Professional Documents
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Contents
Introduction ......................1
Determining the
Hydro Potential
of Your Site.........................2
Environmental
Impact .................................9
Regulatory Issues ..........11
Equipment ...................... 13
Economics....................... 18
Financial
Assistance ....................... 19
Cautions and
Suggestions for the
Do-It-Yourselfer ............ 20
Conclusion ...................... 21
Further Resources ........ 22
References ...................... 24
Appendix: Micro-hydro projects operate efficiently on small streams. Photo: Leif Kindberg, NCAT
Cost Estimate
Worksheet....................... 25 environmentally benign mechanical and electrical
Introduction hydropower systems are very common.
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here is a great deal of interest today in
Farms often have easy access to lakes and ponds
using such renewable energy sources as
as well as naturally occurring streams and rivers.
solar power, wind, biomass, and flow-
When farmers possess the rights to use the water
The National Sustainable ing water to produce power to run farm equip-
Agriculture Information Service, ment. Many of the technologies for converting resources that are contained on-farm, they usu-
ATTRA (www.attra.ncat.org),
these renewable sources into useful power have ally face fewer obstacles both in permitting and
was developed and is managed
by the National Center for been with us for centuries and are once again in the efficient use of farm-scale hydropower.
Appropriate Technology (NCAT).
The project is funded through receiving widespread attention. The generation Hydropower can be a continuous source of
a cooperative agreement with
of power from flowing and falling water is no energy as long as enough water is flowing, and
the United States Department
of Agriculture’s Rural Business- exception. In fact, it is one of the world’s oldest this publication will discuss hydro energy and
Cooperative Service. Visit the
NCAT website (www.ncat.org/ and most common energy technologies. When how to sustainably harvest it. It will not focus
sarc_current.php) for
more information on we think of hydropower, we usually think of on waterwheels, although many of the informa-
our other sustainable big dams and large-scale generation facilities. tional resources that will be discussed are also
agriculture and
energy projects. On a world-wide basis, however, small-scale, relevant to developing waterwheel projects.
Electrical power is measured in watts (W), kilo- water and the head. The flow rate is the quan-
watts (kW), or megawatts (MW), and mechani- tity of water flowing past a point during a given
cal power is measured in horsepower (HP). If period of time. The flow rates of micro-hydro
a turbine generates 150 watts continuously for systems are typically measured in gallons per
an hour, it will have generated 150 watt-hours, minute or cubic feet per minute. The head is the
or 0.15 kilowatt-hours (kWh). Hydropower sys- vertical drop measured in feet from the head-
tems for homes and farms generally have power water (in the case of a dam) or the point where
outputs of less than 100 kilowatts. For conve- the water enters the pipeline (if no dam exists)
nience in terminology, this scale of hydropower to the point where the water leaves the turbine
is referred to as micro-hydro. housing. With some turbines, such as those that
Micro-hydro systems generally consist of the use a “draft tube,” head extends to the base of
following components: the tube.
• A trash rack, weir, and forebay to pre-
vent debris from entering the pipeline Flow Measurement
and turbine In order to adequately assess the minimum
• A pipeline (also called a penstock) to continuous power output to expect from
pipe water to the turbine your hydropower system, you will have to
Related ATTRA • A powerhouse that contains the turbine determine the minimum quantity of water
publications and electronics that will pass through it. For this reason, it
• A water turbine that converts the is important to know both the minimum
Micro-Hydro Power:
kinetic energy of the flowing water into flow rate of your stream and what portion of
Is It Right for My Farm?
mechanical energy that can be used this flow you can use for power generation.
Renewable Energy directly or to drive a generator or other It is always important to divert minimum
Opportunities on piece of equipment—this is the main flow for power generation, especially when it
the Farm component of a micro-hydro system will have an impact on fi sh migration and
Measuring and • A tailrace to release the water back into stream ecology.
Conserving the source it came from If you are already familiar with the stream’s sea-
Irrigation Water
• Transmission lines to deliver electrical sonal variations, you can limit flow measure-
Efficient Agricultural power where it is needed ments to the few months surrounding the dri-
Buildings: est, or lowest, flow. However, if you don’t know
An Overview This publication is intended to include as much
approximately when the flow is at its lowest,
information as necessary to get you started in
you will need to make flow measurements at
the process and to assist you generally at each
least once a month (twice a month is preferable)
step along the way of a micro-hydro project.
throughout the complete year. When determin-
Actively engaging in the siting and development
ing flow rate, it is best to use either the average
of your hydropower system is critical, however,
flow rate or the lowest flow rate expected during
because most of this publication serves only to
the year. These minimum or average flow rates
give you guidelines. It is not possible to provide
are especially important when you begin to per-
detailed descriptions of every step of the pro-
form power calculations for your system, which
cess because micro-hydro development is very
is discussed later in this publication.
site-specific. Each site in each county, state, and
region may face a different set of regulations as Once your flow data has been compiled, you are
well as a different ecology, geology, and topogra- in a position to begin some calculations. Was
phy. Also, your personal motivation, economic it a dry year or a wet year? To determine this,
situation, and farm energy needs are probably you will need further information, usually from
very different from the next reader’s. the U.S. Geological Survey monitoring stations
in your area. They will have several years’ pre-
cipitation, snowpack, or streamflow data avail-
Determining the Hydro able—if not for your immediate location, then
Potential of Your Site for some nearby major drainage basin. You will
To determine the hydropower potential of have to take a look at this information to see
the water flowing from your spring or in your how your measured year fits into the typical pat-
stream, you must know both the flow rate of the terns for your area. Once you have determined
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he velocity d10 = 0.7 feet smooth creek with few rocks, boulders, or tree
of the float Total = 12 f eet stumps protruding into the streambed:
does not Average d = 1.2 feet
V = 2 feet per second x 0.65 = 1.3 feet per
represent the Next, multiply the width by the average depth second; or V = 78 feet per minute
velocity of all the to get the cross-sectional area of the stream in
square feet. The flow rate of the stream can now be calcu-
water in the stream.
lated by multiplying the cross-sectional area of
For example, in the stream described above, say the stream (A) by the stream velocity (V):
that the width (w) at the point of making the
measurements to determine the average depth Flow = A x V
(d) was 8 feet. The cross-sectional area (A) can
Flow = 9.6 square feet x 78 feet per minute
be determined by a simple calculation:
A=wxd Flow = 748.8 cubic feet per minute
A = 8 feet x 1.2 feet Now, depending on what portion of the stream-
A = 9.6 square feet flow you can or want to use (which will be dis-
cussed later), you can determine the usable flow.
The stream velocity can be determined by Simply multiply the streamflow rate you have
choosing a straight stretch of water at least 30 just calculated by the portion of the flow you
feet long with approximately parallel sides and
plan to use.
a bed unobstructed by rocks, branches, or other
obstacles. Mark off two points, say 30 feet apart, If you will be using only 25% of the minimum
along the stream. On a windless day, place a streamflow, and the streamflow you have deter-
float midstream a couple of yards upstream of mined above is 748.8 cubic feet per minute
the first marker. (An orange or a pop bottle par- (cfm), finding the usable flow takes another easy
tially filled with small stones so that it rides with calculation:
its neck out of the water work well as a float.)
When the float reaches the first marker, begin Usable flow = 748.8 cfm x 0.25
carefully timing the number of seconds it takes
Usable flow = 187.2 cfm
to get to the second. To be accurate, repeat this
process several times and average the results. You can convert this to gallons per minute
For example, say that the average time for a (gpm):
float to travel between two markers placed Usable flow = 187.2 cfm x 7.48
30 feet apart is 15 seconds. Find the velocity of
the float: Usable flow = 1,400 gpm
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he greater of the hydro turbine. However, topo- tree, rock, or building) that can be
the vertical graphical maps are not always accurate reached for measuring.
distance the and should only be used for preliminary
c. Note this precise spot on the object
water falls, the more estimates of head, not for power calcu-
and mark it (Point A in Figure 4).
lations or sizing turbines.
potentially useful
d. Move your level and your stand
power there is • Altimeters and GPS units with an
down the hill and set them up again,
altimeter function can provide esti-
available in your with the upper edge of the level
mates of the elevation difference
stream. at some Point B below Point A, as
between the intake and tailrace loca- shown in Figure 4. Mark this point
tions, but they should not be used for B and measure and record the verti-
the final measurement. It is common cal distance A to B. Now sight along
for inexpensive barometric altimeters to the upper edge of the level again to
be in error by 150 feet or more when another point A that is farther down
calibrated (New, 2004). the hill to get your next point.
• A graduated pressure gauge can be e. Repeat this procedure, identify-
fitted on the end of a hose. One end ing and measuring points until you
of the hose should be positioned at reach the proposed location of the
the intake location, and the other end hydro turbine.
should steadily decline to the turbine
location. Fill the hose with water and f. If more than one setup was required,
read the gauge. (Be sure to purge any air add all the vertical distances between
in the hose by running water through it the paired A and B points. If your
for a few minutes before attaching the first setup was above the water sur-
gauge.) Convert the pressure reading face near the intake location, sub-
into a measurement of head by mul- tract the vertical distance between
tiplying the pressure in pounds per the water surface and the upper edge
square inch (psi) by 2.31. For example, of the level from the sum of the verti-
a reading of 50 psi would be calculated cal distance. You now know the total
head of your proposed site.
50 x 2.31 = 115.5 feet of head.
When using this method to calculate head,
• Using a surveyor’s transit can be a very
there are a few things to remember:
accurate method of measuring head and
is ideal for sites with less than 50 feet of • You do not need to be concerned
head. It is easiest to have an assistant to with horizontal distances for head
help measure head when using a transit. determination.
• Every time you reset the level, its upper they also depend on the size of the pipe being
edge should be at precisely the same level used—the smaller the pipe’s diameter, the
as Point B (sight back to check this). greater the friction. Elbows and bends in the
• The line of travel can meander along the pipe also will increase friction losses. Typical
pipe losses for polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe are
most suitable path to run the penstock.
indicated in Figure 5, and pipe-friction calcula-
Once you have the total, or gross, head, there tors are available online.
are various losses in the penstock to consider
before you can make any theoretical power Any reputable pipe manufacturer or supplier
calculations. The net head is required for these will be able to provide you with the pipe options
calculations: net head = gross head – losses in and friction-loss information for your particu-
the penstock. lar flow conditions. Subtract the pipe losses from
your gross head to get net head. Other losses
Losses occur for several reasons. There are fric- that might occur in your hydro system depend
tion losses whenever water flows through a pipe on the number of pipe turns it contains as well
or makes a quick turn. These friction losses as the valves, reducers, and type of turbine that
become greater with increased flow rates, and you will be using.
Design Flow
GPM 25 50 100 150 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1200
CFS .05 .1 .2 .33 .45 .66 .89 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.78 2.0 2.23 2.67
4” .04 .16 .57 1.23 2.02 4.37 7.52 11.3 15.8 21.1 26.8 33.4
6” .02 .08 .17 .29 .62 1.03 1.36 2.2 2.92 3.74 4.75 5.66 8.04
8” .04 .07 .15 .25 .39 .5 .72 .89 1.16 1.4 1.96
Adapted from Canyon Hydro’s “Planning Your Hydro System”
L
This gives Pth in foot-pounds per minute.
osses occur theoretical power available (Pth) was 700 watts.
if your To convert to horsepower, the equation becomes: If an impulse turbine with efficiency of 80% is
system must 62.4 Q × h used with a single belt drive to an 80% efficient
transfer power Pth = alternator, then it is reasonable to expect that the
33,000
useful power (P) is:
from the turbine Q×h
to the generator, Pth = P = 700 watts × 0.8 (turbine) × 0.95 (belt drive)
529
× 0.8 (alternator)
alternator, or some
To convert to kilowatts, the same equation
mechanical system. P = 426 watts
becomes:
62.4 Q × h For preliminary power calculations, you need to
Pth = × 0.746 focus only on the previously mentioned efficiency
33,000
losses. Before moving on to site development,
Q×h however, you will want to include all efficiency
Pth =
709 losses, which include pipeline-friction losses (if
not already included), power-line losses, battery-
For example, using a flow rate (Q) of 5 cubic feet charge losses, and losses related to inverter effi-
per minute and a net head (h) of 100 feet, here ciency. After including all efficiency losses, you
is the calculation to determine the theoretical now have what is commonly called the “water-to-
power in kilowatts: wire” efficiency factor.
Q×h In summary, here are the steps to follow to
Pth =
709 determine the hydropower potential of your site:
5 × 100 • Measure the water-flow rate, preferably
Pth =
709 using one of the following:
Pth = approximately 0.7 kilowatts 1. Timed container-filling method
2. Float method
or Pth = 700 watts
3. Weir method
The calculation of the theoretical power avail- • Determine the usable f low—that
able represents more power than you will get portion of the streamflow you can use.
out of your equipment because some energy is
always lost when it is converted from one form • Measure the total, or gross, head,
to another. All of the machinery and other preferably using one of the following:
equipment that you use to convert the power 1. Surveyor’s equipment
available in the flowing water (kinetic energy) to 2. Carpenter’s level and stand method
Flow Rate
(cfm) 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Head
(ft.) (gpm) 75 112 150 187 224 262 299
7 49 74 99 123 148 173 197
13 92 138 183 229 275 321 367
26 183 275 367 458 550 642 733
33 233 349 465 582 698 815 931
49 346 518 691 864 1,037 1,209 1,382
66 465 698 931 1,164 1,396 1,629 1,862
98 691 1,037 1,382 1,728 2,073 2,419 2,764
131 924 1,386 1,848 2,310 2,772 3,233 3,695
197 1,389 2,084 2,779 3,473 4,168 4,862 5,557
262 1,848 2,772 3,695 4,619 5,543 6,467 7,391
295 2,496 3,121 4,161 5,201 6,241 7,281 8,322
Includes a “water-to-wire” efficiency factor of 50%
• Determine the net head by subtracting or when structures installed in the stream channel
friction and other head losses from the interfere with the natural flow of the water, there
gross head. is an environmental impact. However, compared
• Calculate the theoretical power (Pth) to large hydropower dams, micro-hydro systems
available using either of the following have a smaller footprint and generally lower
environmental impacts. Even so, there are sev-
equations (where Q = usable flow rate,
eral local, state, and federal agencies that may
in cubic feet per minute; and h = net
want environmental impacts to be assessed for a
head, in feet):
micro-hydro project.
Q×h
Pth = to find horsepower There are a number of environmental consider-
529
or ations for micro-hydro systems. Among them
Q×h are the following:
Pth = to find kilowatts
709 • Water-quality issues such as turbidity and
sediment from the system’s construction
• Calculate the useful power available
and operation
by multiplying Pth by the efficiency
of each piece of equipment linked into • Diversion of streamflow creating lower
the system. flow conditions in the main stream
channel
If you have come this far on your own—having • Wildlife and migratory-fish impacts
calculated the head, flow, and potential power
output—and think you are on your way to select- • Historical significance and aesthetics
ing and installing equipment, it is worthwhile to • Changes in and impacts on stream ecol-
pause for a moment to consider other issues that ogy (e.g., algal communities, changes in
can arise as you develop your hydro site. Initiate a food chains, stranding of benthic inver-
conversation with the power company, regulatory tebrates living on the bottom and banks
agencies, and other local, state, and federal enti- of the stream, and loss of aquatic habitat)
ties that may be involved in your project. • Changes in nutrient transport and
cycling
Environmental Impact
The environmental impact of micro-hydro • Changes in water temperature due to
systems is usually small but by no means absent lower flow
altogether. When water is diverted or dammed, • Changes in dissolved-oxygen levels
To read more about the Bartons’ project, see the ATTRA case study Hydro Power for Gravity Flow Irrigation Systems.
A
n important up if the first response to your inquiry is “no.” There are several project-design considerations
that can help you move through the FERC
point to A second step is to secure a water-use permit, permit or exemption process quickly:
remember which, in some cases, may be required from
both state and federal agencies. In some states, • Locate the project at an existing dam
is that your use is or conduit
having the legal right to the water is all that is
beneficial and • Develop a project that produces less
required. In other cases, an additional permit
non-consumptive— is required referring to a specific intended use. than 5 megawatts
100% of the water Here again, most water-use laws are oriented • Design the project to create little
is returned to the toward agricultural uses, and questions may change to water-flow characteristics
stream. arise relative to their interpretation in the con- • Avoid areas with endangered species or
text of a micro-hydro project. Often, the actual fish-passage issues
installation work must begin within some time • Document the rights needed for project
period or the permit will expire and must be construction and operation
applied for again.
• Provide existing information on envi-
A federal use permit is generally required ronmental resources in the project area
when the resource or its development involves • Address any issues that have been
federal land, be it under the control of Forest identified
Service, Bureau of Land Management, or any
• Identify the key federal and state agen-
other agency. An important point to remem-
cies, tribes, citizen groups, and other
ber is that your use is beneficial and non-con-
stakeholders likely to have an interest in
sumptive—100% of the water is returned to the
your project
stream. This is different from agricultural or
industrial uses, which may be beneficial but are • Meet with the stakeholders as soon as
also consumptive. Be certain to mention that your possible in the planning process
intended use is beneficial and non-consumptive; • Provide stakeholders with sufficient
it should help in the permit process. information to describe your project
The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission • Complete a detailed application that
(FERC) is the agency that issues exemptions addresses all pertinent issues
and licenses for non-federal hydropower proj- Small- and low-impact projects may have a sim-
ects. FERC also provides guidance concerning pler permitting process than larger projects, but
state and federal agencies you will need to con- that does not mean they are exempt from the
tact regarding many of the environmental and jurisdiction of such federal and state agencies as
historical issues related to a hydropower project. the Corps of Engineers, fish-and-wildlife agen-
Because most hydropower projects have tended cies, and other agencies that establish building
to be very large, with significant regulatory codes. Many small hydropower projects have
Equipment
Turbines
A water turbine is basically a device that con-
verts the energy in moving water into rotating
mechanical energy. Th is energy, available in a
rotating shaft, may be used directly to operate
such mechanical equipment as a grain grinder,
saw, or other shop equipment, or it may be
hooked up to a generator to produce electric-
ity. Although this section will deal primarily
with the generation of electricity, a discussion Figure 8. Low Head Installation.
of and references to mechanical applications
also are included.
The energy potential that is available at a hydro-
power site is the result of the combination of the
“head” and “flow” that is present. It is possible
to produce power with many combinations of
head and flow. Sites with 60 feet or more of head
are considered “high head.” It is also generally
assumed that a head of about 3 feet or 1 meter is
the absolute minimum needed to develop hydro-
power, but a head of less than 10 feet is proba-
bly uneconomical to develop in most situations.
Although high-head, high-flow sites are generally
the most economical to develop, sites with a com-
bination of high head and low flow or vice versa
are more common and also can be economically
developed, depending on your energy needs.
Hydro turbines are generally very efficient in
converting the energy available in the water
resource into mechanical or electrical energy.
In fact, turbine efficiencies of 70% to 85% are
not uncommon. Turbines are usually designed
for a specific application and output. Therefore,
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the expected static water pressure in the pipe will likely use a synchronous generator. AC systems he excess
(Ostermeier, 2008). in North America operate at a frequency of 60 power
hertz per second, and any variation from that will
When water travels through a pipe, it creates fric- generated
affect the operation of your equipment. In order
tion. A properly designed hydro penstock can by a DC system can
to generate power at this frequency, the speed of
compensate for friction by increasing the pipe
the synchronous generator must be very constant, easily be stored in
size and avoiding sharp changes in direction—
and a governor may be used to control the water batteries, thereby
although there is inherently a tradeoff in cost.
flow and thus the turbine speed. If you have access
Remember that cutting corners can reduce tur- extending the
to utility power, you can easily use an asynchro-
bine performance and cause blowouts, leaks, system’s peak
nous generator with no governor, since it is self-reg-
and other problems. A reputable pipe dealer will
ulating. In either case, the generator must run at capacity.
be able to help you determine the appropriate
its design speed, which means that some kind of
pipe pressure rating and calculate friction losses
speed increaser may be needed between the turbine
based upon your hydro resource and site condi-
and the generator. Most all-in-one small-hydro sys-
tions. Pipes should be run as straight as possible,
tems sold today have matched the turbine to the
use long angles for going around obstacles, and
generator with a direct drive.
steadily decline in elevation.
Another option is to generate direct current
and either use it as-is or convert it to AC when
needed through the use of an inverter. A battery
bank with an inverter may be able to supply 2 to
5 kilowatts during peak loads, while the average
power generated from the stream may be only
200 to 800 watts (Ministry of Agriculture and
Lands, 2006). A DC-to-AC system has several
advantages, especially in very small systems. The
excess power generated by a DC system can eas-
ily be stored in batteries, thereby extending the
system’s peak capacity.
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipe is durable and Battery storage systems in hydro units gener-
manages bends better than rigid PVC or steel pipe. ally work very well because the hydro genera-
Photo: Leif Kindberg, NCAT tor is always putting some power back into the
battery bank unless the water resource dries up.
Beyond the pipe alone, a well-designed pen- Th is means that deep-discharge condition—a
stock in many projects will have air/vacuum common cause of battery failure—is very rare.
release valves or stand pipes, unions, gate The storage function does limit the size of a DC
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get damaged. If you estimate 5% per year, you • Is your project eligible for tax credits here are
are probably very close to the cost of maintain- or grants available from the state or
several
ing your system for the next 20 or more years. federal government?
potential
• How long do you expect to use power
If your project has the potential to produce at this location, and would the hydro- sources of financial
enough power to meet your energy require- power system have market value if you assistance available
ments, the only other consideration is whether wanted to sell the property where it is for micro-hydro
there are alternatives that could meet your needs located?
at a lower cost. Compare various alternatives by projects at the state
calculating the energy-generation cost in dollars • Is there a net metering law in your state and federal level.
per kilowatt-hour over the equipment’s lifetime. that will allow you to get “credit” or sell
Since the “fuel” is free for micro-hydro systems, your power through an agreement with
you generally get the best value by running the your utility?
system full time because the up-front costs are • How much of the installation and
the same whether the turbine runs part time or maintenance work can you do yourself?
full time. If the system will be shut down due to The larger and more expensive a hydropower
seasonal water variations, the unit cost of energy project becomes, the more valuable it is to con-
will be different. duct a detailed financial analysis. Commonly
Add up all the estimated costs to develop and used financial analysis tools include net present
maintain a micro-hydro system and divide the value (NPV) and simple payback. Both tools
amount by the system’s capacity in watts. (See will help you further assess whether a project is
the “Cost Estimate Worksheet” appendix at the worth the investment.
end of this publication.) This will give you the The economics of each project are going to work
cost in dollars per watt. Then compare this to out differently. When carefully designed, micro-
the cost of alternative power sources. hydro systems will generate years of hassle-free
energy at costs that may be very competitive with
In the event that your site has access to conven-
retail rates available from your power company.
tional power and the water has no other uses, it
may be difficult to justify a micro-hydro system
in economic terms unless you are willing to take Financial Assistance
a very long-range view. There are a great many There are several potential sources of financial
factors that will affect your analysis, and any such assistance available for micro-hydro projects at
calculations must be done on a case-by-case basis. the state and federal level. The most comprehen-
For those who are developing a site some distance sive list of incentives for micro-hydro projects is
from existing power lines, the cost of power-line available from the Database of State Incentives
extension should be considered. These costs may for Renewables and Efficiency (DSIRE). It is
D
oa antee for the same project—commonly known
as a “combo.” Hydropower projects must have for the Do-It-Yourselfer
thorough
a rated power of 30 megawatts or less. For more You have learned about most of the necessary
job of information on the REAP program, contact steps to develop your small hydro project—
explaining the your USDA Rural Development energy coor- from calculating head and flow to applying and
system to your loan dinator. You can find your energy coordinator receiving your FERC permit. You are ready to
at NCAT’s Directory of Energy Alternatives: purchase the equipment and begin installation.
officer and present
www.attra.ncat.org/dea or by calling your local The following list of considerations can make
any plans you have Rural Development office. installation much easier and prevent a lot of
developed. trouble at some future date.
Renewable Electricity Production
In the final design stage, ensure that you take
Tax Credit (PTC) into account the following:
The federal renewable-electricity-production tax • Consider your streambed’s loading
credit (PTC) is a per-kilowatt-hour tax credit
conditions. Silt and rocks coming
for electricity generated by qualified energy
down the stream, particularly during
resources and sold to a utility. Th is tax credit
periods of high runoff, can clog the
is available only to incorporated businesses. The
intake or even destroy the trash rack,
credit amount is 1.1 cents per kilowatt-hour.
intake, or penstock.
State Grants and Tax Credits • Size the penstock to ensure that it is
Several states have tax credits and/or grants capable of handling the volume of flow
designed to encourage the development of you require. Any responsible pipe sup-
renewable resources. In the case of a tax credit, plier can give you the correct size for
you are generally allowed to deduct some per- the flow conditions expected and help
centage of the system’s total cost from your gross you calculate any losses.
income. Be sure to run a quick calculation using • Route the penstock, from intake to
your own figures to determine the program’s the turbine, to contain the minimum
effect on the real cost of your system. number of bends possible. Do not use
45-degree (or greater) elbows in the
Conventional and Guaranteed pipeline. Otherwise, there will be too
Bank Loans much strain on the pipe and you will
It is often possible to get a conventional loan have excessive friction losses.
from your bank or through U.S. Department • Keep a downhill slope in the pipe route
of Agriculture or Small Business Administra- at all times (except for the initial siphon
tion guaranteed-loan programs. The interest you intake if one is used) in order to avoid
pay is usually tax deductible. If you do not have air locks and silt deposits.
National Hydropower Association (NHA) • “Intro to Hydropower, Part 2: Measuring Head and
Flow,” D. New (No. 104), p. 42-47, December 2004/
One Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Suite 850
January 2005
Washington, DC 20001
Phone: 202-682-1700 • “Intro to Hydropower, Part 3: Power, Efficiency,
Fax: 202-682-9478 Transmission and Equipment Selection,” D. New,
Email: info@hydro.org (No. 105) p. 30-35, February/March 2005
Website: www.hydro.org • “Hydro-Electric Turbine Buyers Guide,” K. Gardner and
NHA seeks to secure hydropower’s place as an emissions-free, I. Woofenden, (No. 136) p. 100-108, April/May 2010
renewable, and reliable energy source.
• “Hydro Design Considerations,” Ian Woofenden,
Solar Energy International (SEI) (No. 132) p. 78-84, August/September 2009
P.O. Box 715 • “From Water to Wire: Building a Microhydro System,”
Carbondale, CO 81623 P. Talbot, (No. 76) p. 8-22, April/May 2000
Phone: 970-963-8855
• “Induction Motors for Small-Scale Hydro,”
Fax: 970-963-8866
B. Haveland, (No. 71) p. 36-44, June/July 1999
Email: sei@solarenergy.org
Website: www.solarenergy.org • “A Microhydro Learning Experience,” L. Woofenden
SEI off ers workshops on how to design fully functional et al., (No. 76) p. 64-71, April/May 2000
micro-hydro systems. Microhydro
Website: www.microhydropower.net
Useful Websites This website features a discussion group and literature on
small-scale hydropower.
Idaho National Laboratory Hydropower Page
Website: http://hydrdopower.inel.gov U.S. Department of Energy Wind & Water Power Program
This website provides an overview of hydropower in the U.S. Website: www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro
and a GIS application to locate and evaluate hydropower This website provides resources and technical publications on
resources in naturally occurring streams. various hydro technologies.
Mini-Hydropower. 1997. J. Tong (ed.). John Wiley and Ostermeier, Jerry. 2008. Pipeline: Hydro-Electric Penstock
Sons, Ltd., Hoboken, NJ. Design. Home Power Magazine. June and July. p. 56-62.
Motors as Generators for Micro-Hydro Power. 1994. N. Smith. Woofenden, Ian and Ken Gardner. 2010. Micro-Hydro
Intermediate Technology Development Group, London. Training – Micro-Hydro Design & Installation. Training
Available from Practical Action: www.practicalaction.org/ held on Guemes Island, Washington. Solar Energy International,
publishing. Carbondale, CO.
Electro-mechanical equipment
Turbine and generator set
Controller
Electrical switchgear
Transmission line cables and gears
Transmission line poles
Battery bank and inverter*
Total electro-mechanical equipment
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