's capitulation in
November 1918 even while the German army still held enemy territory.[38] Like many other
German nationalists, Hitler believed in the Dolchstoßlegende ("dagger-stab legend") which
claimed that the army, "undefeated in the field," had been "stabbed in the back" by civilian
leaders and Marxists back on the home front. These politicians were later dubbed the
November Criminals.
The Treaty of Versailles deprived Germany of various territories, demilitarised the Rhineland
and imposed other economically damaging sanctions. The treaty re-created Poland, which
even moderate Germans regarded as an outrage. The treaty also blamed Germany for all the
horrors of the war, something which major historians such as John Keegan now consider at
least in part to be victor's justice; most European nations in the run-up to World War I had
become increasingly militarised and were eager to fight. The culpability of Germany was
used as a basis to impose reparations on Germany (the amount was repeatedly revised under
the Dawes Plan, the Young Plan, and the Hoover Moratorium). Germany in turn perceived
the treaty, especially Article 231 on the German responsibility for the war, as a humiliation.
For example, there was a nearly total demilitarisation of the armed forces, allowing Germany
only six battleships, no submarines, no air force, an army of 100,000 without conscription
and no armoured vehicles. The treaty was an important factor in both the social and political
conditions encountered by Hitler and his Nazis as they sought power. Hitler and his party
used the signing of the treaty by the "November Criminals" as a reason to build up Germany
so that it could never happen again. He also used the "November Criminals" as scapegoats,
although at the Paris peace conference, these politicians had had very little choice in the
matter.
Entry into politics
Main article: Adolf Hitler's political views

A copy of Adolf Hitler's German Workers' Party (DAP) membership card.

After World War I, Hitler remained in the army and returned to Munich, where he – in
contrast to his later declarations – attended the funeral march for the murdered Bavarian
prime minister Kurt Eisner.[39] After the suppression of the Bavarian Soviet Republic, he took
part in "national thinking" courses organized by the Education and Propaganda Department
(Dept Ib/P) of the Bavarian Reichswehr Group, Headquarters 4 under Captain Karl Mayr.
Scapegoats were found in "international Jewry", communists, and politicians across the party
spectrum, especially the parties of the Weimar Coalition.
In July 1919, Hitler was appointed a Verbindungsmann (police spy) of an
Aufklärungskommando (Intelligence Commando) of the Reichswehr, both to influence other
soldiers and to infiltrate a small party, the German Workers' Party (DAP). During his
inspection of the party, Hitler was impressed with founder Anton Drexler's anti-semitic,
nationalist, anti-capitalist and anti-Marxist ideas, which favoured a strong active government,
a "non-Jewish" version of socialism and mutual solidarity of all members of society. Drexler
was impressed with Hitler's oratory skills and invited him to join the party. Hitler joined DAP
on 12 September 1919[40] and became the party's 55th member.[41] His actual membership
number was 555 (the 500 was added to make the group appear larger) but later the number
was reduced to create the impression that Hitler was one of the founding members.[42] He was
also made the seventh member of the executive committee.[43] Years later, he claimed to be
the party's seventh overall member, but it has been established that this claim is false.[44]
Here Hitler met Dietrich Eckart, one of the early founders of the party and member of the
occult Thule Society.[45] Eckart became Hitler's mentor, exchanging ideas with him, teaching
him how to dress and speak, and introducing him to a wide range of people. Hitler thanked
Eckart by paying tribute to him in the second volume of Mein Kampf. To increase the party's
appeal, the party changed its name to the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or
National Socialist German Workers Party (abbreviated NSDAP).
Hitler was discharged from the army in March 1920 and with his former superiors' continued
encouragement began participating full time in the party's activities. By early 1921, Hitler
was becoming highly effective at speaking in front of large crowds. In February, Hitler spoke
before a crowd of nearly six thousand in Munich. To publicize the meeting, he sent out two
truckloads of party supporters to drive around with swastikas, cause a commotion and throw
out leaflets, their first use of this tactic. Hitler gained notoriety outside of the party for his
rowdy, polemic speeches against the Treaty of Versailles, rival politicians (including
monarchists, nationalists and other non-internationalist socialists) and especially against
Marxists and Jews.
The NSDAP[46] was centred in Munich, a hotbed of German nationalists who included Army
officers determined to crush Marxism and undermine the Weimar Republic. Gradually they
noticed Hitler and his growing movement as a suitable vehicle for their goals. Hitler traveled
to Berlin to visit nationalist groups during the summer of 1921, and in his absence there was a
revolt among the DAP leadership in Munich.
The party was run by an executive committee whose original members considered Hitler to
be overbearing. They formed an alliance with a group of socialists from Augsburg. Hitler
rushed back to Munich and countered them by tendering his resignation from the party on 11
July 1921. When they realized the loss of Hitler would effectively mean the end of the party,
he seized the moment and announced he would return on the condition that he replace
Drexler as party chairman, with unlimited powers. Infuriated committee members (including
Drexler) held out at first. Meanwhile an anonymous pamphlet appeared entitled Adolf Hitler:
Is he a traitor?, attacking Hitler's lust for power and criticizing the violent men around him.
Hitler responded to its publication in a Munich newspaper by suing for libel and later won a
small settlement.
The executive committee of the NSDAP eventually backed down and Hitler's demands were
put to a vote of party members. Hitler received 543 votes for and only one against. At the
next gathering on 29 July 1921, Adolf Hitler was introduced as Führer of the National
Socialist German Workers' Party, marking the first time this title was publicly used.
Hitler's beer hall oratory, attacking Jews, social democrats, liberals, reactionary monarchists,
capitalists and communists, began attracting adherents. Early followers included Rudolf
Hess, the former air force pilot Hermann Göring, and the army captain Ernst Röhm, who
eventually became head of the Nazis' paramilitary organization the SA (Sturmabteilung, or
"Storm Division"), which protected meetings and attacked political opponents. As well,
Hitler assimilated independent groups, such as the Nuremberg-based Deutsche
Werkgemeinschaft, led by Julius Streicher, who became Gauleiter of Franconia. Hitler
attracted the attention of local business interests, was accepted into influential circles of
Munich society, and became associated with wartime General Erich Ludendorff during this
time.

Drawing of Hitler, 1923

Beer Hall Putsch
Main article: Beer Hall Putsch
Encouraged by this early support, Hitler decided to use Ludendorff as a front in an attempted
coup later known as the "Beer Hall Putsch" (sometimes as the "Hitler Putsch" or "Munich
Putsch"). The Nazi Party had copied Italy's fascists in appearance and had adopted some of
their policies, and in 1923, Hitler wanted to emulate Benito Mussolini's "March on Rome" by
staging his own "Campaign in Berlin". Hitler and Ludendorff obtained the clandestine
support of Gustav von Kahr, Bavaria's de facto ruler, along with leading figures in the
Reichswehr and the police. As political posters show, Ludendorff, Hitler and the heads of the
Bavarian police and military planned on forming a new government.
On 8 November 1923, Hitler and the SA stormed a public meeting headed by Kahr in the
Bürgerbräukeller, a large beer hall in Munich. He declared that he had set up a new
government with Ludendorff and demanded, at gunpoint, the support of Kahr and the local
military establishment for the destruction of the Berlin government.[47] Kahr withdrew his
support and fled to join the opposition to Hitler at the first opportunity.[48] The next day, when
Hitler and his followers marched from the beer hall to the Bavarian War Ministry to
overthrow the Bavarian government as a start to their "March on Berlin", the police dispersed
them. Sixteen NSDAP members were killed.[49]
Hitler fled to the home of Ernst Hanfstaengl and contemplated suicide; Hanfstaengl's wife
Helene talked him out of it. He was soon arrested for high treason. Alfred Rosenberg became
temporary leader of the party. During Hitler's trial, he was given almost unlimited time to
speak, and his popularity soared as he voiced nationalistic sentiments in his defence speech.
A Munich personality thus became a nationally known figure. On 1 April 1924, Hitler was
sentenced to five years' imprisonment at Landsberg Prison. Hitler received favoured
treatment from the guards and had much fan mail from admirers. He was pardoned and
released from jail on 20 December 1924, by order of the Bavarian Supreme Court on 19
December, which issued its final rejection of the state prosecutor's objections to Hitler's early
release.[50] Including time on remand, he had served little more than one year of his sentence.
[51]

On 28 June 1925, Hitler wrote a letter from Uffing to the editor of The Nation in New York
City complaining of the length of his sentence at "Sandberg a. S." [sic], where he claimed his
privileges had been extensively revoked.[52]
Mein Kampf
Main article: Mein Kampf

Dust jacket of Mein Kampf

While at Landsberg, he dictated most of the first volume of Mein Kampf (My Struggle,
originally entitled Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies, Stupidity, and Cowardice)
to his deputy Rudolf Hess.[51] The book, dedicated to Thule Society member Dietrich Eckart,
was an autobiography and an exposition of his ideology. Mein Kampf was influenced by The
Passing of the Great Race by Madison Grant, which Hitler called "my Bible."[53] It was
published in two volumes in 1925 and 1926, selling about 240,000 copies between 1925 and
1934. By the end of the war, about 10 million copies had been sold or distributed (newlyweds
and soldiers received free copies). The copyright of Mein Kampf in Europe is claimed by the
Free State of Bavaria and scheduled to end on 31 December 2015. Reproductions in Germany
are authorized only for scholarly purposes and in heavily commented form.
Rebuilding of the party
Adolf Hitler (left), standing up behind Hermann Göring at a Nazi rally in Nuremberg, 1928
At the time of Hitler's release, the political situation in Germany had calmed and the
economy had improved, which hampered Hitler's opportunities for agitation. Though the
"Hitler Putsch" had given Hitler some national prominence, Munich remained his party's
mainstay.
The NSDAP and its organs were banned in Bavaria after the collapse of the putsch. Hitler
convinced Heinrich Held, Prime Minister of Bavaria, to lift the ban, based on representations
that the party would now only seek political power through legal means. Even though the ban
on the NSDAP was removed effective 16 February 1925,[54] Hitler incurred a new ban on
public speaking as a result of an inflammatory speech. Since Hitler was banned from public
speeches, he appointed Gregor Strasser, who in 1924 had been elected to the Reichstag, as
Reichsorganisationsleiter, authorizing him to organize the party in northern Germany.
Strasser, joined by his younger brother Otto and Joseph Goebbels, steered an increasingly
independent course, emphasizing the socialist element in the party's programme. The
Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Gauleiter Nord-West became an internal opposition, threatening
Hitler's authority, but this faction was defeated at the Bamberg Conference in 1926, during
which Goebbels joined Hitler.
After this encounter, Hitler centralized the party even more and asserted the Führerprinzip
("Leader principle") as the basic principle of party organization. Leaders were not elected by
their group, but were rather appointed by their superior, answering to them while demanding
unquestioning obedience from their inferiors. Consistent with Hitler's disdain for democracy,
all power and authority devolved from the top down.
A key element of Hitler's appeal was his ability to evoke a sense of offended national pride
caused by the Treaty of Versailles imposed on the defeated German Empire by the Western
Allies. Germany had lost economically important territory in Europe along with its colonies
and in admitting to sole responsibility for the war had agreed to pay a huge reparations bill
totaling 132 billion marks. Most Germans bitterly resented these terms, but early Nazi
attempts to gain support by blaming these humiliations on "international Jewry" were not
particularly successful with the electorate. The party learned quickly, and soon a more subtle
propaganda emerged, combining antisemitism with an attack on the failures of the "Weimar
system" and the parties supporting it.
Having failed in overthrowing the Republic by a coup, Hitler pursued a "strategy of legality":
this meant formally adhering to the rules of the Weimar Republic until he had legally gained
power. He would then use the institutions of the Weimar Republic to destroy it and establish
himself as dictator. Some party members, especially in the paramilitary SA, opposed this
strategy; Röhm and others ridiculed Hitler as "Adolphe Legalité".
Rise to power
Main article: Adolf Hitler's rise to power
Nazi Party Election Results
Percentage Seats
Date Votes Background
in Reichstag
01924-05-01 &0000000
&000000000
May 1, 001918300 &0000000000000
0000006500 Hitler in prison
1924May 0000001,9 03200000032
0006.5
1924 18,300
01924-12-01 &0000000
&000000000
December 1, 000907300 &0000000000000
0000003000 Hitler is released from prison
1924Decembe 000000907 01400000014
0003.0
r 1924 ,300
01928-05-01 &0000000
&000000000
May 1, 000810100 &0000000000000
0000002600
1928May 000000810 01200000012
0002.6
1928 ,100
01930-09-01 &0000000
&000000000
September 1, 006409600 &0000000000000
0000018300 After the financial crisis
1930Septemb 0000006,4 107000000107
00018.3
er 1930 09,600
01932-07-01 &0000000
&000000000
July 1, 013745800 &0000000000000 After Hitler was candidate for
0000037399
1932July 00000013, 230000000230 presidency
99937.4
1932 745,800
01932-11-01 &0000000
&000000000
November 1, 011737000 &0000000000000
0000033100
1932Novemb 00000011, 196000000196
00033.1
er 1932 737,000
01933-03-01 &0000000
&000000000
March 1, 017277000 &0000000000000 During Hitler's term as Chancellor
0000043899
1933March 00000017, 288000000288 of Germany
99943.9
1933 277,000
Brüning Administration
An NSDAP meeting in December 1930, with Hitler in the centre
The political turning point for Hitler came when the Great Depression hit Germany in 1930.
The Weimar Republic had never been firmly rooted and was openly opposed by right-wing
conservatives (including monarchists), communists and the Nazis. As the parties loyal to the
democratic, parliamentary republic found themselves unable to agree on counter-measures,
their grand coalition broke up and was replaced by a minority cabinet. The new Chancellor,
Heinrich Brüning of the Roman Catholic Centre Party, lacking a majority in parliament, had
to implement his measures through the president's emergency decrees. Tolerated by the
majority of parties, this rule by decree would become the norm over a series of unworkable
parliaments and paved the way for authoritarian forms of government.[55]
The Reichstag's initial opposition to Brüning's measures led to premature elections in
September 1930. The republican parties lost their majority and their ability to resume the
grand coalition, while the Nazis suddenly rose from relative obscurity to win 18.3% of the
vote along with 107 seats. In the process, they jumped from the ninth-smallest party in the
chamber to the second largest.[56]
In September–October 1930, Hitler appeared as a major defence witness at the trial in
Leipzig of two junior Reichswehr officers charged with membership of the Nazi Party, which
at that time was forbidden to Reichswehr personnel.[57] The two officers, Leutnants Richard
Scheringer and Hans Ludin, admitted quite openly to Nazi Party membership, and used as
their defence that the Nazi Party membership should not be forbidden to those serving in the
Reichswehr.[58] When the Prosecution argued that the Nazi Party was a dangerous
revolutionary force, one of the defence lawyers, Hans Frank had Hitler brought to the stand to
prove that the Nazi Party was a law-abiding party.[58] During his testimony, Hitler insisted
that his party was determined to come to power legally, that the phrase "National Revolution"
was only to be interpreted "politically", and that his Party was a friend, not an enemy of the
Reichswehr.[59] Hitler's testimony of 25 September 1930 won him many admirers within the
ranks of the officer corps.[60]
Brüning's measures of budget consolidation and financial austerity brought little economic
improvement and were extremely unpopular.[61] Under these circumstances, Hitler appealed
to the bulk of German farmers, war veterans and the middle class, who had been hard-hit by
both the inflation of the 1920s and the unemployment of the Depression.[62] In September
1931, Hitler's niece Geli Raubal was found dead in her bedroom in his Munich apartment (his
half-sister Angela and her daughter Geli had been with him in Munich since 1929), an
apparent suicide. Geli, who was believed to be in some sort of romantic relationship with
Hitler, was 19 years younger than he was and had used his gun. His niece's death is viewed as
a source of deep, lasting pain for him.[63]
In 1932, Hitler intended to run against the aging President Paul von Hindenburg in the
scheduled presidential elections. His 27 January 1932 speech to the Industry Club in
Düsseldorf won him, for the first time, support from a broad swath of Germany's most
powerful industrialists.[64] Though Hitler had left Austria in 1913 and had formally renounced
his Austrian citizenship on 7 April 1925, he still had not acquired German citizenship and
hence could not run for public office. For almost seven years Hitler was stateless and faced
the risk of deportation from Germany.[65] On 25 February, however, the interior minister of
the Brunswick, a Nazi (the Nazis were part of a right-wing coalition governing the state)
appointed Hitler as administrator for the state's delegation to the Reichsrat in Berlin. This
appointment made Hitler a citizen of Brunswick.[66] In those days, the states conferred
citizenship, so this automatically made Hitler a citizen of Germany as well and thus eligible
to run for president.[67]
The new German citizen ran against Hindenburg, who was supported by a broad range of
nationalist, monarchist, Catholic, republican and even social democratic parties. Another
candidate was a Communist and member of a fringe right-wing party. Hitler's campaign was
called "Hitler über Deutschland" (Hitler over Germany).[68] The name had a double meaning;
besides a reference to his dictatorial ambitions, it referred to the fact that he campaigned by
aircraft.[68] Hitler came in second on both rounds, attaining more than 35% of the vote during
the second one in April. Although he lost to Hindenburg, the election established Hitler as a
realistic alternative in German politics.[69]
Appointment as Chancellor
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Meanwhile, Papen tried to get his revenge on Schleicher by working toward the General's
downfall, through forming an intrigue with the camarilla and Alfred Hugenberg, media
mogul and chairman of the DNVP. Also involved were Hjalmar Schacht, Fritz Thyssen and
other leading German businessmen and international bankers.[70] They financially supported
the Nazi Party, which had been brought to the brink of bankruptcy by the cost of heavy
campaigning. The businessmen wrote letters to Hindenburg, urging him to appoint Hitler as
leader of a government "independent from parliamentary parties" which could turn into a
movement that would "enrapture millions of people."[71]

Hitler from a window of the Chancellory receiving an ovation at his inauguration as

Chancellor, 30 January 1933
Finally, the president reluctantly agreed to appoint Hitler Chancellor of a coalition
government formed by the NSDAP and DNVP. However, the Nazis were to be contained by
a framework of conservative cabinet ministers, most notably by Papen as Vice-Chancellor
and by Hugenberg as Minister of the Economy. The only other Nazi besides Hitler to get a
portfolio was Wilhelm Frick, who was given the relatively powerless interior ministry (in
Germany at the time, most powers wielded by the interior minister in other countries were
held by the interior ministers of the states). As a concession to the Nazis, Göring was named
minister without portfolio. While Papen intended to use Hitler as a figurehead, the Nazis
gained key positions.
On the morning of 30 January 1933, in Hindenburg's office, Adolf Hitler was sworn in as
Chancellor during what some observers later described as a brief and simple ceremony. His
first speech as Chancellor took place on 10 February. The Nazis' seizure of power
subsequently became known as the Machtergreifung or Machtübernahme.
Reichstag fire and the March elections
Having become Chancellor, Hitler foiled all attempts by his opponents to gain a majority in
parliament. Because no single party could gain a majority, Hitler persuaded President
Hindenburg to dissolve the Reichstag again. Elections were scheduled for early March, but
on 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building was set on fire.[72] Since a Dutch independent
communist was found in the building, the fire was blamed on a communist plot. The
government reacted with the Reichstag Fire Decree of 28 February which suspended basic
rights, including habeas corpus. Under the provisions of this decree, the German Communist
Party (KPD) and other groups were suppressed, and Communist functionaries and deputies
were arrested, forced to flee, or murdered.
Campaigning continued, with the Nazis making use of paramilitary violence, anti-communist
hysteria, and the government's resources for propaganda. On election day, 6 March, the
NSDAP increased its result to 43.9% of the vote, remaining the largest party, but its victory
was marred by its failure to secure an absolute majority, necessitating maintaining a coalition
with the DNVP.[73]

Parade of SA troops past Hitler – Nuremberg, November 1935

"Day of Potsdam" and the Enabling Act
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challenged and removed. (April 2009) (Find sources: Adolf Hitler – news, books, scholar)

On 21 March, the new Reichstag was constituted with an opening ceremony held at
Potsdam's garrison church. This "Day of Potsdam" was staged to demonstrate reconciliation
and unity between the revolutionary Nazi movement and "Old Prussia" with its elites and
virtues. Hitler appeared in a tail coat and humbly greeted the aged President Hindenburg.
Because of the Nazis' failure to obtain a majority on their own, Hitler's government
confronted the newly elected Reichstag with the Enabling Act that would have vested the
cabinet with legislative powers for a period of four years. Though such a bill was not
unprecedented, this act was different since it allowed for deviations from the constitution.
Since the bill required a ⅔ majority in order to pass, the government needed the support of
other parties. The position of the Centre Party, the third largest party in the Reichstag, turned
out to be decisive: under the leadership of Ludwig Kaas, the party decided to vote for the
Enabling Act. It did so in return for the government's oral guarantees regarding the Church's
liberty, the concordats signed by German states and the continued existence of the Centre
Party.
On 23 March, the Reichstag assembled in a replacement building under extremely turbulent
circumstances. Some SA men served as guards within while large groups outside the building
shouted slogans and threats toward the arriving deputies. Kaas announced that the Centre
Party would support the bill with "concerns put aside," while Social Democrat Otto Wels
denounced the act in his speech. At the end of the day, all parties except the Social
Democrats voted in favour of the bill. The Communists, as well as some Social Democrats,
were barred from attending. The Enabling Act, combined with the Reichstag Fire Decree,
transformed Hitler's government into a legal dictatorship.
Removal of remaining limits
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—
With this combination of legislative and executive power, Hitler's government further
suppressed the remaining political opposition. After the rapid dissolution of the Communist
Party the Social Democratic Party (SPD) were banned, leading to a 10 May court order that
all property and assets be seized. The Steel Helmets (World War One veterans) on 26 April
were placed under Hitler's leadership with guarantee they would exist as an autonomous
organization to be called upon as an auxiliary police force. On 2 May, stormtroopers
ransacked and destroyed every trade union office in the country and 4 May the Christian
Trade Unions and all other unions vowed allegiance to Hitler. The State Party dissolved on
June 28. The 60 year old People's Party officially dissolved on 4 July. The Catholic Church
was given no choice but to support Hitler after dissolution of their Centre Party on 5 July.
The right wing German Nationalist Front was forced to incorporate its small paramilitaries
into the Nazi SA and dissolved per the "Friendship Agreement". Finally, on 14 July, the Nazi
Party was declared the only legal party in Germany as big business and the army stood on the
sidelines.[75]
Hitler used the SA paramilitary to push Hugenberg into resigning, and proceeded to
politically isolate Vice-Chancellor Papen. Because the SA's demands for political and
military power caused much anxiety among military and political leaders, Hitler used
allegations of a plot by the SA leader Ernst Röhm to purge the SA's leadership during the
Night of the Long Knives. As well, opponents unconnected with the SA were murdered,
notably Gregor Strasser and former Chancellor Kurt von Schleicher.[76]
In 1934, Hitler became Germany's president under the title Führer und Reichskanzler (Leader
and Chancellor of the Reich).
President Paul von Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934. Rather than call new elections as
required by the constitution, Hitler's cabinet passed a law proclaiming the presidency vacant
and transferred the role and powers of the head of state to Hitler as Führer und Reichskanzler
(leader and chancellor). This action effectively removed the last legal remedy by which Hitler
could be dismissed – and with it, nearly all institutional checks and balances on his power.
On 19 August a plebiscite approved the merger of the presidency with the chancellorship
winning 84.6% of the electorate.[77][78] This action technically violated both the constitution
and the Enabling Act. The constitution had been amended in 1932 to make the president of
the High Court of Justice, not the chancellor, acting president until new elections could be
held. The Enabling Act specifically barred Hitler from taking any action that tampered with
the presidency. However, no one dared object.
As head of state, Hitler now became Supreme Commander of the armed forces. When it came
time for the soldiers and sailors to swear the traditional loyalty oath, it had been altered into
an oath of personal loyalty to Hitler. Normally, soldiers and sailors swear loyalty to the
holder of the office of supreme commander/commander-in-chief, not a specific person.[79]
In 1938, two scandals resulted in Hitler bringing the Armed Forces under his control. Hitler
forced the resignation of his War Minister (formerly Defense Minister), Werner von
Blomberg, after evidence surfaced that Blomberg's new wife had a criminal past. Prior to
removing Blomberg, Hitler and his clique removed army commander Werner von Fritsch on
suspicion of homosexuality.[80] Hitler replaced the Ministry of War with the Oberkommando
der Wehrmacht (High Command of the Armed Forces, or OKW), headed by the pliant
General Wilhelm Keitel. More importantly, Hitler announced he was assuming personal
command of the armed forces. He took over Blomberg's other old post, that of Commander-
in-Chief of the Armed Forces, for himself. He was already Supreme Commander by virtue of
holding the powers of the president. The next day, the newspapers announced, "Strongest
concentration of powers in Führer's hands!"
Third Reich
Main article: Nazi Germany
Having secured supreme political power, Hitler went on to gain public support by convincing
most Germans he was their saviour from the economic Depression, the Versailles treaty,
communism, the "Judeo-Bolsheviks", and other "undesirable" minorities. The Nazis
eliminated opposition through a process known as Gleichschaltung ("bringing into line").
Economy and culture
Hitler oversaw one of the greatest expansions of industrial production and civil improvement
Germany had ever seen, mostly based on debt flotation[jargon] and expansion of the military.
Nazi policies toward women strongly encouraged them to stay at home to bear children and
keep house. In a September 1934 speech to the National Socialist Women's Organization,
Adolf Hitler argued that for the German woman her "world is her husband, her family, her
children, and her home." This policy was reinforced by bestowing the Cross of Honor of the
German Mother on women bearing four or more babies. The unemployment rate was cut
substantially, mostly through arms production and sending women home so that men could
take their jobs. Given this, claims that the German economy achieved near full employment
are at least partly artefacts of propaganda from the era. Much of the financing for Hitler's
reconstruction and rearmament came from currency manipulation by Hjalmar Schacht,
including the clouded credits through the Mefo bills.

1934 Nuremberg rally

Hitler oversaw one of the largest infrastructure-improvement campaigns in German history,
with the construction of dozens of dams, autobahns, railroads, and other civil works. This
revitalising of industry and infrastructure came at the expense of the overall standard of
living, at least for those not affected by the chronic unemployment of the later Weimar
Republic, since wages were slightly reduced in pre-World War II years, despite a 25%
increase in the cost of living.[81] Laborers and farmers, the traditional voters of the NSDAP,
however, saw an increase in their standard of living.
Hitler's government sponsored architecture on an immense scale, with Albert Speer becoming
famous as the first architect of the Reich. While important as an architect in implementing
Hitler's classicist reinterpretation of German culture, Speer proved much more effective as
armaments minister during the last years of World War II. In 1936, Berlin hosted the summer
Olympic games, which were opened by Hitler and choreographed to demonstrate Aryan
superiority over all other races, achieving mixed results.
Although Hitler made plans for a Breitspurbahn ("broad gauge railroad network"), they were
preempted by World War II. Had the railroad been built, its gauge would have been three
metres, even wider than the old Great Western Railway of Britain.
Hitler contributed slightly to the design of the car that later became the Volkswagen Beetle
and charged Ferdinand Porsche with its design and construction.[82] Production was deferred
because of the war.
On 20 April 1939, a lavish celebration was held in honour of Hitler's 50th birthday, featuring
military parades, visits from foreign dignitaries, thousands of flaming torches and Nazi
banners.[83]
An important historical debate about Hitler's economic policies concerns the "modernization"
issue. Historians such as David Schoenbaum and Henry Ashby Turner have argued that social
and economic polices under Hitler were modernization carried out in pursuit of anti-modern
goals.[84] Other groups of historians centred around Rainer Zitelmann have contended that
Hitler had a deliberate strategy of pursuing a revolutionary modernization of German society.
[85]

Rearmament and new alliances

This section may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. Please consider
moving more of the content into sub-articles and using this article for a summary of
the key points of the subject. (April 2010)
Main articles: Axis powers, Tripartite Pact, and German re-armament

Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini during Hitler's visit to Venice from 14 to 16 June 1934
In a meeting with his leading generals and admirals on 3 February 1933, Hitler spoke of
"conquest of Lebensraum in the East and its ruthless Germanisation" as his ultimate foreign
policy objectives.[86] In March 1933, the first major statement of German foreign policy aims
appeared with the memo submitted to the German Cabinet by the State Secretary at the
Auswärtiges Amt (Foreign Office), Prince Bernhard Wilhelm von Bülow (not to be confused
with his more famous uncle, the former Chancellor Bernhard von Bülow), which advocated
Anschluss with Austria, the restoration of the frontiers of 1914, the rejection of the Part V of
Versailles, the return of the former German colonies in Africa, and a German zone of
influence in Eastern Europe as goals for the future. Hitler found the goals in Bülow's memo
to be too modest.[87] In March 1933, to resolve the deadlock between the French demand for
sécurité ("security") and the German demand for gleichberechtigung ("equality of
armaments") at the World Disarmament Conference in Geneva, Switzerland, the British
Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald presented the compromise "MacDonald Plan". Hitler
endorsed the "MacDonald Plan", correctly guessing that nothing would come of it, and that in
the interval he could win some goodwill in London by making his government appear
moderate, and the French obstinate.[88]
In May 1933, Hitler met with Herbert von Dirksen, the German Ambassador in Moscow.
Dirksen advised the Führer that he was allowing relations with the Soviet Union to
deteriorate to an unacceptable extent, and advised to take immediate steps to repair relations
with the Soviets.[89] Much to Dirksen's intense disappointment, Hitler informed that he wished
for an anti-Soviet understanding with Poland, which Dirksen protested implied recognition of
the German-Polish border, leading Hitler to state he was after much greater things than
merely overturning the Treaty of Versailles.[90]
In June 1933, Hitler was forced to disavow Alfred Hugenberg of the German National
People's Party, who while attending the London World Economic Conference put forth a
programme of colonial expansion in both Africa and Eastern Europe, which created a major
storm abroad.[91] Speaking to the Burgermeister of Hamburg in 1933, Hitler commented that
Germany required several years of peace before it could be sufficiently rearmed enough to
risk a war, and until then a policy of caution was called for.[92] In his "peace speeches" of 17
May 1933, 21 May 1935, and 7 March 1936, Hitler stressed his supposed pacific goals and a
willingness to work within the international system.[93] In private, Hitler's plans were
something less than pacific. At the first meeting of his Cabinet in 1933, Hitler placed military
spending ahead of unemployment relief, and indeed was only prepared to spend money on
the latter if the former was satisfied first.[94] When the president of the Reichsbank, the former
Chancellor Dr. Hans Luther, offered the new government the legal limit of 100 million
Reichmarks to finance rearmament, Hitler found the sum too low, and sacked Luther in
March 1933 to replace him with Hjalmar Schacht, who during the next five years was to
advance 12 billion Reichmarks worth of "Mefo-bills" to pay for rearmament.[95]
A major initiative in Hitler's foreign policy in his early years was to create an alliance with
Britain. In the 1920s, Hitler wrote that a future National Socialist foreign policy goal was "the
destruction of Russia with the help of England."[96] In May 1933, Alfred Rosenberg in his
capacity as head of the Nazi Party's Aussenpolitisches Amt (Foreign Political Office) visited
London as part of a disastrous effort to win an alliance with Britain.[97] In October 1933,
Hitler pulled Germany out of both the League of Nations and World Disarmament
Conference after his Foreign Minister Baron Konstantin von Neurath made it appear to world
public opinion that the French demand for sécurité was the principal stumbling block.[98]
In line with the views he advocated in Mein Kampf and Zweites Buch about the necessity of
building an Anglo-German alliance, Hitler, in a meeting in November 1933 with the British
Ambassador, Sir Eric Phipps, offered a scheme in which Britain would support a 300,000-
strong German Army in exchange for a German "guarantee" of the British Empire.[99] In
response, the British stated a 10-year waiting period would be necessary before Britain would
support an increase in the size of the German Army.[99] A more successful initiative in foreign
policy occurred with relations with Poland. In spite of intense opposition from the military
and the Auswärtiges Amt who preferred closer ties with the Soviet Union, Hitler, in the fall of
1933 opened secret talks with Poland that were to lead to the German–Polish Non-
Aggression Pact of January 1934.[98]
In February 1934, Hitler met with the British Lord Privy Seal, Sir Anthony Eden, and hinted
strongly that Germany already possessed an Air Force, which had been forbidden by the
Treaty of Versailles.[100] In the fall of 1934, Hitler was seriously concerned over the dangers
of inflation damaging his popularity.[101] In a secret speech given before his Cabinet on 5
November 1934, Hitler stated he had "given the working class his word that he would allow
no price increases. Wage-earners would accuse him of breaking his word if he did not act
against the rising prices. Revolutionary conditions among the people would be the further
consequence."[101]
Although a secret German armaments programme had been on-going since 1919, in March
1935, Hitler rejected Part V of the Versailles treaty by publicly announcing that the German
army would be expanded to 600,000 men (six times the number stipulated in the Treaty of
Versailles), introducing an Air Force (Luftwaffe) and increasing the size of the Navy
(Kriegsmarine). Britain, France, Italy and the League of Nations quickly condemned these
actions. However, after re-assurances from Hitler that Germany was only interested in peace,
no country took any action to stop this development and German re-armament continued.
Later in March 1935, Hitler held a series of meetings in Berlin with the British Foreign
Secretary Sir John Simon and Eden, during which he successfully evaded British offers for
German participation in a regional security pact meant to serve as an Eastern European
equivalent of the Locarno pact while the two British ministers avoided taking up Hitler's
offers of alliance.[102] During his talks with Simon and Eden, Hitler first used what he
regarded as the brilliant colonial negotiating tactic, when Hitler parlayed an offer from Simon
to return to the League of Nations by demanding the return of the former German colonies in
Africa.[103]
Starting in April 1935, disenchantment with how the Third Reich had developed in practice
as opposed to what been promised led many in the Nazi Party, especially the Alte Kämpfer
(Old Fighters; i.e., those who joined the Party before 1930, and who tended to be the most
ardent anti-Semitics in the Party), and the SA into lashing out against Germany's Jewish
minority as a way of expressing their frustrations against a group that the authorities would
not generally protect.[104] The rank and file of the Party were most unhappy that two years into
the Third Reich, and despite countless promises by Hitler prior to 1933, no law had been
passed banning marriage or sex between those Germans belonging to the "Aryan" and Jewish
"races". A Gestapo report from the spring of 1935 stated that the rank and file of the Nazi
Party would "set in motion by us from below," a solution to the "Jewish problem," "that the
government would then have to follow."[105] As a result, Nazi Party activists and the SA
started a major wave of assaults, vandalism and boycotts against German Jews.[106]
On 18 June 1935, the Anglo-German Naval Agreement (AGNA) was signed in London
which allowed for increasing the allowed German tonnage up to 35% of that of the British
navy. Hitler called the signing of the AGNA "the happiest day of his life" as he believed the
agreement marked the beginning of the Anglo-German alliance he had predicted in Mein
Kampf.[107] This agreement was made without consulting either France or Italy, directly
undermining the League of Nations and put the Treaty of Versailles on the path towards
irrelevance.[108] After the signing of the A.G.N.A., in June 1935 Hitler ordered the next step in
the creation of an Anglo-German alliance: taking all the societies demanding the restoration
of the former German African colonies and coordinating (Gleichschaltung) them into a new
Reich Colonial League (Reichskolonialbund) which over the next few years waged an
extremely aggressive propaganda campaign for colonial restoration.[109] Hitler had no real
interest in the former German African colonies. In Mein Kampf, Hitler had excoriated the
Imperial German government for pursuing colonial expansion in Africa prior to 1914 on the
grounds that the natural area for Lebensraum was Eastern Europe, not Africa.[110] It was
Hitler's intention to use colonial demands as a negotiating tactic that would see a German
"renunciation" of colonial claims in exchange for Britain making an alliance with the Reich
on German terms.[111]
In the summer of 1935, Hitler was informed that, between inflation and the need to use
foreign exchange to buy raw materials Germany lacked for rearmament, there were only
5 million Reichmarks available for military expenditure, and a pressing need for some
300,000 Reichmarks/day to prevent food shortages.[112] In August 1935, Dr. Hjalmar Schacht
advised Hitler that the wave of anti-Semitic violence was interfering with the workings of the
economy, and hence rearmament.[113] Following Dr. Schacht's complaints, plus reports that
the German public did not approve of the wave of anti-Semitic violence, and that continuing
police toleration of the violence was hurting the regime's popularity with the wider public,
Hitler ordered a stop to "individual actions" against German Jews on 8 August 1935.[113] From
Hitler's perspective, it was imperative to bring in harsh new anti-Semitic laws as a
consolation prize for those Party members who were disappointed with Hitler's halt order of 8
August, especially because Hitler had only reluctantly given the halt order for pragmatic
reasons, and his sympathies were with the Party radicals.[113] The annual Nazi Party Rally
held at Nuremberg in September 1935 was to feature the first session of the Reichstag held at
that city since 1543. Hitler had planned to have the Reichstag pass a law making the Nazi
Swastika flag the flag of the German Reich, and a major speech in support of the impending
Italian aggression against Ethiopia.[114] Hitler felt that the Italian aggression opened great
opportunities for Germany. In August 1935, Hitler told Goebbels his foreign policy vision as:
"With England eternal alliance. Good relationship with Poland . . . Expansion to the East. The
Baltic belongs to us . . . Conflicts Italy-Abyssinia-England, then Japan-Russia imminent."[115]
At the last minute before the Nuremberg Party Rally was due to begin, the German Foreign
Minister Baron Konstantin von Neurath persuaded Hitler to cancel his speech praising Italy
for her willingness to commit aggression. Neurath convinced Hitler that his speech was too
provocative to public opinion abroad as it contradicted the message of Hitler's "peace
speeches", thus leaving Hitler with the sudden need to have something else to address the
first meeting of the Reichstag in Nuremberg since 1543, other than the Reich Flag Law.[116]
On 13 September 1935, Hitler hurriedly ordered two civil servants, Dr. Bernhard Lösener and
Franz Albrecht Medicus of the Interior Ministry to fly to Nuremberg to start drafting anti-
Semitic laws for Hitler to present to the Reichstag for 15 September.[114] On the evening of 15
September, Hitler presented two laws before the Reichstag banning sex and marriage
between Aryan and Jewish Germans, the employment of Aryan woman under the age of 45 in
Jewish households, and deprived "non-Aryans" of the benefits of German citizenship.[117] The
laws of September 1935 are generally known as the Nuremberg Laws.
In October 1935, in order to prevent further food shortages and the introduction of rationing,
Hitler reluctantly ordered cuts in military spending.[118] In the spring of 1936 in response to
requests from Richard Walther Darré, Hitler ordered 60 million Reichmarks of foreign
exchange to be used to buy seed oil for German farmers, a decision that led to bitter
complaints from Dr. Schacht and the War Minister Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg that
it would be impossible to achieve rearmament as long as foreign exchange was diverted to
preventing food shortages.[115] Given the economic problems which was affecting his
popularity by early 1936, Hitler felt the pressing need for a foreign policy triumph as a way
of distracting public attention from the economy.[115]
In an interview with the French journalist Bertrand de Jouvenel in February 1936, Hitler
appeared to disavow Mein Kampf by saying that parts of his book were now out of date and
he was not guided by them, though precisely which parts were out of date was left unclear.[119]
In March 1936, Hitler again violated the Versailles treaty by reoccupying the demilitarized
zone in the Rhineland. When Britain and France did nothing, he grew bolder. In July 1936,
the Spanish Civil War began when the military, led by General Francisco Franco, rebelled
against the elected Popular Front government. After receiving an appeal for help from
General Franco in July 1936, Hitler sent troops to support Franco, and Spain served as a
testing ground for Germany's new forces and their methods. At the same time, Hitler
continued with his efforts to create an Anglo-German alliance. In July 1936, he offered to
Phipps a promise that if Britain were to sign an alliance with the Reich, then Germany would
commit to sending twelve divisions to the Far East to protect British colonial possessions
there from a Japanese attack.[120] Hitler's offer was refused.
In August 1936, in response to a growing crisis in the German economy caused by the strains
of rearmament, Hitler issued the "Four-Year Plan Memorandum" ordering Hermann Göring
to carry out the Four Year Plan to have the German economy ready for war within the next
four years.[121] During the 1936 economic crisis, the German government was divided into
two factions, with one (the so-called "free market" faction) centring around the Reichsbank
President Hjalmar Schacht and the former Price Commissioner Dr. Carl Friedrich Goerdeler
calling for decreased military spending and a turn away from autarkic policies, and another
faction around Göring calling for the opposite. Supporting the "free-market" faction were
some of Germany's leading business executives, most notably Hermann Duecher of AEG,
Robert Bosch of Robert Bosch GmbH, and Albert Voegeler of Vereinigte Stahlwerke AG.[122]
Hitler hesitated for the first half of 1936 before siding with the more radical faction in his
"Four Year Plan" memo of August.[123] Historians such as Richard Overy have argued that the
importance of the memo, which was written personally by Hitler, can be gauged by the fact
that Hitler, who had something of a phobia about writing, hardly ever wrote anything down,
which indicates that Hitler had something especially important to say.[124] The "Four-Year
Plan Memorandum" predicated an imminent all-out, apocalyptic struggle between "Judo-
Bolshevism" and German National Socialism, which necessitated a total effort at rearmament
regardless of the economic costs.[125] In the memo, Hitler wrote:
Since the outbreak of the French Revolution, the world has been moving with ever increasing
speed toward a new conflict, the most extreme solution of which is called Bolshevism, whose
essence and aim, however, are solely the elimination of those strata of mankind which have
hitherto provided the leadership and their replacement by worldwide Jewry. No state will be
able to withdraw or even remain at a distance from this historical conflict . . . It is not the aim
of this memorandum to prophesy the time when the untenable situation in Europe will
become an open crisis. I only want, in these lines, to set down my conviction that this crisis
cannot and will not fail to arrive and that it is Germany's duty to secure her own existence by
every means in face of this catastrophe, and to protect herself against it, and that from this
compulsion there arises a series of conclusions relating to the most important tasks that our
people have ever been set. For a victory of Bolshevism over Germany would not lead to a
Versailles treaty, but to the final destruction, indeed the annihilation of the German
people . . . I consider it necessary for the Reichstag to pass the following two laws: 1) A law
providing the death penalty for economic sabotage and 2) A law making the whole of Jewry
liable for all damage inflicted by individual specimens of this community of criminals upon
the German economy, and thus upon the German people.[126]
Hitler called for Germany to have the world's "first army" in terms of fighting power within
the next four years and that "the extent of the military development of our resources cannot
be too large, nor its pace too swift" (italics in the original) and the role of the economy was
simply to support "Germany's self-assertion and the extension of her Lebensraum."[127][128]
Hitler went on to write that given the magnitude of the coming struggle that the concerns
expressed by members of the "free market" faction like Schacht and Goerdeler that the
current level of military spending was bankrupting Germany were irrelevant. Hitler wrote
that: "However well balanced the general pattern of a nation's life ought to be, there must at
particular times be certain disturbances of the balance at the expense of other less vital tasks.
If we do not succeed in bringing the German army as rapidly as possible to the rank of
premier army in the world . . . then Germany will be lost!"[129] and "The nation does not live
for the economy, for economic leaders, or for economic or financial theories; on the contrary,
it is finance and the economy, economic leaders and theories, which all owe unqualified
service in this struggle for the self-assertion of our nation."[122][clarification needed] Documents such
as the Four Year Plan Memo have often been used by right historians such as Henry Ashby
Turner and Karl Dietrich Bracher who argue for a "primacy of politics" approach (that Hitler
was not subordinate to German business, but rather the contrary was the case) against the
"primacy of economics" approach championed by Marxist historians (that Hitler was an
"agent" of and subordinate to German business).[130]
In August 1936, the freelance Nazi diplomat Joachim von Ribbentrop was appointed German
Ambassador to the Embassy of Germany in London at the Court of St. James's. Before
Ribbentrop left to take up his post in October 1936, Hitler told him: "Ribbentrop . . . get
Britain to join the Anti-Comintern Pact, that is what I want most of all. I have sent you as the
best man I've got. Do what you can . . . But if in future all our efforts are still in vain, fair
enough, then I'm ready for war as well. I would regret it very much, but if it has to be, there it
is. But I think it would be a short war and the moment it is over, I will then be ready at any
time to offer the British an honourable peace acceptable to both sides. However, I would then
demand that Britain join the Anti-Comintern Pact or perhaps some other pact. But get on with
it, Ribbentrop, you have the trumps in your hand, play them well. I'm ready at any time for an
air pact as well. Do your best. I will follow your efforts with interest".[131]

On 25 October 1936, an Axis was declared between Italy and Germany

An Axis was declared between Germany and Italy by Count Galeazzo Ciano, foreign minister
of Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini on 25 October 1936. On 25 November of the same year,
Germany concluded the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan. At the time of the signing of the
Anti-Comintern Pact, invitations were sent out for Britain, China, Italy and Poland to adhere;
of the invited powers only the Italians were to sign the pact, in November 1937. To
strengthen relationships with Japan, Hitler met in 1937 in Nuremberg Prince Chichibu, a
brother of emperor Hirohito. However, the meeting with Prince Chichibu had little
consequence, as Hitler refused the Japanese request to halt German arms shipments to China
or withdraw the German officers serving with the Chinese in the Second Sino-Japanese War.
Both the military and the Auswärtiges Amt (Foreign Office) were strongly opposed to ending
the informal German alliance with China that existed since the 1910s, and pressured Hitler to
avoid offending the Chinese. The Auswärtiges Amt and the military both argued to Hitler that
given the foreign exchange problems which afflicted German rearmament, and the fact that
various Sino-German economic agreements provided Germany with raw materials that would
otherwise use up precious foreign exchange, it was folly to seek an alliance with Japan that
would have the inevitable result of ending the Sino-German alignment.
By the latter half of 1937, Hitler had abandoned his dream of an Anglo-German alliance,
blaming "inadequate" British leadership for turning down his offers of an alliance.[132] In a
talk with the League of Nations High Commissioner for the Free City of Danzig, the Swiss
diplomat Carl Jacob Burckhardt in September 1937, Hitler protested what he regarded as
British interference in the "German sphere" in Europe, though in the same talk, Hitler made
clear his view of Britain as an ideal ally, which for pure selfishness was blocking German
plans.[132]
Hitler had suffered severely from stomach pains and eczema in 1936–37, leading to his
remark to the Nazi Party's propaganda leadership in October 1937 that because both parents
died early in their lives, he would probably follow suit, leaving him with only a few years to
obtain the necessary Lebensraum.[133][134] About the same time, Dr. Goebbels noted in his
diary Hitler now wished to see the "Great Germanic Reich" he envisioned in his own lifetime
rather than leaving the work of building the "Great Germanic Reich" to his successors.[135]
On 5 November 1937, at the Reich Chancellory, Adolf Hitler held a secret meeting with the
War and Foreign Ministers and the three service chiefs, recorded in the Hossbach
Memorandum, and stated his intentions for acquiring "living space" Lebensraum for the
German people. He ordered the attendees to make plans for war in the east no later than 1943
in order to acquire Lebensraum. Hitler stated the conference minutes were to be regarded as
his "political testament" in the event of his death.[136] In the memo, Hitler was recorded as
saying that such a state of crisis had been reached in the German economy that the only way
of stopping a severe decline in living standards in Germany was to embark sometime in the
near-future on a policy of aggression by seizing Austria and Czechoslovakia.[137][138]
Moreover, Hitler stated that the arms race meant that time for action had to occur before
Britain and France obtained a permanent lead in the arms race.[137] A striking change in the
Hossbach Memo was Hitler's changed view of Britain from the prospective ally of 1928 in
the Zweites Buch to the "hate-inspired antagonist" of 1937 in the Hossbach memo.[139] The
historian Klaus Hildebrand described the memo as the start of an "ambivalent course"
towards Britain while the late historian Andreas Hillgruber argued that Hitler was embarking
on expansion "without Britain," preferably "with Britain," but if necessary "against
Britain."[111][140]
Hitler's intentions outlined in the Hossbach memorandum led to strong protests from the
Foreign Minister, Baron Konstantin von Neurath, the War Minister Field Marshal Werner
von Blomberg, and the Army Commander General Werner von Fritsch, that any German
aggression in Eastern Europe was bound to trigger a war with France because of the French
alliance system in Eastern Europe (the so-called cordon sanitaire), and if a Franco-German
war broke out, then Britain was almost certain to intervene rather than risk the chance of a
French defeat.[141] The aggression against Austria and Czechoslovakia were intended to be the
first of a series of localized wars in Eastern Europe that would secure Germany's position in
Europe before the final showdown with Britain and France. Fritsch, Blomberg and Neurath
all argue that Hitler was pursuing an extremely high-risk strategy of localized wars in Eastern
Europe that was most likely to cause a general war before Germany was ready for such a
conflict, and advised Hitler to wait until Germany had more time to rearm. Neurath,
Blomberg and Fritsch had no moral objections to German aggression, but rather based their
opposition on the question of timing – determining the best time for aggression.[141]
Late in November 1937, Hitler received as his guest the British Lord Privy Seal, Lord Halifax
who was visiting Germany ostensibly as part of a hunting trip. Speaking of changes to
Germany's frontiers, Halifax told Hitler that: "All other questions fall into the category of
possible alterations in the European order which might be destined to come about with the
passage of time. Amongst these questions were Danzig, Austria and Czechoslovakia. England
was interested to see that any alterations should come through the course of peaceful
evolution and that the methods should be avoided which might cause far-reaching
disturbances."[142] Significantly, Halifax made clear in his statements to Hitler—though
whether Hitler appreciated the significance of this or not is unclear—that any possible
territorial changes had to be accomplished peacefully, and that though Britain had no security
commitments in Eastern Europe beyond the Covenant of the League of Nations, would not
tolerate territorial changes via war.[143] Hitler seems to have misunderstood Halifax's remarks
as confirming his conviction that Britain would just stand aside while he pursued his strategy
of limited wars in Eastern Europe.
Hitler was most unhappy with the criticism of his intentions expressed by Neurath,
Blomberg, and Fritsch in the Hossbach Memo, and in early 1938 asserted his control of the
military-foreign policy apparatus through the Blomberg-Fritsch Affair, the abolition of the
War Ministry and its replacement by the OKW, and by sacking Neurath as Foreign Minister
on 4 February 1938, assuming the rank, role and title of the Oberster Befehlshaber der
Wehrmacht (supreme commander of the armed forces).[144] The British economic historian
Richard Overy commented that the establishment of the OKW in February 1938 was a clear
sign of what Hitler's intentions were since supreme headquarters organizations such as the
OKW are normally set up during wartime, not peacetime.[145] The Official German history of
World War II has argued that from early 1938 onwards, Hitler was not carrying out a foreign
policy that had carried a high risk of war, but was carrying out a foreign policy aiming at war.
[146]

The Holocaust
Main article: The Holocaust

An American soldier stands in front of a wagon piled high with corpses outside the
crematorium in the newly liberated Buchenwald concentration camp
One of the foundations of Hitler's social policies was the concept of racial hygiene. It was
based on the ideas of Arthur de Gobineau, a French count; eugenics, a pseudo-science that
advocated racial purity; and social Darwinism. Applied to human beings, "survival of the
fittest" was interpreted as requiring racial purity and killing off "life unworthy of life." The
first victims were children with physical and developmental disabilities; those killings
occurred in a programme dubbed Action T4.[147] After a public outcry, Hitler made a show of
ending this program, but the killings continued (see Nazi eugenics).
Between 1939 and 1945, the SS, assisted by collaborationist governments and recruits from
occupied countries, systematically killed somewhere between 11 and 14 million people,
including about six million Jews,[148][149] in concentration camps, ghettos and mass executions,
or through less systematic methods elsewhere. In addition to those gassed to death, many died
as a result of starvation and disease while working as slave labourers (sometimes benefiting
private German companies). Along with Jews, non-Jewish Poles, Communists and political
opponents, members of resistance groups, homosexuals, Roma, the physically handicapped
and mentally retarded, Soviet prisoners of war (possibly as many as three million), Jehovah's
Witnesses, Adventists, trade unionists, and psychiatric patients were killed. One of the
biggest centres of mass-killing was the industrial extermination camp complex of Auschwitz-
Birkenau. As far as is known, Hitler never visited the concentration camps and did not speak
publicly about the killing in precise terms.[150]
The Holocaust (the "Endlösung der jüdischen Frage" or "Final Solution of the Jewish
Question") was planned and ordered by leading Nazis, with Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard
Heydrich playing key roles. While no specific order from Hitler authorizing the mass killing
has surfaced, there is documentation showing that he approved the Einsatzgruppen killing
squads that followed the German army through Poland and Russia, and that he was kept well
informed about their activities. The evidence also suggests that in the fall of 1941 Himmler
and Hitler decided upon mass extermination by gassing. During interrogations by Soviet
intelligence officers declassified over fifty years later, Hitler's valet Heinz Linge and his
military aide Otto Gunsche said Hitler had "pored over the first blueprints of gas chambers."
His private secretary, Traudl Junge, testified that Hitler knew all about the death camps.[citation
needed]

Göring gave a written authorisation to Heydrich to "make all necessary preparations" for a
"total solution of the Jewish question". To make for smoother cooperation in the
implementation of this "Final Solution", the Wannsee conference was held on 20 January
1942, with fifteen senior officials participating (including Adolf Eichmann) and led by
Reinhard Heydrich. The records of this meeting provide the clearest evidence of planning for
the Holocaust. On 22 February, Hitler was recorded saying to his associates, "we shall regain
our health only by eliminating the Jews".
World War II
Main article: World War II
Early diplomatic triumphs
Alliance with Japan
Main article: German–Japanese relations

Japanese Foreign Minister Yosuke Matsuoka with Hitler in Berlin

In February 1938, Hitler finally ended the dilemma that had plagued German Far Eastern
policy: whether to continue the informal Sino-German alliance that had existed with the
Republic of China since the 1910s or to create a new alliance with Japan. The military at the
time strongly favoured continuing Germany's alliance with China. China had the support of
Foreign Minister Konstantin von Neurath and War Minister Werner von Blomberg, the so-
called "China Lobby" who tried to steer German foreign policy away from war in Europe.[151]
Both men, however, were sacked by Hitler in early 1938. Upon the advice of Hitler's newly
appointed Foreign Minister, the strongly pro-Japanese Joachim von Ribbentrop, Hitler chose
to end the alliance with China to gain an alignment with the more modern and powerful
Japan. In an address to the Reichstag, Hitler announced German recognition of Manchukuo,
the Japanese-occupied puppet state in Manchuria, and renounced the German claims to the
former colonies in the Pacific held by Japan.[152] Hitler ordered an end to arms shipments to
China, and ordered the recall of all the German officers attached to the Chinese Army.[152] In
retaliation for ending German support to China in its war against Japan, Chinese
Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek canceled all Sino-German economic agreements, depriving
the Germans of raw materials such as tungsten that the Chinese had previously provided. The
ending of the Sino-German alignment increased the problems of German rearmament, as the
Germans were now forced to use their limited supply of foreign exchange to buy raw
materials on the open market.
Austria and Czechoslovakia
This section may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. Please consider
moving more of the content into sub-articles and using this article for a summary of
the key points of the subject. (April 2010)
In March 1938, Hitler pressured Austria into unification with Germany (the Anschluss) and
made a triumphant entry into Vienna on 14 March.[153][154] Next, he intensified a crisis over the
German-speaking Sudetenland districts of Czechoslovakia.[155]
On 3 March 1938, the British Ambassador Sir Neville Henderson met with Hitler and
presented on behalf of his government a proposal for an international consortium to rule
much of Africa (in which Germany would be assigned a leading role) in exchange for a
German promise never to resort to war to change the frontiers.[156] Hitler, who was more
interested in Lebensraum in Eastern Europe than in participating in international consortiums,
rejected the British offer, using as his excuse that he wanted the former German African
colonies returned to the Reich, not an international consortium running Central Africa.
Moreover, Hitler argued that it was totally outrageous on Britain's part to impose conditions
on German conduct in Europe as the price for territory in Africa.[157] Hitler ended the
conversation by telling Henderson he would rather wait 20 years for the return of the former
colonies than accept British conditions for avoiding war.[157][158]
On 28–29 March 1938, Hitler held a series of secret meetings in Berlin with Konrad Henlein
of the Sudeten Heimfront (Home Front), the largest of the ethnic German parties of the
Sudetenland. During the Hitler-Henlein meetings, it was agreed that Henlein would provide
the pretext for German aggression against Czechoslovakia by making demands on Prague for
increased autonomy for Sudeten Germans that Prague could never be reasonably expected to
fulfill. In April 1938, Henlein told the foreign minister of Hungary that "whatever the Czech
government might offer, he would always raise still higher demands ... he wanted to sabotage
an understanding by all means because this was the only method to blow up Czechoslovakia
quickly".[159] In private, Hitler considered the Sudeten issue unimportant; his real intentions
being to use the Sudeten question as the justification both at home and abroad for a war of
aggression to destroy Czechoslovakia, under the grounds of self-determination, and Prague's
refusal to meet Henlein's demands.[160] Hitler's plans called for a massive military build-up
along the Czechoslovak border, relentless propaganda attacks about the supposed ill
treatment of the Sudetenlanders, and finally, "incidents" between Heimfront activists and the
Czechoslovak authorities to justify an invasion that would swiftly destroy Czechoslovakia in
a few days campaign before other powers could act.[161] Since Hitler wished to have the fall
harvest brought in as much as possible, and to complete the so-called "West Wall" to guard
the Rhineland, the date for the invasion was chosen for late September or early October 1938.
[162]
In April 1938, Hitler ordered the OKW to start preparing plans for Fall Grün (Case Green),
the codename for an invasion of Czechoslovakia.[163] Further increasing the tension in Europe
was the May Crisis of 19–22 May 1938. The May Crisis of 1938 was a false alarm caused by
rumours that Czechoslovakia would be invaded the weekend of the municipal elections in
that country, erroneous reports of major German troop movements along the Czechoslovak
border just prior to the elections, the killing of two ethnic Germans by the Czechoslovak
police, and Ribbentrop's highly bellicose remarks to Henderson when the latter asked the
former if an invasion was indeed scheduled for the weekend, which led to a partial
Czechoslovak mobilization and firm warnings from London against a German move against
Czechoslovakia before it was realized that no invasion was intended for that weekend.[164]
Though no invasion had been planned for May 1938, it was believed in London that such a
course of action was indeed being considered in Berlin, leading to two warnings on 21 May
and 22 May that the United Kingdom would go to war with Germany if France became
involved in a war with Germany.[165] Hitler, for his part, was, to use the words of an aide,
highly "furious" with the perception that he had been forced to back down by the
Czechoslovak mobilization and the warnings from London and Paris, when he had, in fact,
been planning nothing for that weekend.[166] Though plans had already been drafted in April
1938 for an invasion of Czechoslovakia in the near future, the May Crisis and the perception
of a diplomatic defeat further reinforced Hitler in his chosen course. The May Crisis seemed
to have had the effect of convincing Hitler that expansion "without Britain" was not possible,
and expansion "against Britain" was the only viable course.[167] In the immediate aftermath of
the May crisis, Hitler ordered an acceleration of German naval building beyond the limits of
the A.G.N.A., and in the "Heye memorandum", drawn at Hitler's orders, envisaged the Royal
Navy for the first time as the principal opponent of the Kriegsmarine.[168]
At the conference of 28 May 1938, Hitler declared that it was his "unalterable" decision to
"smash Czechoslovakia" by 1 October of the same year, which was explained as securing the
eastern flank "for advancing against the West, England and France".[169] At the same
conference, Hitler expressed his belief that Britain would not risk a war until British
rearmament was complete, which Hitler felt would be around 1941–42, and Germany should
in a series of wars eliminate France and her allies in Europe in the interval in the years 1938–
41 while German rearmament was still ahead.[169] Hitler's determination to go through with
Fall Grün in 1938 provoked a major crisis in the German command structure.[170] The Chief
of the General Staff, General Ludwig Beck, protested in a lengthy series of memos that Fall
Grün would start a world war that Germany would lose, and urged Hitler to put off the
projected war.[170] Hitler called Beck's arguments against war "kindische
Kräfteberechnungen" ("childish power play calculations").[171]
On 4 August 1938, a secret Army meeting was held at which Beck read his report. They
agreed something had to be done to prevent certain disaster. Beck hoped they would all
resign together but no one resigned except Beck. However his replacement, General Franz
Halder, sympathised with Beck and together they conspired with several top generals,
Admiral Wilhelm Canaris (Chief of German Intelligence) and Graf von Helldorf (Berlin's
Police Chief), to arrest Hitler the moment he gave the invasion order. However, the plan
would only work if both Britain and France made it known to the world that they would fight
to preserve Czechoslovakia. This would help to convince the German people that certain
defeat awaited Germany. Agents were therefore sent to England to tell Chamberlain that an
attack on Czechoslovakia was planned and their intentions to overthrow Hitler if this
occurred. However the messengers were not taken seriously by the British. In September,
Chamberlain and French Premier Édouard Daladier decided not to threaten a war over
Czechoslovakia and so the planned removal of Hitler could not be justified.[172] The Munich
Agreement therefore preserved Hitler in power.
Starting in August 1938, information reached London that Germany was beginning to
mobilize reservists, together with information leaked by anti-war elements in the German
military that the war was scheduled for sometime in September.[173] Finally, as a result of
intense French, and especially British diplomatic pressure, President Edvard Beneš unveiled
on 5 September 1938, the "Fourth Plan" for constitutional reorganization of his country,
which granted most of the demands for Sudeten autonomy made by Henlein in his Karlsbad
speech of April 1938, and threatened to deprive the Germans of their pretext for aggression.
[174]
Henlein's Heimfront promptly responded to the offer of "Fourth Plan" by having a series
of violent crashes with the Czechoslovak police, culminating in major clashes in mid-
September that led to the declaration of martial law in certain Sudeten districts.[175][176] In a
response to the threatening situation, in late August 1938, the British Prime Minister Neville
Chamberlain had conceived of Plan Z, namely to fly to Germany, meet Hitler, and then work
out an agreement that could end the crisis.[177][178] On 13 September 1938, Chamberlain
offered to fly to Germany to discuss a solution to the crisis. Chamberlain had decided to
execute Plan Z in response to erroneous information supplied by the German opposition that
the invasion was due to start any time after 18 September.[179] Though Hitler was not happy
with Chamberlain's offer, he agreed to see the British Prime Minister because to refuse
Chamberlain's offer would confirm the lie to his repeated claims that he was a man of peace
driven reluctantly to war because of Beneš's intractability.[180] In a summit at Berchtesgaden,
Chamberlain promised to pressure Beneš into agreeing to Hitler's publicly stated demands
about allowing the Sudetenland to join Germany, in return for a reluctant promise by Hitler to
postpone any military action until Chamberlain had given a chance to fulfill his promise.[181]
Hitler had agreed to the postponement out of the expectation that Chamberlain would fail to
secure Prague's consent to transferring the Sudetenland, and was, by all accounts, most
disappointed when Franco-British pressure secured just that.[182] The talks between
Chamberlain and Hitler in September 1938 were made difficult by their innately differing
concepts of what Europe should look like, with Hitler aiming to use the Sudeten issue as a
pretext for war and Chamberlain genuinely striving for a peaceful solution.[183]
When Chamberlain returned to Germany on 22 September to present his peace plan for the
transfer of the Sudetenland at a summit with Hitler at Bad Godesberg, the British delegation
was most unpleasantly surprised to have Hitler reject his own terms he had presented at
Berchtesgaden as now unacceptable.[184] To put an end to Chamberlain's peace-making efforts
once and for all, Hitler demanded the Sudetenland be ceded to Germany no later than 28
September 1938 with no negotiations between Prague and Berlin and no international
commission to oversee the transfer; no plebiscites to be held in the transferred districts until
after the transfer; and for good measure, that Germany would not forsake war as an option
until all the claims against Czechoslovakia by Poland and Hungary had been satisfied.[185] The
differing views between the two leaders were best symbolized when Chamberlain was
presented with Hitler's new demands and protested at being presented with an ultimatum,
leading Hitler in turn to retort that because his document stating his new demands was
entitled "Memorandum", it could not possibly be an ultimatum.[186] On 25 September 1938
Britain rejected the Bad Godesberg ultimatum, and began preparations for war.[187][188] To
further underline the point, Sir Horace Wilson, the British government's Chief Industrial
Advisor, and a close associate of Chamberlain, was dispatched to Berlin to inform Hitler that
if the Germans attacked Czechoslovakia, then France would honour her commitments as
demanded by the Franco-Czechoslovak alliance of 1924, and "then England would feel
honour bound, to offer France assistance".[189]
Initially, determined to continue with the attack planned for 1 October 1938, sometime
between 27 and 28 September, Hitler changed his mind, and asked to take up a suggestion, of
and through the intercession of Mussolini, for a conference to be held in Munich with
Chamberlain, Mussolini, and Daladier to discuss the Czechoslovak situation.[190] Just what
had caused Hitler to change his attitude is not entirely clear, but it is likely that the
combination of Franco-British warnings, and especially the mobilization of the British fleet,
had finally convinced him of what the most likely result of Fall Grün would be; the minor
nature of the alleged casus belli being the timetables for the transfer made Hitler appear too
much like the aggressor; the view from his advisors that Germany was not prepared either
militarily or economically for a world war; warnings from the states that Hitler saw as his
would-be allies in the form of Italy, Japan, Poland and Hungary that they would not fight on
behalf of Germany; and very visible signs that the majority of Germans were not enthusiastic
about the prospect of war.[191][192][193] Moreover, Germany lacked sufficient supplies of oil and
other crucial raw materials (the plants that would produce the synthetic oil for the German
war effort were not in operation yet), and was highly dependent upon imports from abroad.
[194]
The Kriegsmarine reported that should war come with Britain, it could not break a British
blockade, and since Germany had hardly any oil stocks, Germany would be defeated for no
other reason than a shortage of oil.[195] The Economics Ministry told Hitler that Germany had
only 2.6 million tons of oil at hand, and that war with Britain and France would require
7.6 million tons of oil.[196] Starting on 18 September 1938, the British refused to supply metals
to Germany, and on 24 September the Admiralty forbade British ships to sail to Germany.
The British detained the tanker Invershannon carrying 8,600 tons of oil to Hamburg, which
caused immediate economic pain in Germany.[197] Given Germany's dependence on imported
oil (80% of German oil in the 1930s came from the New World), and the likelihood that a
war with Britain would see a blockade cutting Germany off from oil supplies, historians have
argued that Hitler's decision to call off Fall Grün was due to concerns about the oil problem.
[194]

Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler and Mussolini at the Munich Conference

On 30 September 1938, a one-day conference was held in Munich attended by Hitler,
Chamberlain, Daladier and Mussolini that led to the Munich Agreement, which gave in to
Hitler's ostensible demands by handing over the Sudetenland districts to Germany.[198] Since
London and Paris had already agreed to the idea of a transfer of the disputed territory in mid-
September, the Munich Conference mostly comprised discussions in one day of talks on
technical questions about how the transfer of the Sudetenland would take place, and featured
the relatively minor concessions from Hitler that the transfer would take place over a ten day
period in October, overseen by an international commission, and Germany would wait until
Hungarian and Polish claims were settled.[199] At the end of the conference, Chamberlain had
Hitler sign a declaration of Anglo-German friendship, to which Chamberlain attached great
importance and Hitler none at all.[200] Though Chamberlain was well-satisfied with the
Munich conference, leading to his infamous claim to have secured "peace for our time",
Hitler was privately furious about being "cheated" out of the war he was desperate to have in
1938.[201][202] As a result of the summit, Hitler was TIME magazine's Man of the Year for
1938.[203]
Hitler enters the German populated Sudetenland region of Czechoslavakia in October 1938
which was annexed to Germany proper due to the Munich agreement
By appeasing Hitler, Britain and France left Czechoslovakia to Hitler's mercy.[198] Though
Hitler professed happiness in public over the achievement of his ostensible demands, in
private he was determined to have a war the next time around by ensuring that Germany's
future demands would not be met.[204] In Hitler's view, a British-brokered peace, though
extremely favourable to the ostensible German demands, was a diplomatic defeat which
proved that Britain needed to be ended as a power to allow him to pursue his dreams of
eastern expansion.[205][206] In the aftermath of Munich, Hitler felt since Britain would not ally
herself nor stand aside to facilitate Germany's continental ambitions, it had become a major
threat, and accordingly, Britain replaced the Soviet Union in Hitler's mind as the main enemy
of the Reich, with German policies being accordingly reoriented.[207][208][209][210] Hitler
expressed his disappointment over the Munich Agreement in a speech on 9 October 1938 in
Saarbrücken when he lashed out against the Conservative anti-appeasers Winston Churchill,
Alfred Duff Cooper and Anthony Eden, whom Hitler described as a warmongering anti-
German faction, who would attack Germany at the first opportunity, and were likely to come
to power at any moment.[211]
In the same speech, Hitler claimed "We Germans will no longer endure such governessy
interference. Britain should mind her own business and worry about her own troubles".[212] In
November 1938, Hitler ordered a major anti-British propaganda campaign to be launched
with the British being loudly abused for their "hypocrisy" in maintaining world-wide empire
while seeking to block the Germans from acquiring an empire of their own.[213] A particular
highlight in the anti-British propaganda was alleged British human rights abuses in dealing
with the Arab uprising in the British Mandate of Palestine and in British India, and the
"hyprocrisy" of British criticism of the November 1938 Kristallnacht event.[214] This marked a
huge change from the earlier years of the Third Reich, when the German media had portrayed
the British Empire in very favourable terms.[215] In November 1938, the Foreign Minister
Joachim von Ribbentrop was ordered to convert the Anti-Comintern Pact into an open anti-
British military alliance, as a prelude for a war against Britain and France.[216] On 27 January
1939, Hitler approved the Z Plan, a five-year naval expansion program which called for a
Kriegsmarine of 10 battleships, four aircraft carriers, three battlecruisers, eight heavy
cruisers, 44 light cruisers, 68 destroyers and 249 U-boats by 1944 that was intended to crush
the Royal Navy.[217] The importance of the Z Plan can be seen in Hitler's orders that
henceforward the Kriegsmarine was to go from third to first in allotment of raw materials,
money and skilled workers.[218] In the spring of 1939, the Luftwaffe was ordered to start
building a strategic bombing force that was meant to level British cities.[219] Hitler's war plans
against Britain called for a joint Kriegsmarine-Luftwaffe offensive that was to stage "rapid
annihilating blows" against British cities and shipping with the expectation that "The moment
England is cut off from her supplies she is forced to capitulate" as Hitler expected that the
experience of living in a blockaded, famine-stricken, bombed-out island to be too much for
the British public.[220]

Destroyed Jewish businesses in Magdeburg following Kristallnacht

In November 1938, in a secret speech to a group of German journalists, Hitler noted that he
had been forced to speak of peace as the goal in order to attain the degree of rearmament
"which were an essential prerequisite ... for the next step".[92] In the same speech, Hitler
complained that his peace propaganda of the last five years had been too successful, and it
was time for the German people to be subjected to war propaganda.[221] Hitler stated: "It is
self-evident that such peace propaganda conducted for a decade has its risky aspect; because
it can too easily induce people to come to the conclusion that the present government is
identical with the decision and with the intention to keep peace under all circumstances", and
instead called for new journalism that "had to present certain foreign policy events in such a
fashion that the inner voice of the people itself slowly begins to shout out for the use of
force."[221] Later in November 1938, Hitler expressed frustration with the more cautious
advice he was receiving from some quarters.[222] Hitler called the economic expert Carl
Friedrich Goerdeler, General Ludwig Beck, Dr. Hjalmar Schacht, the diplomat Ulrich von
Hassell, and the economist Rudolf Brinkmann "the overbred intellectual circles" who were
trying to block him from fulfilling his mission by their appeals to caution, and but for the fact
that he needed their skills "otherwise, perhaps we could someday exterminate them or do
something of this kind to them".[223]
In December 1938, the Chancellery of the Führer headed by Philipp Bouhler received a letter
concerning a severely physically and mentally disabled baby girl named Sofia Knauer living
in Leipzig.[224] At that time, there was a furious rivalry existing between Bouhler's office, the
office of the Reich Chancellery led by Hans-Heinrich Lammers, the Presidential Chancellery
of Otto Meissner, the office of Hitler's adjutant Wilhelm Brückner and the Deputy Führer's
office which was effectively headed by Martin Bormann over control of access to Hitler.[225]
As part of a power play against his rivals, Bouhler presented the letter concerning the
disabled girl to Hitler, who thanked Bouhler for bringing the matter to his attention and
responded by ordering his personal physician Dr. Karl Brandt to kill Knauer.[226] In January
1939, Hitler ordered Bouhler and Dr. Brandt to henceforward have all disabled infants born
in Germany killed.[226] This was the origin of the Action T4 program. Subsequently Dr.
Brandt and Bouhler, acting on their own initiative in the expectation of winning Hitler's
favour, expanded the T4 program to killing, first, all physically or mentally disabled children
in Germany, and, second, all disabled adults.[227]
In late 1938 and early 1939, the continuing economic crisis caused by problems of
rearmament, especially the shortage of foreign hard currencies needed to pay for raw
materials Germany lacked, together with reports from Göring that the Four Year Plan was
hopelessly behind schedule, forced Hitler in January 1939 to reluctantly order major defence
cuts with the Wehrmacht having its steel allocations cut by 30%, aluminium 47%, cement
25%, rubber 14% and copper 20%.[228] On 30 January 1939, Hitler made his "Export or die"
speech calling for a German economic offensive ("export battle", to use Hitler's term), to
increase German foreign exchange holdings to pay for raw materials such as high-grade iron
needed for military materials.[228] The "Export or die" speech of 30 January 1939 is also
known as Hitler's "Prophecy Speech". The name which that speech is known comes from
Hitler's "prophecy" issued towards the end of the speech:
"One thing I should like to say on this day which may be memorable for others as well for us
Germans: In the course of my life I have very often been a prophet, and I have usually been
ridiculed for it. During the time of my struggle for power it was in the first instance the
Jewish race which only received my prophecies with laughter when I said I would one day
take over the leadership of the State, and that of the whole nation, and that I would then
among many other things settle the Jewish problem. Their laughter was uproarious, but I
think that for some time now they have been laughing on the other side of the face. Today I
will be once more the prophet. If the international Jewish financiers outside Europe should
succeed in plunging the nations once more into a world war, then the result will not be the
bolsheviszation of the earth, and thus the victory of Jewry, but the annihilation of the Jewish
race in Europe!"[229]
A significant historical debate has swung around the "Prophecy Speech". Historians who take
an intentionist line such as Eberhard Jäckel have argued that at minimum from the time of the
"Prophecy Speech" onwards, Hitler was committed to genocide of the Jews as his central
goal.[230] Lucy Dawidowicz and Gerald Fleming have argued that the "Prophecy Speech" was
simply Hitler's way of saying that once he started a world war, he would use it as a cover for
his already pre-existing plans for genocide.[229] Functionalist historians such as Christopher
Browning have dismissed this interpretation on the grounds that if Hitler were serious with
the intentions expressed in the "Prophecy Speech", then there would not have been a 30-
month "stay of execution" between the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, and the
opening of the first Vernichtungslager in late 1941.[231] Browning has also pointed to the
existence of the Madagascar Plan of 1940–41 and various other schemes as proof that there
was no genocidal master plan.[231] In his opinion, the "Prophecy Speech" was simply an
expression of bravado on Hitler's part, and had little connection with the actual unfolding of
anti-Semitic policies.[231]
At least part of the reason why Hitler violated the Munich Agreement by seizing the Czech
half of Czechoslovakia in March 1939 was to obtain Czechoslovak assets to help with the
economic crisis.[232] Hitler ordered Germany's army to enter Prague on 15 March 1939, and
from Prague Castle proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate.
Start of World War II

Adolf Hitler's face on a German stamp 1944. The country's name has changed to the Greater
German Reich since 1943 and this name can be seen on the stamp.
As part of the anti-British course, it was deemed necessary by Hitler to have Poland either a
satellite state or otherwise neutralized. Hitler believed this necessary both on strategic
grounds as a way of securing the Reich's eastern flank and on economic grounds as a way of
evading the effects of a British blockade.[233] Initially, the German hope was to transform
Poland into a satellite state, but by March 1939 the German demands had been rejected by the
Poles three times, which led Hitler to decide upon the destruction of Poland as the main
German foreign policy goal of 1939.[234] On 3 April 1939, Hitler ordered the military to start
preparing for Fall Weiss (Case White), the plan for a German invasion to be executed on 25
August 1939.[234] In August 1939, Hitler spoke to his generals that his original plan for 1939
had to "... establish an acceptable relationship with Poland in order to fight against the West"
but since the Poles would not co-operate in setting up an "acceptable relationship" (i.e.
becoming a German satellite), he believed he had no choice other than wiping Poland off the
map.[235] The historian Gerhard Weinberg has argued since Hitler's audience comprised men
who were all for the destruction of Poland (anti-Polish feelings were traditionally very strong
in the German Army), but rather less happy about the prospect of war with Britain and
France, if that was the price Germany had to pay for the destruction of Poland, it is quite
likely that Hitler was speaking the truth on this occasion.[235] In his private discussions with
his officials in 1939, Hitler always described Britain as the main enemy that had to be
defeated, and in his view, Poland's obliteration was the necessary prelude to that goal by
securing the eastern flank and helpfully adding to Germany's Lebensraum.[236] Hitler was
much offended by the British "guarantee" of Polish independence issued on 31 March 1939,
and told his associates that "I shall brew them a devil's drink".[237] In a speech in
Wilhelmshaven for the launch of the battleship Tirpitz on 1 April 1939, Hitler threatened to
denounce the Anglo-German Naval Agreement if the British persisted with their
"encirclement" policy as represented by the "guarantee" of Polish independence.[237] As part
of the new course, in a speech before the Reichstag on 28 April 1939, Adolf Hitler,
complaining of British "encirclement" of Germany, renounced both the Anglo-German Naval
Agreement and the German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact.
As a pretext for aggression against Poland, Hitler claimed the Free City of Danzig and the
right for "extra-territorial" roads across the Polish Corridor which Germany had unwillingly
ceded under the Versailles treaty. For Hitler, Danzig was just a pretext for aggression as the
Sudetenland had been intended to be in 1938, and throughout 1939, while highlighting the
Danzig issue as a grievance, the Germans always refused to engage in talks about the matter.
[238]
A notable contradiction existed in Hitler's plans between the long-term anti-British
course, whose major instruments such as a vastly expanded Kriegsmarine and Luftwaffe
would take several years to complete, and Hitler's immediate foreign policy in 1939, which
was likely to provoke a general war by engaging in such actions as attacking Poland.[239][240]
Hitler's dilemma between his short-term and long-term goals was resolved by Foreign
Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop, who told Hitler that neither Britain nor France would
honour their commitments to Poland, and any German–Polish war would accordingly be a
limited regional war.[241][242] Ribbentrop based his appraisal partly on an alleged statement
made to him by the French Foreign Minister Georges Bonnet in December 1938 that France
now recognized Eastern Europe as Germany's exclusive sphere of influence.[243] In addition,
Ribbentrop's status as the former Ambassador to London made him in Hitler's eyes the
leading Nazi British expert, and as a result, Ribbentrop's advice that Britain would not honour
her commitments to Poland carried much weight with Hitler.[243] Ribbentrop only showed
Hitler diplomatic cables that supported his analysis.[244] In addition, the German Ambassador
in London, Herbert von Dirksen, tended to send reports that supported Ribbentrop's analysis
such as a dispatch in August 1939 that reported British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain
knew "the social structure of Britain, even the conception of the British Empire, would not
survive the chaos of even a victorious war", and so would back down.[242] The extent that
Hitler was influenced by Ribbentrop's advice can be seen in Hitler's orders to the German
military on 21 August 1939 for a limited mobilization against Poland alone.[245] Hitler chose
late August as his date for Fall Weiss in order to limit disruption to German agricultural
production caused by mobilization.[246] The problems caused by the need to begin a campaign
in Poland in late August or early September in order to have the campaign finished before the
October rains arrived, and the need to have sufficient time to concentrate German troops on
the Polish border left Hitler in a self-imposed situation in August 1939 where Soviet co-
operation was absolutely crucial if he were to have a war that year.[246]
The Munich agreement appeared to be sufficient to dispel most of the remaining hold which
the "collective security" idea may have had in Soviet circles,[247] and, on 23 August 1939,
Joseph Stalin accepted Hitler's proposal to conclude a non-aggression pact (the Molotov-
Ribbentrop Pact), whose secret protocols contained an agreement to partition Poland. A
major historical debate about the reasons for Hitler's foreign policy choices in 1939 concerns
whether a structural economic crisis drove Hitler into a "flight into war" as claimed by the
Marxist historian Timothy Mason or whether Hitler's actions were more influenced by non-
economic factors as claimed by the economic historian Richard Overy.[248] Historians such as
William Carr, Gerhard Weinberg and Ian Kershaw have argued that a non-economic reason
for Hitler's rush to war was Hitler's morbid and obsessive fear of an early death, and hence
his feeling that he did not have long to accomplish his work.[134][249][250] In the last days of
peace, Hitler oscillated between the determination to fight the Western powers if he had to,
and various schemes intended to keep Britain out of the war, but in any case, Hitler was not
to be deterred from his aim of invading Poland.[251] Only very briefly, when news of the
Anglo-Polish alliance being signed on 25 August 1939 in response to the German-Soviet
Non-Aggression Pact (instead of the severing of ties between London and Warsaw predicted
by Ribbentrop) together with news from Italy that Mussolini would not honour the Pact of
Steel, caused Hitler to postpone the attack on Poland from 25 August to 1 September.[252]
Hitler chose to spend the last days of peace either trying to manoeuvre the British into
neutrality through his offer of 25 August 1939 to "guarantee" the British Empire, or having
Ribbentrop present a last-minute peace plan to Henderson with an impossibly short time limit
for its acceptance as part of an effort to blame the war on the British and Poles.[253][254] On 1
September 1939, Germany invaded western Poland. Britain and France declared war on
Germany on 3 September but did not immediately act. Hitler was most unpleasantly surprised
at receiving the British declaration of war on 3 September 1939, and turning to Ribbentrop
angrily asked "Now what?"[255] Ribbentrop had nothing to say other than that Robert
Coulondre, the French Ambassador, would probably be by later that day to present the French
declaration of war.[255] Not long after this, on 17 September, Soviet forces invaded eastern
Poland.[256]
Members of the Reichstag greet Hitler in October 1939 after the conclusion of the Polish
campaign

Hitler and Benito Mussolini in Munich, 1940

Adolf Hitler in Paris, 1940, with Albert Speer (left) and Arno Breker (right)

– Adolf Hitler in a public speech in Danzig at the end of September 1939.

After the fall of Poland came a period journalists called the "Phoney War," or Sitzkrieg
("sitting war"). In part of north-western Poland annexed to Germany, Hitler instructed the
two Gauleiters in charge of the area, namely Albert Forster and Arthur Greiser, to
"Germanize" the area, and promised them "There would be no questions asked" about how
this "Germanization" was to be accomplished.[258] Hitler's orders were interpreted in very
different ways by Forster and Greiser. Forster followed a policy of simply having the local
Poles sign forms stating they had German blood with no documentation required, whereas
Greiser carried out a brutal ethnic cleansing campaign of expelling the entire Polish
population into the Government-General of Poland.[259] When Greiser, seconded by Himmler,
complained to Hitler that Forster was allowing thousands of Poles to be accepted as "racial"
Germans and thus "contaminating" German "racial purity", and asked Hitler to order Forster
to stop, Hitler merely told Himmler and Greiser to take up their difficulties with Forster, and
not to involve him.[260] Hitler's handling of the Forster–Greiser dispute has often been
advanced as an example of Ian Kershaw's theory of "Working Towards the Führer", namely
that Hitler issued vague instructions, and allowed his subordinates to work out policy on their
own.
After the conquest of Poland, another major dispute broke out between different factions with
one centring around Reichsfüherer SS Heinrich Himmler and Arthur Greiser championing
and carrying out ethnic cleansing schemes for Poland, and another centring around Hermann
Göring and Hans Frank calling for turning Poland into the "granary" of the Reich.[261] At a
conference held at Göring's Karinhall estate on 12 February 1940, the dispute was settled in
favour of the Göring-Frank view of economic exploitation, and ending mass expulsions as
economically disruptive.[261] On 15 May 1940, Himmler showed Hitler a memo entitled
"Some Thoughts on the Treatment of Alien Population in the East", which called for
expelling the entire Jewish population of Europe into Africa and reducing the remainder of
the Polish population to a "leaderless labouring class".[261] Hitler called Himmler's memo
"good and correct".[261] Hitler's remark had the effect of scuttling the so-called Karinhall
argreement, and led to the Himmler–Greiser viewpoint triumphing as German policy for
Poland.
During this period, Hitler built up his forces on Germany's western frontier. In April 1940,
German forces invaded Denmark and Norway. In May 1940, Hitler's forces attacked France,
conquering Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Belgium in the process. These victories
persuaded Benito Mussolini of Italy to join the war on Hitler's side on 10 June 1940. France
surrendered on 22 June 1940.
Britain, whose forces evacuated France by sea from Dunkirk, continued to fight alongside
other British dominions in the Battle of the Atlantic. After having his overtures for peace
rejected by the British, now led by Winston Churchill, Hitler ordered bombing raids on the
United Kingdom. The Battle of Britain was Hitler's prelude to a planned invasion. The
attacks began by pounding Royal Air Force airbases and radar stations protecting South-East
England. However, the Luftwaffe failed to defeat the Royal Air Force. On 27 September
1940, the Tripartite Treaty was signed in Berlin by Saburo Kurusu of Imperial Japan, Hitler,
and Ciano. The purpose of the Tripartite Treaty, which was directed against an unnamed
power that was clearly meant to be the United States, was to deter the Americans from
supporting the British. It was later expanded to include Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria.
They were collectively known as the Axis Powers. By the end of October 1940, air
superiority for the invasion Operation Sealion could not be assured, and Hitler ordered the
bombing of British cities, including London, Plymouth, and Coventry, mostly at night.
In the Spring of 1941, Hitler was distracted from his plans for the East by various activities in
North Africa, the Balkans, and the Middle East. In February, German forces arrived in Libya
to bolster the Italian forces there. In April, he launched the invasion of Yugoslavia which was
followed quickly by the invasion of Greece. In May, German forces were sent to support
Iraqi rebel forces fighting against the British and to invade Crete. On 23 May, Hitler released
Fuhrer Directive No. 30.[262]
Path to defeat
On 22 June 1941, three million German troops attacked the Soviet Union, breaking the non-
aggression pact Hitler had concluded with Stalin two years earlier. This invasion seized huge
amounts of territory, including the Baltic states, Belarus, and Ukraine. It also encircled and
destroyed many Soviet forces, which Stalin had ordered not to retreat. However, the Germans
were stopped barely short of Moscow in December 1941 by the Russian winter and fierce
Soviet resistance. The invasion failed to achieve the quick triumph Hitler wanted.
A major historical dispute concerns Hitler's reasons for Operation Barbarossa. Some
historians such as Andreas Hillgruber have argued that Barbarossa was merely one "stage" of
Hitler's Stufenplan (stage by stage plan) for world conquest, which Hillgruber believed that
Hitler had formulated in the 1920s.[263] Other historians such as John Lukacs have contended
that Hitler never had a stufenplan, and that the invasion of the Soviet Union was an ad hoc
move on the part of Hitler due to Britain's refusal to surrender.[264] Lukacs has argued that the
reason Hitler gave in private for Barbarossa, namely that Winston Churchill held out the hope
that the Soviet Union might enter the war on the Allied side, and that the only way of forcing
a British surrender was to eliminate that hope, was indeed Hitler's real reason for Barbarossa.
[265]
In Lukacs's perspective, Barbarossa was thus primarily an anti-British move on the part of
Hitler intended to force Britain to sue for peace by destroying her only hope of victory rather
than an anti-Soviet move. Klaus Hildebrand has maintained that Stalin and Hitler were
independently planning to attack each other in 1941.[266] Hildebrand has claimed that the news
in the spring of 1941 of Soviet troop concentrations on the border led to Hitler engaging in a
flucht nach vorn ("flight forward" – i.e. responding to a danger by charging on rather than
retreating.)[266] A third faction comprising a diverse group such as Viktor Suvorov, Ernst
Topitsch, Joachim Hoffmann, Ernst Nolte, and David Irving have argued that the official
reason given by the Germans for Barbarossa in 1941 was the real reason, namely that
Barbarossa was a "preventive war" forced on Hitler to avert an impeding Soviet attack
scheduled for July 1941. This theory has been widely attacked as erroneous; the American
historian Gerhard Weinberg once compared the advocates of the preventive war theory to
believers in "fairy tales"[267]
The Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union reached its apex on 2 December 1941 as part of the
258th Infantry Division advanced to within 15 miles (24 km) of Moscow, close enough to see
the spires of the Kremlin,[268] but they were not prepared for the harsh conditions brought on
by the first blizzards of winter and in the days that followed, Soviet forces drove them back
over 320 kilometres (200 miles).
On 7 December 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, and four days later, Hitler's
formal declaration of war against the United States officially engaged him in war against a
coalition that included the world's largest empire (the British Empire), the world's greatest
industrial and financial power (the United States), and the world's largest army (the Soviet
Union).
On 18 December 1941, the appointment book of the Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler
shows he met with Hitler, and in response to Himmler's question "What to do with the Jews
of Russia?", Hitler's response was recorded as "als Partisanen auszurotten" ("exterminate
them as partisans").[269] The Israeli historian Yehuda Bauer has commented that the remark is
probably as close as historians will ever get to a definitive order from Hitler for the genocide
carried out during the Holocaust.[269]

Adolf Hitler in Reichstag during his speech against Franklin D. Roosevelt. 11 December
1941.

The destroyed 'Wolf's Lair' barracks after the 20 July 1944 plot
In late 1942, German forces were defeated in the second battle of El Alamein, thwarting
Hitler's plans to seize the Suez Canal and the Middle East. In February 1943, the Battle of
Stalingrad ended with the destruction of the German 6th Army. Thereafter came the Battle of
Kursk. Hitler's military judgment became increasingly erratic, and Germany's military and
economic position deteriorated along with Hitler's health, as indicated by his left hand's
severe trembling. Hitler's biographer Ian Kershaw and others believe that he may have
suffered from Parkinson's disease.[270] Syphilis has also been suspected as a cause of at least
some of his symptoms, although the evidence is slight.[271]
Following the allied invasion of Sicily (Operation Husky) in 1943, Mussolini was deposed by
Pietro Badoglio, who surrendered to the Allies. Throughout 1943 and 1944, the Soviet Union
steadily forced Hitler's armies into retreat along the Eastern Front. On 6 June 1944, the
Western Allied armies landed in northern France in what was one of the largest amphibious
operations in history, Operation Overlord. Realists in the German army knew defeat was
inevitable, and some plotted to remove Hitler from power.
Attempted assassination
In July 1944, as part of Operation Valkyrie in what became known as the 20 July plot, Claus
von Stauffenberg planted a bomb in Hitler's headquarters, the Wolfsschanze (Wolf's Lair) at
Rastenburg. Hitler narrowly escaped death. He ordered savage reprisals, resulting in the
executions of more than 4,900 people,[272] sometimes by starvation in solitary confinement
followed by slow strangulation. The main resistance movement was destroyed, although
smaller isolated groups continued to operate.
Defeat and death
Main article: Death of Adolf Hitler
By late 1944, the Red Army had driven the Germans back into Central Europe and the
Western Allies were advancing into Germany. Hitler realized that Germany had lost the war,
but allowed no retreats. He hoped to negotiate a separate peace with America and Britain, a
hope buoyed by the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt on 12 April 1945.[273][274][275][276] Hitler's
stubbornness and defiance of military realities allowed the Holocaust to continue. He ordered
the complete destruction of all German industrial infrastructure before it could fall into Allied
hands, saying that Germany's failure to win the war forfeited its right to survive.[277] Rather,
Hitler decided that the entire nation should go down with him. Execution of this scorched
earth plan was entrusted to arms minister Albert Speer, who disobeyed the order.[277]
In April 1945, Soviet forces attacked the outskirts of Berlin. Hitler's followers urged him to
flee to the mountains of Bavaria to make a last stand in the National Redoubt. But Hitler was
determined to either live or die in the capital.
On 20 April, Hitler celebrated his 56th birthday in the Führerbunker ("Führer's shelter")
below the Reichskanzlei (Reich Chancellery). Elsewhere, the garrison commander of the
besieged Festung Breslau ("fortress Breslau"), General Hermann Niehoff, had chocolates
distributed to his troops in honour of Hitler's birthday.[278]
By 21 April, Georgi Zhukov's 1st Belorussian Front had broken through the defences of
German General Gotthard Heinrici's Army Group Vistula during the Battle of the Seelow
Heights. The Soviets were now advancing towards Hitler's bunker with little to stop them.
Ignoring the facts, Hitler saw salvation in the ragtag units commanded by Waffen SS General
Felix Steiner. Steiner's command became known as Armeeabteilung Steiner ("Army
Detachment Steiner"). But "Army Detachment Steiner" existed primarily on paper. It was
something more than a corps but less than an army. Hitler ordered Steiner to attack the
northern flank of the huge salient created by the breakthrough of Zhukov's 1st Belorussian
Front. Meanwhile, the German Ninth Army, which had been pushed south of the salient, was
ordered to attack north in a pincer attack.
Late on 21 April, Heinrici called Hans Krebs, chief of the Oberkommando des Heeres
(Supreme Command of the Army or OKH), and told him that Hitler's plan could not be
implemented. Heinrici asked to speak to Hitler but was told by Krebs that Hitler was too busy
to take his call.
On 22 April, during one of his last military conferences, Hitler interrupted the report to ask
what had happened to Steiner's offensive. There was a long silence. Then Hitler was told that
the attack had never been launched, and that the withdrawal from Berlin of several units for
Steiner's army, on Hitler's orders, had so weakened the front that the Russians had broken
through into Berlin. Hitler asked everyone except Wilhelm Keitel, Hans Krebs, Alfred Jodl,
Wilhelm Burgdorf, and Martin Bormann to leave the room,[279] and launched a tirade against
the perceived treachery and incompetence of his commanders. This culminated in an oath to
stay in Berlin, head up the defence of the city, and shoot himself at the end.[280]
Before the day ended, Hitler again found salvation in a new plan that included General
Walther Wenck's Twelfth Army.[281] This new plan had Wenck turn his army – currently
facing the Americans to the west – and attack towards the east to relieve Berlin.[281] Twelfth
Army was to link up with Ninth Army and break through to the city. Wenck did attack and, in
the confusion, made temporary contact with the Potsdam garrison. But the link with the Ninth
Army, like the plan in general, was ultimately unsuccessful.[282]
On 23 April, Joseph Goebbels made the following proclamation to the people of Berlin:
I call on you to fight for your city. Fight with everything you have got, for the sake of your
wives and your children, your mothers and your parents. Your arms are defending everything
we have ever held dear, and all the generations that will come after us. Be proud and
courageous! Be inventive and cunning! Your Gauleiter is amongst you. He and his
colleagues will remain in your midst. His wife and children are here as well. He, who once
captured the city with 200 men, will now use every means to galvanize the defence of the
capital. The Battle for Berlin must become the signal for the whole nation to rise up in
battle ...[279]
The same day, Göring sent a telegram from Berchtesgaden in Bavaria. Göring argued that,
since Hitler was cut off in Berlin, he should assume leadership of Germany as Hitler's
designated successor. Göring mentioned a time limit after which he would consider Hitler
incapacitated.[283] Hitler responded, in anger, by having Göring arrested. Later when Hitler
wrote his will on 29 April, Göring was removed from all his positions in the government.[283]
[284][285]
Further on the 23 April, Hitler appointed General der Artillerie Helmuth Weidling as
the commander of the Berlin Defense Area. Weidling replaced Lieutenant General
(Generalleutnant) Helmuth Reymann and Colonel (Oberst) Ernst Kaether. Hitler also
appointed Waffen SS General (SS Brigadeführer) Wilhelm Mohnke the (Kommandant)
Battle Commander for the defence of the government district (Zitadelle sector) that included
the Reich Chancellery and Führerbunker.[286]
By the end of the day on 27 April, Berlin was completely cut off from the rest of Germany.
On 28 April, Hitler discovered that SS leader Heinrich Himmler was trying to discuss
surrender terms with the Western Allies (through the Swedish diplomat Count Folke
Bernadotte).[287] Hitler ordered Himmler's arrest and had Hermann Fegelein (Himmler's
representative for the SS at Hitler's HQ in Berlin) shot.[284][288]

Cover of US military newspaper The Stars and Stripes, May 1945

During the night of 28 April, Wenck reported that his Twelfth Army had been forced back
along the entire front. He noted that no further attacks towards Berlin were possible. General
Alfred Jodl (Supreme Army Command) did not provide this information to Hans Krebs in
Berlin until early in the morning of 30 April.
On 29 April, Hitler dictated his will and political statement to his private secretary, Traudl
Junge.[289] Hans Krebs, Wilhelm Burgdorf, Joseph Goebbels, and Martin Bormann witnessed
and signed this last will and testament of Adolf Hitler.[284] On the same day, Hitler was
informed of the assassination of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini on 28 April, which is
presumed to have increased his determination to avoid capture.[290]
On 30 April 1945, after intense street-to-street combat, when Soviet troops were within a
block or two of the Reich Chancellery, Hitler committed suicide, shooting himself in the
temple with a Walther PPK[291] while simultaneously biting into a cyanide capsule.[292][293]
Hitler had at various times in the past contemplated suicide, and the Walther was the same
pistol that his niece, Geli Raubal had used in her suicide.[294] Hitler's body and that of Eva
Braun were put in a bomb crater,[295][296] doused in gasoline by SS Sturmbannführer Otto
Günsche and other Führerbunker aides, and cremated as the Red Army advanced and
shelling continued.[292]
On 2 May, Berlin surrendered. In the postwar years there were conflicting reports about what
happened to Hitler's remains. After the fall of the Soviet Union, records found in the Soviet
archives revealed that the remains of Hitler, Eva Braun, Joseph and Magda Goebbels, the six
Goebbels children, General Hans Krebs and Hitler's dogs, were collected, moved and secretly
buried in graves near Rathenow in Brandenburg.[297] In 1970, the remains were disinterred,
cremated and scattered in the Elbe River by the Soviets.[298][299] According to the Russian
Federal Security Service, a fragment of human skull stored in its archives and displayed to
the public in a 2000 exhibition came from the remains of Hitler's body. The authenticity of
the skull has been challenged by historians and researchers.[300] DNA analysis conducted in
2009 showed the skull fragment to be that of a woman, and analysis of the sutures between
the skull plates indicated an age between 20 and 40 years old at the time of death.[301]
Legacy
Further information: Consequences of German Nazism and Neo-Nazism

Outside the building in Braunau am Inn, Austria where Adolf Hitler was born is a memorial
stone warning of the horrors of World War II
Hitler, the Nazi Party and the results of Nazism are typically regarded as gravely immoral.[302]
Historians, philosophers, and politicians have often applied the word evil in both a secular[303]
and a religious[citation needed] sense. Historical and cultural portrayals of Hitler in the west are
overwhelmingly condemnatory. Holocaust denial, along with the display of Nazi symbols
such as swastikas, is prohibited in Germany and Austria.
Outside of Hitler's birthplace in Braunau am Inn, Austria, the Memorial Stone Against War
and Fascism is engraved with the following message:
FÜR FRIEDEN FREIHEIT
UND DEMOKRATIE
NIE WIEDER FASCHISMUS
MILLIONEN TOTE MAHNEN
Loosely translated it reads: "For peace, freedom // and democracy // never again fascism //
millions of dead remind [us]"[clarification needed]
Some people have referred to Hitler's legacy in neutral or favourable terms. Former Egyptian
President Anwar El Sadat spoke of his 'admiration' of Hitler in 1953, when he was a young
man, though it is possible he was speaking in the context of a rebellion against the British
Empire.[304] Louis Farrakhan has referred to him as a "very great man".[305] Bal Thackeray,
leader of the right-wing Hindu Shiv Sena party in the Indian state of the Maharashtra,
declared in 1995 that he was an admirer of Hitler.[306] Friedrich Meinecke, the German
historian, said of Hitler's life that "it is one of the great examples of the singular and
incalculable power of personality in historical life".[307]
Religious views
Main article: Adolf Hitler's religious views
Hitler was raised by Roman Catholic parents, but after he left home, he never attended Mass
or received the sacraments.[308] Hitler favoured aspects of Protestantism if they were more
suitable to his own objectives. At the same time, he adopted some elements of the Catholic
Church's hierarchical organization, liturgy and phraseology in his politics.[309][310] After he had
moved to Germany, where the Catholic and the Protestant church are largely financed
through a church tax collected by the state, Hitler never "actually left his church or refused to
pay church taxes. In a nominal sense therefore," the historian Steigmann-Gall (whose views
on Christianity and Nazism are admittedly outside the consensus) states, Hitler "can be
classified as Catholic."[311] Yet, as Steigmann-Gall has also pointed out in the debate about
religion in Nazi Germany: "Nominal church membership is a very unreliable gauge of actual
piety in this context."[312]
In public, Hitler often praised Christian heritage, German Christian culture, and professed a
belief in an Aryan Jesus Christ, a Jesus who fought against the Jews.[313] In his speeches and
publications Hitler spoke of his interpretation of Christianity as a central motivation for his
antisemitism, stating that "As a Christian I have no duty to allow myself to be cheated, but I
have the duty to be a fighter for truth and justice."[314][315] His private statements, as reported
by his intimates, show Hitler as critical of traditional Christianity, considering it a religion fit
only for slaves; he admired the power of Rome but had severe hostility towards its teaching.
[316]
Here Hitler's attack on Catholicism "resonated Streicher's contention that the Catholic
establishment was allying itself with the Jews."[317] In light of these private statements, for
John S. Conway and many other historians it is beyond doubt that Hitler held a "fundamental
antagonism" towards the Christian churches.[318] The various accounts of Hitler's private
statements vary strongly in their reliability; most importantly, Hermann Rauschning's Hitler
speaks is considered by most historians to be an invention.[319][320]
In the political relations with the churches in Germany however, Hitler readily adopted a
strategy "that suited his immediate political purposes".[318] Hitler had a general plan, even
before the rise of the Nazis to power, to destroy Christianity within the Reich.[321][322][323] The
leader of the Hitler Youth stated "the destruction of Christianity was explicitly recognized as
a purpose of the National Socialist movement" from the start, but "considerations of
expedience made it impossible" publicly to express this extreme position.[321] His intention
was to wait until the war was over to destroy the influence of Christianity.[316]
Hitler for a time advocated for Germans a form of the Christian faith he called "Positive
Christianity",[324][325] a belief system purged of what he objected to in orthodox Christianity,
and featuring added racist elements. By 1940 however, it was public knowledge that Hitler
had abandoned advocating for Germans even the syncretist idea of a positive Christianty.[326]
Hitler maintained that the "terrorism in religion is, to put it briefly, of a Jewish dogma, which
Christianity has universalized and whose effect is to sow trouble and confusion in men's
minds."[327]
Hitler once stated, "We do not want any other god than Germany itself. It is essential to have
fanatical faith and hope and love in and for Germany."[328]
Attitude to occultism
Some writers believe that, in contrast to some Nazi ideologues, Hitler did not adhere to
esoteric ideas, occultism, or Ariosophy.[316] Hitler ridiculed such beliefs in Mein Kampf.[324][329]
Nevertheless, other writers believe the young Hitler was strongly influenced, particularly in
his racial views, by an abundance of occult works on the mystical superiority of the Germans,
such as the occult and anti-semitic magazine Ostara, and give credence to the claim of its
publisher Lanz von Liebenfels that Hitler visited Liebenfels in 1909 and praised his work.[330]
The historians are still divided on the question of the reliability of Lanz' claim of a contact
with Hitler.[331] Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke considers his account reliable, Brigitte Hamann
leaves the question open and Ian Kershaw is extremely sceptical.[332]
Health
Hitler's health has long been the subject of debate. He has variously been said to have had
irritable bowel syndrome, skin lesions, irregular heartbeat, Parkinson's disease,[271] syphilis,
[271]
Asperger syndrome[333][334] and a strongly suggested addiction to methamphetamine.[citation
needed]
He had problems with his teeth and his personal dentist Hugo Blaschke stated that he
fitted a large dental bridge to his upper jaw in 1933 and that on 10 November 1944 he carried
out surgery to cut off part of the left rear section of the bridge that was causing an infection of
his gums. He was also suffering from a sinus infection.[335]
After the early 1930s, Hitler generally followed a vegetarian diet, although he ate meat on
occasion. There are reports of him disgusting his guests by giving them graphic accounts of
the slaughter of animals in an effort to make them shun meat.[336] A fear of cancer (from
which his mother died) is the most widely cited reason, though many authors[who?] also assert
Hitler had a profound and deep love of animals.[citation needed] Martin Bormann had a greenhouse
constructed for him near the Berghof (near Berchtesgaden) to ensure a steady supply of fresh
fruit and vegetables for Hitler throughout the war.
Hitler was a non-smoker and promoted aggressive anti-smoking campaigns throughout
Germany. (See Anti-tobacco movement in Nazi Germany).[337]
Syphilis
Hitler's tremors and irregular heartbeat during the last years of his life could have been
symptoms of tertiary (late stage) syphilis,[338] which would mean he had a syphilis infection
for many years. Along with another doctor, Theodor Morell diagnosed the symptoms as such
by early 1945 in a joint report to SS head Heinrich Himmler.[338] Some historians have also
cited Hitler's preoccupation with syphilis across 14 pages of Mein Kampf, where he called it a
"Jewish disease", leading to speculation he may have had the disease himself. His possible
discovery in 1908 that he himself had the disease may have been responsible for his
demeanor; while his life course may have been influenced by his anger at being a syphilitic,
as well as his belief that he had acquired the disease from undesirable societal elements
which he intended to eliminate. In several chapters of Mein Kampf, he wrote about the
temptation of prostitution and the spreading of syphilis, specifically volume 1, chapter 10
"Causes of the Collapse".[339] Historians have speculated he may have caught the affliction
from a German prostitute at a time when the disease was not yet treatable by modern
antibiotics, which would also explain his avoidance of normal sexual relations with women.
However, syphilis had become curable in 1910 with Dr. Paul Ehrlich's introduction of the
drug Salvarsan.
No pictures exist of Hitler revealing any portion of his torso.[citation needed] Deborah Hayden[340]
has written extensively regarding Hitler and syphilis[vague].[341][342]
Since the 1870s, however, it was a common rhetorical practice on the völkisch right to
associate Jews with diseases such as syphilis. Historian Robert Waite claims Hitler tested
negative on a Wassermann test as late as 1939, which does not prove that he did not have the
disease, because the Wassermann test was prone to false-negative results. Regardless of
whether he actually had syphilis or not, Hitler lived in constant fear of the disease, and took
treatment for it no matter what doctors told him.[338]
In his biography of Doctor Felix Kersten called The Man with the Miraculous Hands,[343]
journalist and Académie française member Joseph Kessel wrote that in the winter of 1942,
Kersten heard of Hitler's medical condition. Consulted by his patient, Himmler, as to whether
he could "assist a man who suffers from severe headaches, dizziness and insomnia," Kersten
was shown a top-secret 26-page report. It detailed how Hitler had contracted syphilis in his
youth and was treated for it at a hospital in Pasewalk, Germany. However, in 1937,
symptoms re-appeared, showing that the disease was still active, and by the start of 1942,
signs were evident that progressive syphilitic paralysis (Tabes dorsalis) was occurring.
Himmler advised Kersten that Morell (who in the 1930s claimed to be a specialist
venereologist) was in charge of Hitler's treatment, and that it was a state secret. The book also
relates how Kersten learned from Himmler's secretary, Rudolf Brandt, that at that time,
probably the only other people privy to the report's information were Nazi Party chairman
Martin Bormann and Hermann Göring, the head of the Luftwaffe.
Monorchism
See also: Hitler's possible monorchism
It has been alleged that Hitler had monorchism, the medical condition of having only one
testicle. Hitler's personal doctor, Johan Jambor, supposedly described the dictator's condition
to a priest who later wrote down what he had been told in a document which was uncovered
in 2008, 23 years after the doctor's death.[344]
Soviet doctor Lev Bezymensky, allegedly involved in the Soviet autopsy, stated in a 1967
book that Hitler's left testicle was missing. Bezymensky later admitted that the claim was
falsified.[345] Hitler was routinely examined by many doctors throughout his childhood,
military service and later political career, and no clinical mention of any such condition has
ever been discovered. Records do show he was wounded in 1916 during the Battle of the
Somme, and some sources describe his injury as a wound to the groin.
Parkinson's disease
It has also been speculated Hitler had Parkinson's disease.[346] Newsreels of Hitler show he
had tremors in his hand and a shuffling walk (also a symptom of tertiary syphilis, see above)
which began before the war and continued to worsen until the end of his life. Morell treated
Hitler with a drug agent that was commonly used in 1945, although Morell is viewed as an
unreliable doctor by most historians and any diagnoses he may have made are subject to
doubt.
A more reliable doctor, Ernst-Günther Schenck, who worked at an emergency casualty
station in the Reich Chancellery during April 1945, also claimed Hitler might have
Parkinson's disease. However, Schenck only saw Hitler briefly on two occasions and, by his
own admission, was extremely exhausted and dazed during these meetings (at the time, he
had been in surgery for numerous days without much sleep). Also, some of Schenck's
opinions were based on hearsay from Dr. Haase.
Other complaints
From the 1930s he suffered from stomach pains, in 1936 a non cancerous polyp was removed
from his throat and he developed eczema on his legs.[347] He suffered ruptured eardrums as a
result of the July 20 plot bomb blast in 1944 and 200 wood splinters had to be removed from
his legs,[348] but he was otherwise uninjured. Some doctors dismiss Hitler's ailments as
hypochondria, pointing out the apparently drastic decline of Hitler's health as Germany began
losing World War II.
Mental health
This section contains close paraphrasing of one or more non-free copyrighted
sources. Ideas in this article should be expressed in an original manner. See the talk
page for details. (March 2010)
Hitler's mental health is a minefield of theories, speculation and conjecture. This topic is very
controversial, as many believe that if a psychological cause can be found for Hitler's
behavior, there would be more reasoning behind his actions.
Waite, who wrote an extensive psychohistory of Hitler, concluded that he suffered from
borderline personality disorder, which manifested its symptoms in numerous ways and would
imply Hitler was in full control of himself and his actions. Others have proposed Hitler may
have been schizophrenic[citation needed], based on claims that he was hallucinating and delusional
during his last year of life. Others believe that Hitler had a mental disorder and was not
schizophrenic nor bipolar, but rather met the criteria for both disorders, and was therefore
most likely a schizoaffective.[citation needed] If true, this might be explained by a series of brief
reactive psychoses in a narcissistic personality which could not withstand being confronted
with reality (in this case, that he was not the "savior of Germany" he envisioned himself to
be, as his plans and early achievements collapsed about him). In addition, his regular
methamphetamine use and possible sleep deprivation in the last period of his life must be
factored into any speculation as to the cause of his possible psychotic symptoms, as these two
activities are known to trigger psychotic reactions in some individuals. Hitler never visited a
psychiatrist, and under current methodology, any such diagnosis is speculation.
Addiction to amphetamine
Hitler began using amphetamine occasionally after 1937 and became addicted to
amphetamine after the late summer of 1942.[349] Albert Speer stated he thought this was the
most likely cause of the later rigidity of Hitler’s decision making (never allowing military
retreats).[350]
Historians' views
In a 1980 article, the German historian Hans-Ulrich Wehler dismissed theories that sought to
explain Nazi Germany as due to some defect, medical or otherwise in Hitler. In his opinion,
besides the problem that such theories about Hitler's medical condition were extremely
difficult to prove, they had the effect of personalizing the phenomena of Nazi Germany by
attributing everything that happened in the Third Reich to one flawed individual.[266] The
British historian Sir Ian Kershaw agreed that it was better to take a broader view of German
history by seeking to examine what social forces led to the Third Reich and its policies, as
opposed to the "personalized" explanations for the Holocaust and World War II.[266]
Sexuality
Hitler with his long-time mistress Eva Braun, whom he married 29 April 1945
Main article: Sexuality of Adolf Hitler
Hitler presented himself publicly as a man without a domestic life, dedicated entirely to his
political mission.
He had a fiancée in the 1920s, Mimi Reiter, and later had a mistress, Eva Braun. He had a
close bond with his half-niece Geli Raubal, which some commentators have claimed was
sexual, though there is no evidence that proves this.[351] All three women attempted suicide
(two succeeded), a fact that has led to speculation that Hitler may have had sexual fetishes,
[clarification needed]
such as urolagnia (aroused by urine or urination), as was claimed by Otto
Strasser, a political opponent of Hitler. Reiter, the only one to survive the Nazi regime,
denied this.[352] Some theorists have claimed that Hitler had a relationship with British fascist
Unity Mitford.[353] Lothar Machtan argues in The Hidden Hitler that Hitler was homosexual.
[354]

Family
Main article: Hitler (disambiguation)
Paula Hitler, the last living member of Adolf Hitler's immediate family, died in 1960.
The most prominent and longest-living direct descendant of Adolf Hitler's father, Alois, was
Adolf's nephew William Patrick Hitler. With his wife Phyllis, he eventually moved to Long
Island, New York, changed his last name, and had four sons. None of William Hitler's
children have had any children of their own.
Over the years, various investigative reporters have attempted to track down other distant
relatives of the Führer. Many are now alleged to be living inconspicuous lives and have long
since changed their last name.
Adolf Hitler's genealogy
• Klara Hitler, mother
• Alois Hitler, father
• Alois Hitler, Jr., half-brother
• Angela Hitler Raubal, half-sister
• Bridget Dowling, sister-in-law
• Eva Braun, mistress and then wife
• Geli Raubal, niece
• Gretl Braun, sister-in-law through Hitler's marriage to Eva Braun
• Heinz Hitler, nephew
• Hermann Fegelein, brother-in-law through Hitler's marriage to Eva Braun
• Ilse Braun, sister-in-law through Hitler's marriage to Eva Braun
• Johann Georg Hiedler, presumed grandfather
• Johann Nepomuk Hiedler, maternal great-grandfather, presumed great uncle and
possibly Hitler's true paternal grandfather
• Leo Raubal Jr, nephew
• Maria Schicklgruber, grandmother
• Paula Hitler, sister
• William Patrick Hitler, nephew
Hitler in media

Video of Adolf Hitler at Berchtesgaden

See also: Adolf Hitler in popular culture
Oratory and rallies
Main article: List of speeches given by Adolf Hitler
Hitler was a gifted orator who captivated many with his beating of the lectern and growling,
emotional speech. He honed his skills by giving speeches to soldiers during 1919 and 1920.
He became adept at telling people what they wanted to hear (the stab-in-the-back, the Jewish-
Marxist plot to conquer the world, and the betrayal of Germany in the Versailles treaty) and
identifying a scapegoat for their plight. Over time, Hitler perfected his delivery by rehearsing
in front of mirrors and carefully choreographing his display of emotions[citation needed]. He was
allegedly coached by Erik-Jan Hanussen, a self-styled clairvoyant who focused on hand and
arm gestures and who, ironically, had Jewish heritage. Munitions minister and architect
Albert Speer, who may have known Hitler as well as anyone, said that Hitler was above all
else an actor.[355][356]
Massive Nazi rallies staged by Speer were designed to spark a process of self-persuasion for
the participants. By participating in the rallies, by marching, by shouting heil, and by making
the stiff armed salute, the participants strengthened their commitment to the Nazi movement.
This process can be appreciated by watching Leni Riefenstahl's Triumph of the Will, which
presents the 1934 Nuremberg Rally. The camera shoots Hitler from on high and from below,
but only twice head-on. These camera angles give Hitler a Christ-like aura. Some of the
people in the film are paid actors, but most of the participants are not. Whether the film itself
recruited new Nazis out of theatre audiences is unknown. The process of self-persuasion may
have affected Hitler. He gave the same speech (though it got smoother and smoother with
repetition) hundreds of times first to soldiers and then to audiences in beer halls.

Hitler and Baron Mannerheim (June 1942)

Recorded in private conversation
Hitler visited Finnish Field Marshal Mannerheim on 4 June 1942. During the visit an
engineer of the Finnish broadcasting company YLE, Thor Damen, recorded Hitler and
Mannerheim in conversation, something which had to be done secretly since Hitler never
allowed recordings of him off-guard.[357] Today the recording is the only known recording of
Hitler not speaking in an official tone. The recording captures 11½ minutes of the two leaders
in private conversation.[358] Hitler speaks in a slightly excited, but still intellectually detached
manner during this talk (the speech has been compared to that of the working class). The
majority of the recording is a monologue by Hitler. In the recording, Hitler admits to
underestimating the Soviet Union's ability to conduct war.
Patria picture disc
Adolf Hitler even released a 7-inch picture disc with one of his speeches. Known as the
Patria (Fatherland) picture disc, the obverse bears an image of Hitler giving a speech and has
a recording of both a speech by Hitler and also Party Member Hans Hinkel. The reverse bears
a hand holding a swastika flag and the Carl Woitschach recording (1933 – Telefunken A
1431) "In Dem Kampf um die Heimat – Faschistenmarsch".
Documentaries during the Third Reich
Hitler appeared in and was involved to varying degrees with a series of films by the
pioneering filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl via Universum Film AG (UFA):
• Der Sieg des Glaubens (Victory of Faith, 1933).
• Triumph des Willens (Triumph of the Will, 1934), co-produced by Hitler.
• Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht (Day of Freedom: Our Armed Forces, 1935).
• Olympia (1938).
Hitler was the central figure of the first three films; they focused on the party rallies of the
respective years and are considered propaganda films. Hitler also featured prominently in the
Olympia film. Whether the latter is a propaganda film or a true documentary is still a subject
of controversy, but it nonetheless perpetuated and spread the propagandistic message of the
1936 Olympic Games depicting Nazi Germany as a prosperous and peaceful country.[359] As a
prominent politician, Hitler was featured in many newsreels.
Television
Hitler's attendance at various public functions, including the 1936 Olympic Games and
Nuremberg Rallies, appeared on television broadcasts made between 1935 and 1939. These
events, along with other programming highlighting activity by public officials, were often
repeated in public viewing rooms. Samples from a number of surviving television films from
Nazi Germany were included in the 1999 documentary Das Fernsehen unter dem
Hakenkreuz (Television Under the Swastika).
Documentaries post Third Reich
• The World at War (1974): a Thames Television series which contains much
information about Hitler and Nazi Germany, including an interview with his
secretary, Traudl Junge.
• Adolf Hitler's Last Days: from the BBC series "Secrets of World War II" tells the
story about Hitler's last days during World War II.
• The Nazis: A Warning From History (1997): six-part BBC TV series on how the
cultured and educated Germans accepted Hitler and the Nazis up to its downfall.
Historical consultant is Ian Kershaw.
• Cold War (1998): a CNN series about the Cold War between the United States and
the Soviet Union. The series begins with World War II footage, including Hitler, and
how the Cold War began in earnest after Germany surrendered.
• Im toten Winkel – Hitlers Sekretärin (Blind Spot: Hitler's Secretary) (2002): an
exclusive 90 minute interview with Traudl Junge, Hitler's secretary. Made by Austrian
Jewish director André Heller shortly before Junge's death from lung cancer, Junge
recalls the last days in the Berlin bunker. Clips of the interview were used in
Downfall.
• Undergångens arkitektur (The Architecture of Doom) (1989): documentary about the
National Socialist aesthetic as envisioned by Hitler.
• Das Fernsehen unter dem Hakenkreuz (Television Under the Swastika) (1999):
documentary by Michael Kloft about the domestic use of television in Nazi Germany
for propaganda purposes from 1935 to 1944.
• Ruins of the Reich (2007): four-part series of the Rise and Fall of Hitler's Reich and
its effects, created by Third Reich historian R.J. Adams
Films
 • The Death of Adolf Hitler, a British (7 January 1973) made-for-television production,
starring Frank Finlay. The movie depicts the last days of Hitler.
• Hitler: The Last Ten Days (1973): movie depicting the days leading up to Adolf
Hitler's death, starring Sir Alec Guinness.
• Hans-Jürgen Syberberg's Hitler – Ein Film aus Deutschland (Hitler: A Film from
Germany) (1977): a seven-hour work in four parts. The director uses documentary
clips, photographic backgrounds, puppets, theatrical stages, and other elements.[360]
• The Bunker (1981): a U.S. made-for-television movie describing the last days in the
Führerbunker from 17 January 1945 to 2 May 1945. The film stars Anthony Hopkins.
• Europa, Europa (1990): based on the true story of a German Jew who joined the
Hitler Youth in order to avoid capture. Hitler is portrayed by Ryszard Pietruski.
• Fatherland (1994): a hypothetical view of Germany in 1964, had Hitler won World
War II, adapted from the novel by former journalist Robert Harris.
• The Empty Mirror (1996): a psychodrama which speculates on the events following
Hitler (portrayed by Norman Rodway) surviving the fall of Nazi Germany.
• Moloch (1999): Hitler portrayed by Leonid Mozgovoy in a fictional drama set at his
Berghof Retreat in the Bavarian Alps.
• Max (2002): fictional drama depicting a friendship between Jewish art dealer Max
Rothman (John Cusack) and a young Adolf Hitler (Noah Taylor) as a failed painter in
Vienna.
• Hitler: The Rise of Evil (2003): two-part TV series about the early years of Adolf
Hitler and his rise to power (up to 1933), starring Robert Carlyle.
• Der Untergang (Downfall) (2004): German movie about the last days of Adolf Hitler
and the Third Reich, starring Bruno Ganz. This film is partly based on the
autobiography of Traudl Junge, a favorite secretary of Hitler's. In 2002, Junge said
she felt great guilt for "... liking the greatest criminal ever to have lived."
• Valkyrie (2008): Hitler, played by David Bamber, is portrayed as a target of the
famous assassination plot by Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg.
• Dr Freud Will See You Now Mr Hitler (2008): radio drama by Laurence Marks and
Maurice Gran presenting an imagined scenario in which Sigmund Freud treats the
young Hitler. Toby Jones played Hitler.
See also
• Adolf Hitler's directives
• Ex-Nazi Party members
• Führermuseum
• Glossary of Nazi Germany
• Glossary of German military terms
• List of books by or about Adolf Hitler
• List of Nazi Party leaders and officials
• Poison Kitchen
Footnotes
1. ^ "Hitler ersucht um Entlassung aus der österreichischen Staatsangehörigkeit", 7 April 1925
(German). Translation: "Hitler's official application to end his Austrian citizenship". NS-
Archiv. Retrieved on 2008-08-19.
2. ^ Keegan 1989
3. ^ Niewyk, Donald L.; Francis R. Nicosia (2000), The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust,
Columbia University Press, p. 45, ISBN 0231112009
4. ^ Hanock, Ian. "Romanies and the Holocaust: A Reevaluation and an Overview" , published
in Stone, D. (ed.) (2004) The Historiography of the Holocaust. Palgrave, Basingstoke and
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0415118880, http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/braun.html, retrieved
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6. ^ Shirer, W. L. (1960), The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, New York: Simon and Schuster
7. ^ a b Rosenbaum, R. (1999). Explaining Hitler: The Search for the Origins of His Evil. Harper
Perennial. ISBN 0-06-095339-X
8. ^ Shirer (1990-11-15), The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, p. 7, ISBN 9780671728687,
http://books.google.com/?id=sY8svb-
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9. ^ Dieter Schenk, Frank: Hitlers Kronjurist und General-Gouverneur, 2006, p.65. ISBN 978-
3100735621: "Dass Adolf Hitler bestimmt kein Judenblut in den Adern hatte, scheint mir aus
seiner ganzen Art dermaßen eklatant bewiesen, dass es keines weiteren Wortes bedarf,"
(p.330 of Frank's memoirs published in 1953 as Im Angesicht des Galgens. Deutung Hitlers
und seiner Zeit aufgrund eigener Erlebnisse und Erkenntnisse).
10.^ Toland 1991, pp. 246–47
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842-127357
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Further reading
• Hant, Claus (2010), Young Hitler, Quartet Books Publishing, ISBN 978-0704371828
• Murray, Henry A. (1943), Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler: With
Predictions of His Future Behavior and Suggestions for Dealing with Him Now and
After Germany's Surrender,
http://library.lawschool.cornell.edu/WhatWeHave/SpecialCollections/Donovan/Hitler
/index.cfm
• O'Donnell, James (1978), The Bunker, New York: Da Capo Press, ISBN 0-306-
80958-3
Medical books
• Bezymenski, L. (1968), The Death of Adolf Hitler: Unknown Documents from Soviet
Archives, Harcourt Brace, ISBN 0-7181-0634-2
• Doyle, D. (2005), Hitler's Medical Care,
http://www.rcpe.ac.uk/publications/articles/journal_35_1/Hitler's_medical_care.pdf
• Heston, L. (1980), The Medical Casebook of Adolf Hitler: His Illnesses, Doctors, and
Drugs, Stein & Day, ISBN 0-8128-2718-X
• Heston, L. (2000), The Medical Casebook of Adolf Hitler, Cooper Square Press,
ISBN 0-8154-1066-2
• Heston, L. (1999), Adolf Hitler: A Medical Descent That Changed History His Drug
Abuse, Doctors, Illnesses, Baypoint Press, ISBN 0-9665852-9-1
• Morell, Dr. Theodore; et al. (1983), Adolf Hitler : The Secret Diaries of Hitler's
Doctor, Focal Point Publications, ISBN 0-283-98981-5,
http://www.fpp.co.uk/books/Morell/Morell.zip
• Schwaab, E. (1992), Hitler's Mind: A Plunge into Madness, Praeger Publishers,
ISBN 0-275-94132-9
• Victor, G. (1999), Hitler: The Pathology of Evil, Potomac Books, ISBN 1-57488-228-
7
• Zalampas, S. (1990), Adolf Hitler: A Psychological Interpretation of His Views on
Architecture Art and Music, Bowling Green State University Popular Press, ISBN 0-
87972-488-9
External links
• Works by or about Adolf Hitler in libraries (WorldCat catalog)

Find more about Adolf Hitler on Wikipedia's sister projects:

Definitions from Wiktionary

Textbooks from Wikibooks

Quotations from Wikiquote

Source texts from Wikisource

Images and media from Commons

News stories from Wikinews

Learning resources from Wikiversity

Images and videos
• Adolf Hitler at the Internet Movie Database
• Adolf Hitler (Character) at the Internet Movie Database (The Character portrayed in
film and television)
• Color Footage of Hitler during WWII
 • Photos of Adolf Hitler
• Download "The Young Hitler I Knew" on archive.org
• Did Hitler have only one testicle? from The Straight Dope
• OSS document alleging sexual deviancy
• History Channel's Episode - High Hitler
Speeches and publications
• A speech from 1932 (text and audiofile), German Museum of History Berlin
• Hitler Speech (10 February 1933) with English Translation
• Hitler's book Mein Kampf (full English translation)
• Adolf Hitler's Private Will, Marriage Certificate and Political Testament, April 1945
(34 pages)
• "The Discovery of Hitler's Wills" Office of Strategic Services report on how the
testament was found
• The Testament of Adolf Hitler the Bormann-Hitler documents (transcripts of
conversations in February–2 April 1945)

Political offices

Preceded by Leader of the NSDAP

Anton Drexler 1921–1945
Succeeded by
None
Preceded by Leader of the SA
Franz Pfeffer von Salomon 1930–1945

Preceded by Chancellor of Germany(1) Succeeded by

Kurt von Schleicher 1933–1945 Joseph Goebbels

Preceded by
Führer of Germany(1) Succeeded by
Paul von Hindenburg (as
1934–1945 Karl Dönitz (as President)
President)

Military offices

Oberbefehlshaber des Heeres (Army

Preceded by Succeeded by
Commander)
Walther von Brauchitsch Ferdinand Schörner
1941–1945

Notes and references

1. The positions of Head of State and Government were combined 1934–1945 in the office of Führer and
Chancellor of Germany

[show]
v•d•e
Adolf Hitler
P
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Political views · Speeches · Mein Kampf · Zweites Buch · Last will and testament
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Rise to power · Third Reich · Holocaust · World War II · Death
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P
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a Home · Health · Religious views · Sexuality · Diet
l

l
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P
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e Books · In popular culture · Der Sieg des Glaubens · Triumph of the Will · The Empty
p Mirror · Hitler: The Last Ten Days · The Meaning of Hitler · Max · Moloch · Hitler:
t The Rise of Evil · Downfall
i
o
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s

F
a
Eva Braun (wife) · Alois (father) · Klara (mother) · Alois (half-brother) · Angela (half-
m
sister) · Gustav (brother) · Ida (sister) · Otto (brother) · Edmund (brother) · Paula
i
(sister) · William Patrick (nephew) · Heinz (nephew) · Geli (niece)
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 [show]
v•d•e
Chancellors of Germany

G
e
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m
a
n

E
m
p
i Otto von Bismarck · Leo von Caprivi · Prince Chlodwig zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst ·
r Bernhard von Bülow · Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg · Georg Michaelis · Georg
e von Hertling · Prince Maximilian of Baden

(
1
8
7
1
–
1
9
1
8
)

WPhilipp Scheidemann · Gustav Bauer · Hermann Müller · Konstantin Fehrenbach ·

e Joseph Wirth · Wilhelm Cuno · Gustav Stresemann · Wilhelm Marx · Hans Luther ·
i Wilhelm Marx · Hermann Müller · Heinrich Brüning · Franz von Papen · Kurt von
m Schleicher
a
r

R
e
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u
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i
c

(
1
9
1
9
–
1
9
3
3
)

T
h
i
r
d

R
e
i
c
h Adolf Hitler · Joseph Goebbels · Count Schwerin von Krosigk (Leading Minister)

(
1
9
3
3
–
1
9
4
5
)

F
e
d
e
r
a
l

R
e
p Konrad Adenauer · Ludwig Erhard · Kurt Georg Kiesinger · Willy Brandt · Helmut
u Schmidt · Helmut Kohl · Gerhard Schröder · Angela Merkel
b
l
i
c

(
1
9
4
9
–
)
 [show]
v•d•e
Heads of State of Nazi Germany

N
a
z
i

G Paul von Hindenburg (as President) · Adolf Hitler (as Führer and Chancellor) · Karl
e Dönitz (as President)
r
m
a
n
y

[show]
v•d•e

Members of Hitler's cabinet

(30 January 1933 – 30 April
1945)

Adolf Hitler (Chancellor and Führer) · Heinrich Himmler (Reichsführer)

Franz von Papen (ind) · Hermann Göring · Konstantin von Neurath · Joachim von
Ribbentrop · Martin Bormann · Joseph Goebbels · Wilhelm Frick · Rudolf Hess · Lutz Graf
Schwerin von Krosigk (ind) · Alfred Hugenberg (DNVP) · Kurt Schmitt · Hjalmar Schacht
(ind) · Walther Funk · Franz Seldte · Franz Gürtner (DNVP) · Franz Schlegelberger · Otto
Georg Thierack · Werner von Blomberg (ind) · Wilhelm Keitel (ind) · Freiherr von Eltz-
Rübenach (ind) · Julius Dorpmüller · Wilhelm Ohnesorge · Richard Walther Darré · Herbert
Backe · Bernhard Rust · Fritz Todt · Albert Speer · Alfred Rosenberg · Hanns Kerrl ·
Hermann Muhs · Otto Meißner (ind) · Hans Lammers · Karl Hermann Frank · Ernst Röhm

All personnel were or became NSDAP members except where indicated ("ind" =
nominally independent)

[show]
v•d•e
Final occupants of the Führerbunker by date of departure

2 Robert Ley
1

A
p
r
i
l

2
2

A
p Karl Gebhardt · Julius Schaub · Christa Schroeder · Johanna Wolf
r
i
l

2
3

A
p Theodor Morell · Albert Speer · Joachim von Ribbentrop
r
i
l

2
4

A
p Walter Frentz
r
i
l

2
8

A
p Robert Ritter von Greim · Hanna Reitsch · Walter Wagner
r
i
l

2
9

A Bernd Freytag von Loringhoven · Gerhardt Boldt · Rudolf Weiss · Wilhelm Zander ·
p Heinz Lorenz · Willy Johannmeyer
r
i
l

3 Nicolaus von Below

0
A
p
r
i
l

Erich Kempka · Traudl Junge · Gerda Christian · Constanze Manziarly · Else Krüger ·
1 Otto Günsche · Heinz Linge · Johann Rattenhuber · Werner Naumann · Wilhelm
Mohnke · Hans-Erich Voss · Heinrich Doose · Gerhard Schach · Ewald Lindloff ·
M
a Heinz Krüger · Hans Reisser · Alwin-Broder Albrecht · ? Ochs · Ernst-Günther
y Schenck · Georg Betz · Ludwig Stumpfegger · Martin Bormann · Hans Baur · Artur
Axmann · Walther Hewel · Günther Schwägermann · Armin D. Lehmann · Peter Högl

2
Rochus Misch · Helmuth Weidling · Hans Refior · Theodor von Dufving · Siegfried
M
a Knappe
y

D
a
t
e

u
n
c Helmut Kunz
e
r
t
a
i
n

S Erna Flegel · Werner Haase · Fritz Tornow · Johannes Hentschel

t
i
l
l

p
r
e
s
e
n
t
o
n

M
a
y

C
o
m
m
i
t
t
e
Ernst-Robert Grawitz · Adolf Hitler / Eva Hitler (Eva Braun) · Joseph Goebbels /
d
Magda Goebbels · Wilhelm Burgdorf · Hans Krebs · Franz Schädle
s
u
i
c
i
d
e

K
i
l
l Hermann Fegelein · Goebbels children · Grawitz family
e
d

U
n
c
e
r Heinrich Müller
t
a
i
n

[show]
v•d•e
Time Persons of the Year

[show]
 1927–1950

Charles Lindbergh (1927) · Walter Chrysler (1928) · Owen D. Young (1929) · Mahatma
Gandhi (1930) · Pierre Laval (1931) · Franklin D. Roosevelt (1932) · Hugh Samuel Johnson
(1933) · Franklin D. Roosevelt (1934) · Haile Selassie I (1935) · Wallis Simpson (1936) ·
Chiang Kai-shek / Soong May-ling (1937) · Adolf Hitler (1938) · Joseph Stalin (1939) ·
Winston Churchill (1940) · Franklin D. Roosevelt (1941) · Joseph Stalin (1942) · George
Marshall (1943) · Dwight D. Eisenhower (1944) · Harry S. Truman (1945) · James F. Byrnes
(1946) · George Marshall (1947) · Harry S. Truman (1948) · Winston Churchill (1949) · The
American Fighting-Man (1950)

[show]

1951–1975

Mohammed Mosaddeq (1951) · Elizabeth II (1952) · Konrad Adenauer (1953) · John Foster
Dulles (1954) · Harlow Curtice (1955) · Hungarian Freedom Fighters (1956) · Nikita
Khrushchev (1957) · Charles de Gaulle (1958) · Dwight D. Eisenhower (1959) · U.S.
Scientists: George Beadle / Charles Draper / John Enders / Donald A. Glaser / Joshua
Lederberg / Willard Libby / Linus Pauling / Edward Purcell / Isidor Rabi / Emilio Segrè /
William Shockley / Edward Teller / Charles Townes / James Van Allen / Robert Woodward
(1960) · John F. Kennedy (1961) · Pope John XXIII (1962) · Martin Luther King, Jr. (1963) ·
Lyndon B. Johnson (1964) · William Westmoreland (1965) · The Generation Twenty-Five
and Under (1966) · Lyndon B. Johnson (1967) · The Apollo 8 Astronauts: William Anders /
Frank Borman / Jim Lovell (1968) · The Middle Americans (1969) · Willy Brandt (1970) ·
Richard Nixon (1971) · Henry Kissinger / Richard Nixon (1972) · John Sirica (1973) · King
Faisal (1974) · American Women: Susan Brownmiller / Kathleen Byerly / Alison Cheek / Jill
Conway / Betty Ford / Ella Grasso / Carla Hills / Barbara Jordan / Billie Jean King / Carol
Sutton / Susie Sharp / Addie Wyatt (1975)

[show]

1976–2000

Jimmy Carter (1976) · Anwar Sadat (1977) · Deng Xiaoping (1978) · Ayatollah Khomeini
(1979) · Ronald Reagan (1980) · Lech Wałęsa (1981) · The Computer (1982) · Ronald
Reagan / Yuri Andropov (1983) · Peter Ueberroth (1984) · Deng Xiaoping (1985) · Corazon
Aquino (1986) · Mikhail Gorbachev (1987) · The Endangered Earth (1988) · Mikhail
Gorbachev (1989) · George H. W. Bush (1990) · Ted Turner (1991) · Bill Clinton (1992) ·
The Peacemakers: Yasser Arafat / F.W. de Klerk / Nelson Mandela / Yitzhak Rabin (1993) ·
Pope John Paul II (1994) · Newt Gingrich (1995) · David Ho (1996) · Andrew Grove
(1997) · Bill Clinton / Kenneth Starr (1998) · Jeffrey P. Bezos (1999) · George W. Bush
(2000)

[show]

2001–present
Rudolph Giuliani (2001) · The Whistleblowers: Cynthia Cooper / Coleen Rowley / Sherron
Watkins (2002) · The American Soldier (2003) · George W. Bush (2004) · The Good
Samaritans: Bono / Bill Gates / Melinda Gates (2005) · You (2006) · Vladimir Putin (2007) ·
Barack Obama (2008) · Ben Bernanke (2009)

[show]
v•d•e
Fascism

[show]

Theory

Nationalism · Imperialism · Authoritarianism · Single party state · Dictatorship ·

CoreSocial Darwinism · Social interventionism · Indoctrination · Propaganda · Anti-
tenetsintellectualism · Eugenics · Heroism · Militarism · Economic interventionism ·
Anti-communism

Definitions · Economics · Fascism and ideology · Fascism worldwide ·

Topics
Symbolism

Actual Idealism · Class collaboration · Corporatism · Heroic capitalism ·

IdeasNational Socialism · National syndicalism · State capitalism · State socialism ·
Supercapitalism · Third Position · Totalitarianism

[show]

Movements

AfricaGreyshirts · Ossewabrandwag

AsiaBaathism · Brit HaBirionim · Ganap Party

Action Française · Black Front (Netherlands) · Breton Social-National

Workers' Movement · British Fascists · British People's Party (1939) ·
British Union of Fascists · La Cagoule · Clerical People's Party · Faisceau ·
Falange · Flemish National Union · French Popular Party · General Dutch
Western
Fascist League · Imperial Fascist League · National Fascisti · National
Europe
Front (Switzerland) · Nationalist Party (Iceland) · National Socialist Dutch
Workers Party · National Socialist League · National Socialist Movement
in the Netherlands · National Socialist Movement of Norway · National
Union (Portugal) · New Party (UK) · Rexism

Arrow Cross Party · Austrian National Socialism · Fatherland's Front ·

Greater German People's Party · Hungarian National Socialist Party ·
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(Sweden) · Nazism · Nazi Party · Pērkonkrusts · Republican Fascist Party ·
Sammarinese Fascist Party · Sudeten German Party · Ustaše · ZBOR
 Albanian Fascist Party · Crusade of Romanianism · Greek National
Socialist Party · Iron Guard · Lapua Movement · National Fascist
Movement · National Italo-Romanian Cultural and Economic Movement ·
Eastern EuropeNational Social Movement (Bulgaria) · National Romanian Fascia ·
National Renaissance Front · Patriotic People's Movement (Finland) ·
Romanian Front · Russian Fascist Party · Russian Women's Fascist
Movement · Slovak People's Party · Union of Bulgarian National Legions

Fascism in Canada · Canadian Union of Fascists · Parti national social

North Americachrétien · Red Shirts (Mexico) · Gold shirts · German American Bund ·
Silver Legion of America

Falangism in Latin America · Brazilian Integralism · Bolivian Socialist

South America
Falange · National Socialist Movement of Chile

[show]

People

Abba Ahimeir · Ion Antonescu · Sadao Araki · Zoltán Böszörmény · Corneliu Zelea
Codreanu · Marcelo Caetano · Gustavs Celmiņš · Enrico Corradini · Marcel Déat · Léon
Degrelle · Giovanni Gentile · Heinrich Himmler · Emperor Hirohito · Adolf Hitler · Ikki
Kita · Dimitrije Ljotić · Arnold Leese · Oswald Mosley · Benito Mussolini · Eoin O'Duffy ·
Gearóid Ó Cuinneagáin · Ante Pavelić · William Dudley Pelley · Vidkun Quisling · José
Antonio Primo de Rivera · Konstantin Rodzaevsky · António de Oliveira Salazar · Plínio
Salgado · Ferenc Szálasi · Victor Emanuel III · Anastasy Vonsyatsky

[show]

Works

The Doctrine of Fascism · Fascist manifesto · Manifesto of the Fascist

Intellectuals · Mein Kampf · My Life · The Myth of the Twentieth Century ·
Literature
Revolt Against the Modern World · Zweites Buch · Zaveshchanie russkogo
fashista

La Conquista del Estado · Das Reich (newspaper) · Der Angriff · Deutsche

Allgemeine Zeitung · Deutsche Zeitung in Norwegen · Deutsche Zeitung in
den Niederlanden · Figli d'Italia · Fronten · Gândirea · Gioventù Fascista · Je
Periodicalssuis partout · La France au travail · Münchener Beobachter · Novopress · NS
Månedshefte · Norsk-Tysk Tidsskrift · Das Schwarze Korps · Der Stürmer · Il
Popolo d'Italia · Sfarmă-Piatră · Signal (magazine) · Vlajka · Völkischer
Beobachter · Nash Put'

Der Sieg des Glaubens · Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht · Triumph of
Film
the Will

SculptureAllach (porcelain)

RelatedArt of the Third Reich · Fascist architecture · Heroic realism · Nazi

 topicsarchitecture · Nazism and cinema · Nazi plunder

[show]

Organizations

Ahnenerbe · Chamber of Fasci and Corporations · Grand Council of Fascism ·

InstitutionalImperial Way Faction · Italian Nationalist Association · Nationalsozialistischer
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ActivistFascists – Vanguard (boys) · Union of Young Fascists – Vanguard (girls) ·
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Internationa
Axis powers · NSDAP/AO · ODESSA
l

[show]

History

1910
Arditi · Fascio
s

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seconomic battles

1930
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s

1940World War II · The Holocaust · Congress of Verona · Denazification · Nuremberg

sTrials

[show]

Lists

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Ashoka
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Ashoka the Great

Mauryan Samrat
 A Chakravatin (possibly Ashoka) 1st century BC/CE.
Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati. Preserved at Musee Guimet

Reign 273-232 BC

Coronation 270 BC

Full name Ashoka Bindusara Maurya

Samrat. Other titles include Devanampriya

Priyadarsi, Dhammarakhit, Dharmarajika,
Dhammarajika, Dhammaradnya,
Chakravartin, Samrat, Radnyashreshtha,
Titles Magadhrajshretha, Magadharajan, Bhupatin,
Mauryaraja, Aryashok, Dharmashok,
Dhammashok, Asokvadhhan ,
Ashokavardhan, Prajapita,Dhammanayak,
Dharmanayak

Born 304 BC

Birthplace Pataliputra, Patna

Died 232 BC (aged 72)

Place of
Pataliputra, Patna
death

Buried Ashes immersed in Ganges River, possibly in

 Varanasi, Cremated 232 BC, less than 24
hours after death

Predecessor Bindusara

Successor Dasaratha Maurya

Consort Maharani Devi

Rani Tishyaraksha
Wives Rani Padmavati
Rani Kaurwaki

Offspring Mahendra, Sanghamitra,Teevala, Kunala

Royal House Mauryan dynasty

Father Bindusara

Mother Rani Dharma or Shubhadrangi

Religious
Buddhism, Humanism
beliefs

Ashoka (Devanāgarī: अशोक, IAST: Aśoka, IPA: [aˈɕoːkə], 304–232 BC), popularly known
as Ashoka the Great, was an Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty who ruled almost all of
the Indian subcontinent from 269 BC to 232 BC. One of India's greatest emperors, Ashoka
reigned over most of present-day India after a number of military conquests. His empire
stretched from present-day Pakistan, Afghanistan in the west, to the present-day Bangladesh
and the Indian state of Assam in the east, and as far south as northern Kerala and Andhra. He
conquered the kingdom named Kalinga, which no one in his dynasty had conquered starting
from Chandragupta Maurya. His reign was headquartered in Magadha (present-day Bihar,
India).[1] He embraced Buddhism from the prevalent Vedic tradition after witnessing the mass
deaths of the war of Kalinga, which he himself had waged out of a desire for conquest. He
was later dedicated to the propagation of Buddhism across Asia and established monuments
marking several significant sites in the life of Gautama Buddha. Ashoka was a devotee of
ahimsa (nonviolence), love, truth, tolerance and vegetarianism. Ashoka is remembered in
history as a philanthropic administrator. In the history of India Ashoka is referred to as
Samraat Chakravartin Ashoka- the Emperor of Emperors Ashoka.
His name "aśoka" means "without sorrow" in Sanskrit (a= no/without, soka= sorrow or
worry). In his edicts, he is referred to as Devānāmpriya (Devanāgarī:
देवानािपय)/Devānaṃpiya or "The Beloved Of The Gods", and Priyadarśin (Devanāgarī:
िपयदशी)/Piyadassī or "He who regards everyone with affection". Another title of his is
Dhamma (prakrit: धममः), "Lawful, Religious, Righteous".
Renowned British author and social critic H. G. Wells in his bestselling two-volume work,
The Outline of History (1920), wrote of emperor Ashoka:
In the history of the world there have been thousands of kings and emperors who called
themselves 'their highnesses,' 'their majesties,' and 'their exalted majesties' and so on. They
shone for a brief moment, and as quickly disappeared. But Ashoka shines and shines brightly
like a bright star, even unto this day.
Along with the Edicts of Ashoka, his legend is related in the later 2nd century
Aśokāvadāna ("Narrative of Asoka") and Divyāvadāna ("Divine narrative"), and in the
Sri Lankan text Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle").
After two thousand years, the influence of Ashoka is seen in Asia and especially the Indian
subcontinent. An emblem excavated from his empire is today the national Emblem of India.
In the History of Buddhism Ashoka is considered just after Gautama Buddha.

Contents
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• 1
Biogra
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Histori
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Import
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Ashok
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• 8 See
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Notes
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Extern
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Biography
Early life
This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (January 2009)

Ashoka was born to the Mauryan emperor Bindusara and his Queen 'Dharma' (although she
was a Brahmin or Shubhadrangi, she was undervalued as she wasn't of royal blood). Ashoka
had several elder siblings (all half-brothers from other wives of Bindusara). He had just one
younger sibling, Vitthashoka (a much loved brother from the same mother). Because of his
exemplary intellect and warrior skills, he was said to have been the favorite of his grandfather
Chandragupta Maurya. As the legend goes, when Chandragupta Maurya left his empire for a
Jain living, he threw his sword away. Ashoka found the sword and kept it, in spite of his
grandfather's warning. Ashoka, in his adolescence, was rude and naughty. He was a fearsome
hunter. He was a kshatriya and was given all royal military trainings and other Vedic
knowledge. According to a legend, he killed a Lion with just a wooden rod. Ashoka was very
well known for his sword fighting. He was very adventurous and this made him a terrific
fighter. Ashoka was a frightening warrior and a heartless general. Because of this quality he
was sent to destroy the riot of Avanti.
Rise to Power

Maurya Empire at the age of Ashoka. The empire stretched from Iran to Bangladesh/Assam
and from Central Asia (Afganistan) to Tamil Nadu/South India.
Developing into an impeccable warrior general and a shrewd statesman, Ashoka went on to
command several regiments of the Mauryan army. His growing popularity across the empire
made his elder brothers wary of his chances of being favored by Bindusara to become the
next emperor. The eldest of them, Susima, the traditional heir to the throne, persuaded
Bindusara to send Ashoka to quell an uprising in Taxshila, a city in the north-west District of
Pakistani Punjab region, for which Prince Susima was the Governor. Taxshila was a highly
volatile place because of the war-like Indo-Greek population and mismanagement by Susima
himself. This had led to the formation of different militias causing unrest. Ashoka complied
and left for the troubled area. As news of Ashoka's visit with his army trickled in, he was
welcomed by the revolting militias and the uprising ended without a conflict. (The province
revolted once more during the rule of Ashoka, but this time the uprising was crushed with an
iron fist)
Ashoka's success made his stepbrothers more wary of his intentions of becoming the emperor
and more incitements from Susima led Bindusara to send Ashoka into exile. He went into
Kalinga and stayed there incognito. There he met a fisher woman named Kaurwaki, with
whom he fell in love. Recently found inscriptions indicate that she would later become either
his second or third queen.
Meanwhile, there was again a violent uprising in Ujjain. Emperor Bindusara summoned
Ashoka out of exile after two years. Ashoka went into Ujjain and in the ensuing battle was
injured, but his generals quelled the uprising. Ashoka was treated in hiding so that loyalists of
the Susima group could not harm him. He was treated by Buddhist monks and nuns. This is
where he first learned the teachings of the Buddha, and it is also where he met Devi, who was
his personal nurse and the daughter of a merchant from adjacent Vidisha. After recovering, he
married her. It was quite unacceptable to Bindusara that one of his sons should marry a
Buddhist, so he did not allow Ashoka to stay in Pataliputra but instead sent him back to
Ujjain and made him the governor of Ujjain.
The following year passed quite peacefully for him, and Devi was about to deliver his first
child. In the meanwhile, Emperor Bindusara died. As the news of the unborn heir to the
throne spread, Prince Susima planned the execution of the unborn child; however, the
assassin who came to kill Devi and her child killed his mother instead. Ashoka beheads his
elder brother to ascend the throne. In this phase of his life, Ashoka was known for his
unquenched thirst for wars and campaigns launched to conquer the lands of other rulers and
became known as Chandashok (terrible Ashoka), the Sanskrit word chanda meaning cruel,
fierce, or rude, Chandi-devi being associated with Kali.
Ascending the throne, Ashoka expanded his empire over the next eight years, from the
present-day boundaries and regions of Burma–Bangladesh and the state of Assam in India in
the east to the territory of present-day Iran / Persia and Afghanistan in the west; from the
Pamir Knots in the north almost to the peninsular of southern India (i.e. Tamilnadu / Andhra
pradesh).
Conquest of Kalinga
Main article: Kalinga War
While the early part of Ashoka's reign was apparently quite bloodthirsty, he became a
follower of the Buddha's teaching after his conquest of Kalinga on the east coast of India in
the present-day state of Orissa. Kalinga was a state that prided itself on its sovereignty and
democracy. With its monarchical parliamentary democracy it was quite an exception in
ancient Bharata where there existed the concept of Rajdharma. Rajdharma means the duty of
the rulers, which was intrinsically entwined with the concept of bravery and Kshatriya
dharma.
The pretext for the start of the Kalinga War (265 BC or 263 BC) is uncertain. One of
Susima's brothers might have fled to Kalinga and found official refuge there. This enraged
Ashoka immensely. He was advised by his ministers to attack Kalinga for this act of
treachery. Ashoka then asked Kalinga's royalty to submit before his supremacy. When they
defied this diktat, Ashoka sent one of his generals to Kalinga to make them submit.
The general and his forces were, however, completely routed through the skilled tact of
Kalinga's commander-in-chief. Ashoka, baffled at this defeat, attacked with the greatest
invasion ever recorded in Indian history until then. Kalinga put up a stiff resistance, but they
were no match for Ashoka's brutal strength. The whole of Kalinga was plundered and
destroyed. Ashoka's later edicts state that about 100,000 people were killed on the Kalinga
side and 10,000 from Ashoka's army. Thousands of men and women were deported.
Buddhist Conversion
This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (March 2009)

A similar four "Indian lion" Lion Capital of Ashoka atop an intact Ashoka Pillar at Wat U
Mong near Chiang Mai, Thailand showing another larger Dharma Chakra / Ashoka Chakra
atop the four lions thought to be missing in the Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath Museum
which has been adopted as the National Emblem of India.
As the legend goes, one day after the war was over, Ashoka ventured out to roam the city and
all he could see were burnt houses and scattered corpses. This sight made him sick and he
cried the famous monologue:
What have I done? If this is a victory, what's a defeat then? Is this a victory or a defeat? Is
this justice or injustice? Is it gallantry or a rout? Is it valor to kill innocent children and
women? Do I do it to widen the empire and for prosperity or to destroy the other's kingdom
and splendor? One has lost her husband, someone else a father, someone a child, someone
an unborn infant.... What's this debris of the corpses? Are these marks of victory or defeat?
Are these vultures, crows, eagles the messengers of death or evil?
The brutality of the conquest led him to adopt Buddhism and he used his position to
propagate the relatively new religion to new heights, as far as ancient Rome and Egypt. He
made Buddhism his state religion around 260 BC, and propagated it and preached it within
his domain and worldwide from about 250 BC. Emperor Ashoka undoubtedly has to be
credited with the first serious attempt to develop a Buddhist policy.

Ashokan Pillar at Vaishali

Prominent in this cause were his son Venerable Mahindra and daughter Sanghamitra (whose
name means "friend of the Sangha"), who established Buddhism in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka).
He built thousands of Stupas and Viharas for Buddhist followers. The Stupas of Sanchi are
world famous and the stupa named Sanchi Stupa was built by Emperor Ashoka. During the
remaining portion of Ashoka's reign, he pursued an official policy of nonviolence (ahimsa).
Even the unnecessary slaughter or mutilation of people was immediately abolished. Everyone
became protected by the king's law against sport hunting and branding. Limited hunting was
permitted for consumption reasons but Ashoka also promoted the concept of vegetarianism.
Ashoka also showed mercy to those imprisoned, allowing them leave for the outside a day of
the year. He attempted to raise the professional ambition of the common man by building
universities for study, and water transit and irrigation systems for trade and agriculture. He
treated his subjects as equals regardless of their religion, politics and caste. The kingdoms
surrounding his, so easily overthrown, were instead made to be well-respected allies.
He is acclaimed for constructing hospitals for animals and renovating major roads throughout
India. After this transformation, Ashoka came to be known as Dhammashoka (Sanskrit),
meaning Ashoka, the follower of Dharma. Ashoka defined the main principles of dharma
(dhamma) as nonviolence, tolerance of all sects and opinions, obedience to parents, respect
for the Brahmans and other religious teachers and priests, liberality towards friends, humane
treatment of servants, and generosity towards all. These principles suggest a general ethic of
behaviour to which no religious or social group could object.
Some critics say that Ashoka was afraid of more wars, but among his neighbors, including
the Seleucid Empire and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom established by Diodotus I, none could
match his strength. He was a contemporary of both Antiochus I Soter and his successor
Antiochus II Theos of the Seleucid dynasty as well as Diodotus I and his son Diodotus II of
the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. If his inscriptions and edicts are well studied one finds that he
was familiar with the Hellenic world but never in awe of it. His edicts, which talk of friendly
relations, give the names of both Antiochus of the Seleucid empire and Ptolemy III of Egypt.
The fame of the Mauryan empire was widespread from the time that Ashoka's grandfather
Chandragupta Maurya defeated Seleucus Nicator, the founder of the Seleucid Dynasty.

Stupa of Sanchi.
The source of much of our knowledge of Ashoka is the many inscriptions he had carved on
pillars and rocks throughout the empire. Emperor Ashoka is known as Piyadasi (in Pali) or
Priyadarshi (in Sanskrit) meaning "good looking" or "favored by the gods with good
blessing". All his inscriptions have the imperial touch and show compassionate loving. He
addressed his people as his "children". These inscriptions promoted Buddhist morality and
encouraged nonviolence and adherence to Dharma (duty or proper behavior), and they talk of
his fame and conquered lands as well as the neighboring kingdoms holding up his might. One
also gets some primary information about the Kalinga War and Ashoka's allies plus some
useful knowledge on the civil administration. The Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath is the most
popular of the relics left by Ashoka. Made of sandstone, this pillar records the visit of the
emperor to Sarnath, in the 3rd century BC. It has a four-lion capital (four lions standing back
to back) which was adopted as the emblem of the modern Indian republic. The lion
symbolizes both Ashoka's imperial rule and the kingship of the Buddha. In translating these
monuments, historians learn the bulk of what is assumed to have been true fact of the
Mauryan Empire. It is difficult to determine whether or not some actual events ever
happened, but the stone etchings clearly depict how Ashoka wanted to be thought of and
remembered.
Ashoka's own words as known from his Edicts are: "All men are my children. I am like a
father to them. As every father desires the good and the happiness of his children, I wish that
all men should be happy always." Edward D'Cruz interprets the Ashokan dharma as a
"religion to be used as a symbol of a new imperial unity and a cementing force to weld the
diverse and heterogeneous elements of the empire".
Also, in the Edicts, Ashoka mentions Hellenistic kings of the period as converts to Buddhism,
although no Hellenic historical record of this event remain:
The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas
(5,400–9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four
kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among
the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka).
—Edicts of Ashoka, Rock Edict 13 (S. Dhammika)
Ashoka also claims that he encouraged the development of herbal medicine, for human and
nonhuman animals, in their territories:
Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's [Ashoka's] domain, and among the
people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far
as Tamraparni and where the Greek king Antiochos rules, and among the kings who are
neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made
provision for two types of medical treatment: medical treatment for humans and medical
treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans or animals are not
available, I have had them imported and grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not
available I have had them imported and grown. Along roads I have had wells dug and trees
planted for the benefit of humans and animals.
—Edicts of Ashoka, Rock Edict 2
The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism,
as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as
leading Greek (Yona) Buddhist monks, active in spreading Buddhism (the Mahavamsa,
XII[2]).
Death and legacy
Ashoka ruled for an estimated forty years. After his death, the Mauryan dynasty lasted just
fifty more years. Ashoka had many wives and children, but many of their names are lost to
time. Mahindra and Sanghamitra were twins born by his first wife, Devi, in the city of Ujjain.
He had entrusted to them the job of making his state religion, Buddhism, more popular across
the known and the unknown world. Mahindra and Sanghamitra went into Sri Lanka and
converted the King, the Queen and their people to Buddhism. They were naturally not
handling state affairs after him.
In his old age, he seems to have come under the spell of his youngest wife Tishyaraksha. It is
said that she had got his son Kunala, the regent in Takshashila, blinded by a wily stratagem.
The official executioners spared Kunala and he became a wandering singer accompanied by
his favourite wife Kanchanmala. In Pataliputra, Ashoka hears Kunala's song, and realizes that
Kunala's misfortune may have been a punishment for some past sin of the emperor himself
and condemns Tishyaraksha to death, restoring Kunala to the court. Kunala was succeeded by
his son, Samprati, but his rule did not last long after Ashoka's death.
The reign of Ashoka Maurya could easily have disappeared into history as the ages passed
by, and would have had he not left behind a record of his trials. The testimony of this wise
king was discovered in the form of magnificently sculpted pillars and boulders with a variety
of actions and teachings he wished to be published etched into the stone. What Ashoka left
behind was the first written language in India since the ancient city of Harappa. The language
used for inscription was the then current spoken form called Prakrit.
In the year 185 BC, about fifty years after Ashoka's death, the last Maurya ruler, Brhadrata,
was assassinated by the commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra
Sunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honor of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga founded the
Sunga dynasty (185 BC-78 BC) and ruled just a fragmented part of the Mauryan Empire.
Many of the northwestern territories of the Mauryan Empire (modern-day Iran, Afghanistan
and Pakistan) became the Indo-Greek Kingdom.
When India gained independence from the British Empire it adopted Ashoka's emblem for its
own, placing the Dharmachakra (The Wheel of Righteous Duty) that crowned his many
columns on the flag of the newly independent state. In 1992, Ashoka was ranked #53 on
Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential figures in history. In 2001, a semi-fictionalized
portrayal of Ashoka's life was produced as a motion picture under the title Asoka. King
Ashoka, the third monarch of the Indian Mauryan dynasty, has come to be regarded as one of
the most exemplary rulers in world history. The British historian H.G. Wells has written:
"Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history ... the
name of Asoka shines, and shines almost alone, a star."
Buddhist Kingship
Main articles: History of Buddhism and History of Buddhism in India
Further information: Buddhism in Sri Lanka and Buddhism in Burma
One of the more enduring legacies of Ashoka Maurya was the model that he provided for the
relationship between Buddhism and the state. Throughout Theravada Southeastern Asia, the
model of ruler ship embodied by Ashoka replaced the notion of divine kingship that had
previously dominated (in the Angkor kingdom, for instance). Under this model of 'Buddhist
kingship', the king sought to legitimize his rule not through descent from a divine source, but
by supporting and earning the approval of the Buddhist sangha. Following Ashoka's
example, kings established monasteries, funded the construction of stupas, and supported the
ordination of monks in their kingdom. Many rulers also took an active role in resolving
disputes over the status and regulation of the sangha, as Ashoka had in calling a conclave to
settle a number of contentious issues during his reign. This development ultimately lead to a
close association in many Southeast Asian countries between the monarchy and the religious
hierarchy, an association that can still be seen today in the state-supported Buddhism of
Thailand and the traditional role of the Thai king as both a religious and secular leader.
Ashoka also said that all his courtiers were true to their self and governed the people in a
moral manner.
Historical sources

Bilingual inscription in (Greek and Aramaic) by king Ashoka, from Kandahar (Shar-i-kuna).
Kabul Museum.
Western sources – Ashoka was almost forgotten by the historians of the early British India
but James Prinsep contributed in the revelation of historical sources. Another important
historian was British archaeologist Sir John Hubert Marshall who was director-General of the
Archaeological Survey of India. His main interests were Sanchi and Sarnath besides Harappa
and Mohenjodaro. Sir Alexander Cunningham, a British archaeologist and army engineer and
often known as the father of the Archaeological Survey of India, unveiled heritage sites like
the Bharhut Stupa, Sarnath, Sanchi, and the Mahabodhi Temple; thus, his contribution is
recognizable in realms of historical sources. Sir Mortimer Wheeler who was a British
archaeologist also exposed Ashokan historical sources, especially the Taxila.
Main articles: Edicts of Ashoka, Ashokavadana, Mahavamsa, and Dipavamsa
Eastern sources - Information about the life and reign of Ashoka primarily comes from a
relatively small number of Buddhist sources. In particular, the Sanskrit Ashokavadana ('Story
of Ashoka'), written in the 2nd century, and the two Pāli chronicles of Sri Lanka (the
Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa) provide most of the currently known information about Ashoka.
Additional information is contributed by the Edicts of Asoka, whose authorship was finally
attributed to the Ashoka of Buddhist legend after the discovery of dynastic lists that gave the
name used in the edicts (Priyadarsi – 'favored by the Gods') as a title or additional name of
Ashoka Mauriya. Architectural remains of his period have been found at Kumhrar, Patna,
which include an 80-pillar hypostyle hall.
Edicts of Ashoka -The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of
Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls, made by the Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan
dynasty during his reign from 272 to 231 BC. These inscriptions are dispersed throughout the
areas of modern-day Pakistan and India, and represent the first tangible evidence of
Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the
sponsorship of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history.It give more information
about Ashoka's proselytism, Moral precepts, Religious precepts, Social and animal welfare .
Ashokavadana - The Ashokavadana is a 2nd century CE text related to the legend of the
Maurya Emperor Ashoka. The legend was translated into Chinese by Fa Hien in 300 CE.
Mahavamsa -The Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle") is a historical poem written in the Pali
language, of the kings of Sri Lanka. It covers the period from the coming of King Vijaya of
Kalinga (ancient Orissa) in 543 BC to the reign of King Mahasena (334–361).As it often
refers to the royal dynasties of India, the Mahavamsa is also valuable for historians who wish
to date and relate contemporary royal dynasties in the Indian subcontinent. It is very
important in dating the consecration of the Maurya emperor Ashoka.
Dipavamsa -The Dipavamsa, or "Deepavamsa", (i.e., Chronicle of the Island, in Pali) is the
oldest historical record of Sri Lanka. The chronicle is believe to be compiled from Atthakatha
and other sources around the 3–4th century, King Dhatusena (4th century CE) had ordered
that the Dipavamsa be recited at the Mahinda (son to Ashoka )festival held annually in
Anuradhapura.
The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence
on perceptions of Ashoka, as well as the interpretations of his edicts. Building on traditional
accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a
conversion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist
monastic institution. Some scholars have tended to question this assessment. The only source
of information not attributable to Buddhist sources are the Ashokan edicts, and these do not
explicitly state that Ashoka was a Buddhist. In his edicts, Ashoka expresses support for all
the major religions of his time: Buddhism, Brahmanism, Jainism, and Ajivikaism, and his
edicts addressed to the population at large (there are some addressed specifically to
Buddhists; this is not the case for the other religions) generally focus on moral themes
members of all the religions would accept.
However, there is strong evidence in the edicts alone that he was a Buddhist. In one edict he
belittles rituals, and he banned Vedic animal sacrifices; these strongly suggest that he at least
did not look to the Vedic tradition for guidance. Furthermore, there are many edicts expressed
to Buddhists alone; in one, Ashoka declares himself to be an "upasaka", and in another he
demonstrates a close familiarity with Buddhist texts. He erected rock pillars at Buddhist holy
sites, but did not so for the sites of other religions. He also used the word "dhamma" to refer
to qualities of the heart that underlie moral action; this was an exclusively Buddhist use of the
word. Finally, the ideals he promotes correspond to the first three steps of the Buddha's
graduated discourse.[3]
Important years in the life of Ashoka
Birth – 304 BC
Marriage with Maharani devi – 286 BC
Mahindra's birth – 284 BC
Sanghamitta's birth – 281 BC
Reign – 272/273 BC to his Nirvana / Death (232 BC)
Rajyabhisheka – 270 BC
Tending to Buddhism – 266 BC
Building Chaityas – 266/263 BC
Mahindra and Sanghamitta Become Buddhist – 264 BC
Kalinga Vijaya – 262/263 BC
Converted to Buddhism – 263 BC
Dharmayatra – 263–250 BC
Third Buddhist council – 250–253 BC
Mahindra's Sri Lanka Yatra – 252 BC
Buddhist Proselytism – 250 to his Death / Nirvana
Edicts – 243/242 BC
Death / Nirvana of Sanghamitta – 240 BC
Rani Tishyaraksha becomes Pattarani – 236 BC
Prince Kunal becomes Upraja – 233 bc
Ashoka's Death / Nirvana – 232 BC
(Note – There are some historians according to whom Ashoka embraced Buddhism in 266
BC but became a true follower of Buddhism after the Conquest of Kalinga 262 BC or 263
BC)

Contributions
Global Spread of Buddhism
Ashoka, now a Buddhist emperor, believed that Buddhism is beneficial for all human beings
as well as animals and plants, so he built 84,000 stupas, Sangharama, viharas, Chaitya, and
residences for Buddhist monks all over South Asia and Central Asia. He gave donations to
viharas and mathas. He sent his only daughter Sanghamitta and son Mahindra to spread
Buddhism in Sri Lanka (ancient name Tamraparni). Ashoka also sent many prominent
Buddhist monks (bhikshus) Sthaviras like Madhyamik Sthavira to modern Kashmir and
Afganistan; Maharaskshit sthavira to Syria, Persia / Iran, Egypt, Greece, Italy and Turkey;
Massim Sthavira to Nepal, Bhutan, China and Mongolia; Sohn Uttar Sthavira to modern
Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar (old name Suvarnabhumi for Burma and Thailand), Thailand and
Vietnam; Mahadhhamarakhhita stahvira to Maharashtra (old name Maharatthha);
Maharakhhit Sthavira and Yavandhammarakhhita Sthavira to South India. Ashoka also
invited Buddhists and non-Buddhists for religious conferences. Ashoka inspired the Buddhist
monks to compose the sacred religious texts, and also gave all types of help to that end.
Ashoka also helped to develop viharas (intellectual hubs) such as Nalanda and Taxila.
Ashoka helped to construct Sanchi and Mahabodhi Temple. Ashoka never tried to harm or to
destroy non-Buddhist religions, and indeed gave donations to non-Buddhists. As his reign
continued his even-handedness was replaced with special inclination towards Buddhism.[4]
Ashoka helped and respected both Sramans (Buddhists monks) and Brahmins (Vedic monks).
Ashoka also helped to organize the Third Buddhist council (c. 250 BC) at Pataliputra (today's
Patna). It was conducted by the monk Moggaliputta-Tissa who was the spiritual teacher of
the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka.
As an Administrator

Mauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd century BC. British
Museum.
Ashoka's military power was so strong that he was able to crush those empires that went to
war against him still, he was on friendly terms with kingdoms in the South like Cholas,
Pandya, Keralputra, the post Alexandrian empire, Tamraparni, and Suvarnabhumi who were
strong enough to remain outside his empire and continued to profess Hinduism. According to
his edicts we know that he provided humanitarian help including doctors, hospitals, inns,
wells, medical herbs and engineers to his neighboring countries. In his neighboring countries
Ashoka helped humans as well as animals. Ashoka also planted trees in his empire and his
neighboring countries. Ashoka was perhaps the first emperor in human history to ban slavery,
hunting, fishing and deforestation. Ashoka also banned the death sentence and asked the
same for the neighboring countries.[5] Ashoka commanded his people to serve the orders of
their elders parents) and religious monks (shramana and Brahmin). Ashoka also
recommended his people study all religions and respect all religions. According to Ashoka, to
harm another's religion is a harm to someone's owns religion. Ashoka asserted his people to
live with Dharmmacharana. Ashoka asked people to live with harmony, peace, love and
tolerance. Ashoka called his people as his children, and they could call him when they need
him. He also asked people to save money and not to spend for immoral causes. Ashoka also
believed in dharmacharana (dhammacharana) and dharmavijaya (dhammavijaya). According
to many European and Asian historians the age of Ashoka was the age of light and
delightment. He was the first emperor in human history who has taught the lesson of unity,
peace, equality and love. Ashoka's aim was not to expand the territories but the welfare of all
of his subjects (sarvajansukhay). In his vast empire there was no evidence of recognizable
mutiny or civil war. Ashoka was the true devotee of nonviolence, peace and love. This made
him different from other emperors. Ashoka also helped Buddhism as well as religions like
Jainism, Hinduism, Hellenic polytheism and Ajivikas. Ashoka was against any discrimination
among humans. He helped students, the poor, orphans and the elderly with social, political
and economic help. According to Ashoka, hatred gives birth to hatred and a feeling of love
gives birth to love and mercy. According to him the happiness of people is the happiness of
the ruler. His opinion was that the sword is not as powerful as love. Ashoka was also Kind to
prisoners, and respected animal life and tree life. Ashoka allowed females to be educated. He
also permitted females to enter religious institutions. He allowed female Buddhist monastic
such as Bhikkhuni. He combined in himself the complexity a king and a simplicity of a
buddhist monk. Because of these reasons he is known as the emperor of all ages and thus
became a milestone in the History of the world.
Ashoka Chakra
The Ashoka Chakra, "the wheel of Righteousness" (Dharma in Sanskrit or Dhamma in Pali)"

Ashoka Chakra on the Indian National Flag.

The Ashoka Chakra (the wheel of Ashoka) is a depiction of the Dharmachakra or
Dhammachakka in Pali, the Wheel of Dharma (Sanskrit: Chakra means wheel). The wheel
has 24 spokes. The Ashoka Chakra has been widely inscribed on many relics of the Mauryan
Emperor, most prominent among which is the Lion Capital of Sarnath and The Ashoka Pillar.
The most visible use of the Ashoka Chakra today is at the centre of the National flag of the
Republic of India (adopted on 22 July 1947), where it is rendered in a Navy-blue color on a
White background, by replacing the symbol of Charkha (Spinning wheel) of the pre-
independence versions of the flag. Ashoka Chakra can also been seen on the base of Lion
Capital of Ashoka which has been adopted as the National Emblem of India.
The Ashoka chakra was built by Ashoka during his reign. Chakra is a Sanskrit word which
also means cycle or self repeating process. The process it signifies is the cycle of time as how
the world changes with time. The horse means accuracy and speed while the bull means
hardwork.
A few days before India became independent on August 1947, the specially constituted
Constituent Assembly decided that the flag of India must be acceptable to all parties and
communities.[6] A flag with three colours, Saffron, White and Green with the Ashoka Chakra
was selected. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, who later became India's first Vice President,
clarified the adopted flag and described its significance as follows:
Bhagwa or the saffron color denotes renunciation or disinterestedness. Our leaders must be
indifferent to material gains and dedicate themselves to their work. The white in the center is
light, the path of truth to guide our conduct. The green shows our relation to (the) soil, our
relation to the plant life here, on which all other life depends. The "Ashoka Chakra" in the
center of the white is the wheel of the law of dharma. Truth or satya, dharma or virtue ought
to be the controlling principle of those who work under this flag. Again, the wheel denotes
motion. There is death in stagnation. There is life in movement. India should no more resist
change, it must move and go forward. The wheel represents the dynamism of a peaceful
change. It also represents 24 hours in a day.
A widely held unofficial interpretation is that the saffron stands for purity and spirituality,
white for peace and truth, green for fertility and prosperity and the wheel for
justice/righteousness.
The twenty four spokes in this chakra wheel represent twenty four virtues:
1. Love
2. Courage
3. Patience
4. Peacefulness
5. Kindness
6. Goodness
7. Faithfulness
8. Gentleness
9. Self-control
10. Selflessness
11. Self sacrifice
12. Truthfulness
13. Righteousness
14. Justice
15. Mercy
16. Graciousness
17. Humility
18. Empathy
19. Sympathy
20. Supreme knowledge
21. Supreme wisdom
22. Supreme moral
23. Love for all beings
24. Hope, trust, or faith in the goodness of God or nature.
Pillars of Ashoka (Ashokstambha)
Main article: Pillars of Ashoka
The Asokan pillar at Lumbini
The pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns dispersed throughout the northern Indian
subcontinent, and erected by Ashoka during his reign in the 3rd century BC. Originally, there
must have been many pillars of Ashoka although only ten with inscriptions still survive.
Averaging between forty and fifty feet in height, and weighing up to fifty tons each, all the
pillars were quarried at Chunar, just south of Varanasi and dragged, sometimes hundreds of
miles, to where they were erected. The first Pillar of Ashoka was found in the 16th century by
Thomas Coryat in the ruins of ancient Delhi. The wheel represents the sun time and Buddhist
law, while the swastika stands for the cosmic dance around a fixed center and guards against
evil. There is no evidence of a swastika, or manji, on the pillars.
Lion Capital of Asoka (Ashokmudra)
Main article: Lion Capital of Asoka
The Lion capital of Ashoka is a sculpture of four "Indian lions" standing back to back. It was
originally placed atop the Aśoka pillar at Sarnath, now in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India.
The pillar, sometimes called the Aśoka Column is still in its original location, but the Lion
Capital is now in the Sarnath Museum. This Lion Capital of Ashoka from Sarnath has been
adopted as the National Emblem of India and the wheel "Ashoka Chakra" from its base was
placed onto the center of the National Flag of India.
The capital contains four lions (Indian / Asiatic Lions), standing back to back, mounted on an
abacus, with a frieze carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a
bull, and a lion, separated by intervening spoked chariot-wheels over a bell-shaped lotus.
Carved out of a single block of polished sandstone, the capital was believed to be crowned by
a 'Wheel of Dharma' (Dharmachakra popularly known in India as the "Ashoka Chakra").
The Ashoka Lion capital or the Sarnath lion capital is also known as the national symbol of
India. The Sarnath pillar bears one of the Edicts of Ashoka, an inscription against division
within the Buddhist community, which reads, "No one shall cause division in the order of
monks". The Sarnath pillar is a column surmounted by a capital, which consists of a canopy
representing an inverted bell-shaped lotus flower, a short cylindrical abacus with four 24-
spoked Dharma wheels with four animals (an elephant, a bull, a horse, a lion).
The four animals in the Sarnath capital are believed to symbolize different steps of Lord
Buddha's life.
 • The Elephant represents the Buddha's idea in reference to the dream of Queen Maya
of a white elephant entering her womb.
• The Bull represents desire during the life of the Buddha as a prince.
• The Horse represents Buddha's departure from palatial life.
• The Lion represents the accomplishment of Buddha.
Besides the religious interpretations, there are some non-religious interpretations also about
the symbolism of the Ashoka capital pillar at Sarnath. According to them, the four lions
symbolize Ashoka's rule over the four directions, the wheels as symbols of his enlightened
rule (Chakravartin) and the four animals as symbols of four adjoining territories of India.
Constructions credited to Ashoka
• Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, India
• Dhamek Stupa, Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India
• Mahabodhi Temple, Bihar, India
• Barabar Caves, Bihar, India
• Nalanda University (Vishwaviddyalaya), (some portions like Sariputta Stupa), Bihar,
India
• Taxila University (Vishwaviddyalaya), (some portions like Dharmarajika Stupa and
Kunala Stupa), Taxila, Pakistan
• Bhir Mound, (reconstructed), Taxila, Pakistan
• Bharhut stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India
• Deorkothar Stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India
• Butkara Stupa, Swat, Pakistan
Quotations
This article contains too many quotations for an encyclopedic entry. Please help
improve the article by removing excessive quotations or transferring them to
Wikiquote. Help is available. (May 2010)
Attributed to Ashoka

Fragment of the 6th Pillar Edicts of Ashoka (238 BC), in Brahmi, sandstones. British
Museum.
• All men are my children. What I desire for my own children, and I desire their welfare
and happiness both in this world and the next, which I desire for all men. You do not
 understand to what extent I desire this, and if some of you do understand, you do not
understand the full extent of my desire.
• Here (in my domain) no living beings are to be slaughtered or offered in sacrifice.
• Respect for mother and father is good, generosity to friends, acquaintances, relatives,
Brahmans and ascetics is good, not killing living beings is good, moderation in
spending and moderation in saving is good.
• To do good is difficult. One who does good first does something hard to do. I have
done many good deeds, and, if my sons, grandsons and their descendants up to the
end of the world act in like manner, they too will do much good. But whoever
amongst them neglects this, they will do evil.
Truly, it is easy to do evil.
• All religions should reside everywhere, for all of them desire self-control and purity
of heart.
• King Piyadasi does not consider glory and fame to be of great account unless they are
achieved through having my subjects respect Dhamma and practice Dhamma, both
now and in the future.
• Whoever praises his own religion, due to excessive devotion, and condemns others
with the thought "Let me glorify my own religion," only harms his own religion.
Therefore contact (between religions) is good. One should listen to and respect the
doctrines professed by others.
• There is no gift like the gift of the Dhamma, (no acquaintance like) acquaintance with
Dhamma, (no distribution like) distribution of Dhamma, and (no kinship like) kinship
through Dhamma. And it consists of this: proper behavior towards servants and
employees, respect for mother and father, generosity to friends, companions,
relations, Brahmans and ascetics, and not killing living beings.
• King Piyadasi, honors both ascetics and the householders of all religions, and he
honors them with gifts and honors of various kinds.But Beloved-of-the-Gods, King
Piyadasi, does not value gifts and honors as much as he values this—that there should
be growth in the essentials of all religions.
• Along roads I have had banyan trees planted so that they can give shade to animals
and men, and I have had mango groves planted. At intervals of eight //krosas//, I have
had wells dug, rest-houses built, and in various places, I have had watering-places
made for the use of animals and men. But these are but minor achievements. Such
things to make the people happy have been done by former kings. I have done these
things for this purpose, that the people might practice the Dhamma.
• It is my desire that there should be uniformity in law and uniformity in sentencing. I
even go this far, to grant a three-day stay for those in prison who have been tried and
sentenced to death. During this time their relatives can make appeals to have the
prisoners' lives spared. If there is none to appeal on their behalf, the prisoners can give
gifts in order to make merit for the next world, or observe fasts.[7]
About Ashoka
Mahabodhi Temple is credited to Ashoka.
• "Among the emperors and historical personalities, Samrath / Emperor Ashoka is the
surely only being who had decided not to battle with enemy when he won the battle."
– Jawaharlal Nehru in The Discovery of India (page no. 86).
• "There is the only one period in Indian history which is a period of freedom, greatness
and glory. That is the period of the Mauryan empire (Ashoka's empire)." – B. R.
Ambedkar in Annihilation of Caste (page no. 70–71).
• "Ashoka is perhaps the only emperor who hated wars because of the blood shed and
cruelty. He wanted to win the souls of people with love not the bodies with sword and
terror." – V. G. Gokhale.
• "In some cases Ashoka may be compared with Alexander the Great, Augustus Caesar,
Genghis Khan, Timur, Peter I of Russia, Napoleon I. But Ashoka was not extra
ambitious like Alexander. Ashoka was an ideal administrator like Augustus Caesar,
but unlike Caesar, he didn't want to be known as a dictator. Ashoka was a strong
general but unlike Napoleon I Ashoka never was unsatisfied. Ashoka wanted to be
loved by his subjects. He never terrorized his subjects like Genghis Khan, Timur and
Peter I of Russia. Nobility of soul, purity of mind, honesty of nature, clarity of dignity
and love for all let Ashoka sit with Gautama Buddha and Jesus Christ." – Madhav
Kondvilkar in Devancha Priya Raja Priyadarshi Samrath Ashok (page no. 19).
• "Nowadays wars, conflicts and blood shed have become very familiar, but about two
thousand years ago Ashoka comprehended the evils of war and conflicts. Ashoka
turned his all power to establish harmony and peace, in this way he has put a fine
example to be followed before all mankind. In this way he has shown that in
peacetime man would be a progressed being." – Dr. Binda Paranjape in Ashokache
Shilalekha (page no.29).
• "A hundred years after my death there will be an emperor named Ashoka in
Pataliputra. He will rule one of the four continents and adorn Jambudvipa (old name
to India) with my relics, building eighty four thousand stupas for the welfare of
 people. He will have them honored by gods and men. His fame will be widespread.
His meritorious gift was just this: Jaya threw a handful of dust into the Tathaagata's
bowl." Prediction of Buddha for Ashoka according to the Ashokavadana.

Stupas at Deorkothar are built by Ashoka

• "He (Ashoka) insisted on the recognition of the sanctity of all human life". Dr.
Munshi.
• "Asoka, one of the great monarchs of history, whose dominions extended from
Afghanistan to Madras... is the only military monarch on record who abandoned
warfare after victory. He had invaded Kalinga (255 B.C.), a country along the east
coast of Madras, perhaps with some intention of completing the conquest of the tip of
the Indian peninsula. The expedition was successful, but he was disgusted by what be
saw of the cruelties and horrors of war. He declared, in certain inscriptions that still
exist, that he would no longer seek conquest by war, but by religion, and the rest of
his life was devoted to the spreading of Buddhism throughout the world. He seems to
have ruled his vast empire in peace and with great ability. He was no mere religious
fanatic. For eight and twenty years Asoka worked sanely for the real needs of men.
Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of
history, their majesties and graciousnesses and serenities and royal highnesses and the
like, the name of Asoka shines, and shines, almost alone, a star. From the Volga to
Japan his name is still honored. China, Tibet, and even India, though it has left his
doctrine, preserve the tradition of his greatness. More living men cherish his memory
today than have ever heard the names of Constantine or Charlemagne." – H.G. Wells
in The Outline of History (Being a Plain History of Life and Mankind) published in
(1920) chapter no. 25.4 (Buddhism and Asoka) page no 365–366.
• "A large number of international scholars agree that Emperor Aśoka of India in the
3rd century B.C. was one of the greatest conquerors who later achieved the most
difficult conquest of all — the conquest of himself — through self-conviction and his
perception of human suffering. After embracing the Dhamma of the Buddha as his
guide and refuge, he transformed the goal of his regime from military conquest to
conquest by Dhamma. By providing royal patronage for the propagation of Buddhism
both within and outside his vast dominion, he helped promote the metamorphosis of
Buddhism from one among many sects of Indian ascetic spirituality into a world
religion that was eventually to penetrate almost all of southern and eastern Asia." –
Anuradha Seneviratna in King Asoka and Buddhism Historical & Literary Studies
(editors preface ) (page. no. xi).
 The Dharmarajika stupa, Taxila, Pakistan is Commissioned under Ashoka.
• "We have no way of knowing how effective Asoka’s reforms were or how long they
lasted but we do know that monarchs throughout the ancient Buddhist world were
encouraged to look to his style of government as an ideal to be followed. King Asoka
has to be credited with first attempt to develop a Buddhist polity. Today, with
widespread disillusionment in prevailing ideologies and the search for a political
philosophy that goes beyond greed, hatred, and delusion, Asoka’s edicts may make a
meaningful contribution to development of a more spiritually based political system."
– Ven. S. Dhammika in The Edicts of Ashoka.
• "Many people ask: How can any nation be defended if all of its people adopt
nonviolence? It is rather difficult to answer this hypothetical question. However, an
emperor ruled over India with nonviolence and compassion in the 3rd century B.C.
Ashoka was the emperor - emperor of peace and social justice. He did not rule by
force or by accumulating goods and means of comfort for himself or by pomp and
show. He ruled by sacrificing material comforts and by treating all his subjects equal
and with justice. His example can guide us, rulers and administrators, politicians and
civil servants, religious leaders and laymen, to establish peace, justice and harmony in
present-day world." – Sh. Duli Chandra Jain and Ms. Sunita Jain in Ashoka - Emperor
Or Monk.
• "Ashoka was a man dedicated to peace, and the only emperor in history to forsake
warfare after victory in the Kalinga war, devoting the balance of his lifetime serving
not only his people, but mankind, with magnanimity and benevolence seldom seen in
history. Thus he was able to build the Golden Period of Indian history." – Dr.
Kirthisinghe.
Ashoka Today
In art and film
See also: Asoka (2001 film)
• Asoka is a 2001 epic Bollywood historical drama. It is a largely fictional version of
the life of the Indian emperor Ashoka. The film was directed by Santosh Sivan and
stars Shahrukh Khan as Ashoka and Kareena Kapoor as Kaurwaki, a princess of
Kalinga.The film ends with Asoka renouncing the sword and embracing Buddhism.
The final narrative describes how Asoka not only built a large empire, but spread
Buddhism and the winds of peace through it.
In Literature
• Asoka and the Decline of the Maurya by Romila Thapar.
 • Early India and Pakistan: to Ashoka (1970) by Brigadier Sir Robert Eric Mortimer
Wheeler.
• Asoka the Great by Monisha Mukundan.
• Asokan Sites and Artefacts, a Source-book with Bibliography. Harry Falk, Verlag
Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 2006 ISBN 978-3-8053-3712-0.
• The Legend of King Asoka (1948) by John S. Strong.
• Ashoka the Great (1995) by D. C. Ahir.
• Ashoka text and glossary (1924) by Alfred C. Woolner .
• Asoka: The Buddhist Emperor of India by Vincent A. Smith.
• Discovery of the Exact Site of Asoka's Classic Capital of Pataliputra (1892) by L. A.
Waddell.
• Asoka Maurya (1966) by B. G. Gokhale.
• The Legend of King Asoka (1989) by John S. Strong.
• Asoka (1923) by D.R. Bhandarkar.
• Ashoka, The Great by B. K. Chaturvedi.
• Asoka by Mookerji Radhakumud.
• King Aśoka and Buddhism Historical And Literaray Studies by Anuradha
Seneviratna.
• To Uphold the World: The Message of Ashoka and Kautilya for the 21st Century
(2008) by Bruce Rich.
• Asoka and His Inscriptions by Beni Madhab Barua.
• Asoka's Edicts (1956) by A. C. Sen.
• One of the most famous figures in modern Hindi literature, Jaishankar Prasad,
composed Ashoka ki chinta (in English: Worry of Ashoka), a famous Hindi verse. The
poem portrays Ashoka’s heart during the war of kalinga.
• In Piers Anthony’s series of space opera novels, the main character mentions Asoka
as a model for administrators to strive for.
Gallery

The ruined Bharhut

Dhamek Stupa Stupa, seen in back is Stupa at
Distribution of the Edicts the lal pahadi (red Deorkothar
of Ashoka mountain)
 A view of the banks of
the River Daya, also the Carved decoration of
Mauryan architecture in supposed battlefield of the Northern gateway The Asokan pillar
the Barabar Mounts Kalinga from atop to the Great Stupa of at Lumbini
Dhauli hills Sanchi

Buddhist stupas during

the Mauryan period were
simple mounds without Buddhist proselytism at
decorations. Butkara the time of king Ashoka Ashokmudra (lion Ashoka's pillar in
stupa, 3rd century BC capital of Asoka) on Nepal
Indian passport
Relics of Buddha
obtained from a stupa
built by Emperor Asoka
in 3rd century BCE,
National Museum Delhi.