DTS Technique

Novel Applications of Fiber Optic Sensor
Technology for Diagnostics of Underground Cables
Technical Report
Novel Applications of Fiber Optic
Sensor Technology for Diagnostics
of Underground Power Cables
1008712
Final Report, October 2004
EPRI Project Managers

B. Damsky
W. Zenger
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Novel Applications of Fiber Optic Sensor Technology for Diagnostics of Underground Power
Cables, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2004. 1008712.
iii
REPORT SUMMARY
This report provides an overview of the state of the art in the use of fiber optics in measurement
applications with particular regard to applications suitable for measuring or monitoring
significant parameters for underground power cables. The report summarizes the physics of
fiber-based measurement systems and discusses what measurement systems can be implemented
today with commercial or near-commercial equipment.
Background
Various fiber optic measurement systems commercially available or actively being researched
could be applied to buried cable systems. Fiber-based temperature measurements—commonly
known as Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) or Distributed Fiber Optic Temperature
Sensing (DFOTS)—have been used for 10-15 years by many cable using utilities. While cable
users have somewhat embraced temperature measurements using fiber, many other fiber-based
measurements could potentially be used to gather information on the operation and condition of
underground power cables.
Objectives
• To identify the measurements that can be made using fiber optics and to describe the physical
basis of these measurement systems.
• To discuss application of fiber-based measurement methods to monitoring and diagnostic
functions on underground cable systems.
Approach
The project team performed a literature search on optics and related subjects and conducted
discussions with various researchers in the fields of optics and fiber-based measurement. The
team also reviewed developments at universities and at military and industrial organizations. The
team synthesized the information they gathered from these sources into a high-level technical
summary that includes discussion of several systems suitable for monitoring and diagnostic
applications on underground cable systems.
Results
Fiber-based sensing technologies can measure temperature, pressure, mechanical forces,
chemical interaction, electric fields, and magnetic fields. However, although many fiber-based
technologies are available to measure various parameters besides temperature, significant
research will be required to extend these applications to power cable systems. Several of the
technologies would probably require integrating a sensing fiber or fibers into the cable at the
time of manufacture. There are fewer opportunities to retrofit sensors to existing systems.
v
EPRI Perspective
The primary function of this report is to help EPRI and its utility advisors formulate future
development projects in the promising area of fiber optic sensors. This report will also be useful
for utility engineers who want to understand more of the technical background of fiber-based
sensing or to assess the alternatives when applying fiber-based sensing technology. The list of
sources and the detailed glossary contained in the appendices of the report should be helpful to
anyone researching fiber optic sensing for underground cable applications.
Keywords
Diagnostics
Transmission
Underground Cables
Fiber Optic Sensors
DTS (Distributed Temperature Sensing)
DFOTS (Distributed Fiber Optic Temperature Sensing)
vi
ABSTRACT
Technologies based on optical fibers are becoming more widely available and have applications
in various technical fields. This report summarizes many of the available fiber-based sensing
technologies for measurement of various parameters including temperature, pressure, mechanical
forces, chemical interaction, electric fields, and magnetic fields. The report provides some detail
on the physics of how each fiber measurement technology works and on which parameters each
technology can measure. Finally, the report discusses fiber-based applications to underground
cable systems. Fiber-based temperature measurement has been used for the last 10-15 years, but
other fiber-based measurements might be employed to improve the reliability and general
operation of cable systems. The appendix to the report includes a detailed glossary of fiber-
related terms.
vii
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................... 1-1
1.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1-1
2 SENSOR SYSTEMS BACKGROUND...................................................................... 2-1

2.0 Types of Sensors .............................................................................................. 2-1
2.1 Distributed Measuring on Fibers ....................................................................... 2-2
Temperature and Strain....................................................................................... 2-2
2.2 How Point or Extrinsic Sensors Function .......................................................... 2-6
2.3 Use of Gratings on Fibers for Making Measurements....................................... 2-8
3 TEMPERATURE MEASURING SYSTEMS .............................................................. 3-1

3.0 Types of Temperature Measurement Systems ................................................. 3-1
3.1 Distributed Raman Systems.............................................................................. 3-1
3.1.1 Typical Setup ............................................................................................. 3-3
3.1.2 Mode of operation...................................................................................... 3-4
3.1.3 System Specifications................................................................................ 3-4
3.1.4 Current Applications .................................................................................. 3-5
3.2 Distributed Brillouin Systems ............................................................................ 3-7
3.2.1 Typical Setup ............................................................................................. 3-7
3.2.2 Mode of Operation ..................................................................................... 3-8
3.2.3 System Specifications................................................................................ 3-9
3.2.4 Current Application .................................................................................... 3-9
3.3 Point Sensor Systems..................................................................................... 3-10
3.3.1 Typical Setup ........................................................................................... 3-11
3.3.2 Modes of Operation ................................................................................. 3-12
3.3.3 Specifications........................................................................................... 3-12
ix
3.3.4 Applications ............................................................................................. 3-13
3.4 Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBGs) .......................................................................... 3-14
3.4.1 Setups ..................................................................................................... 3-15
3.4.2 Modes of Operation ................................................................................. 3-15
3.4.3 Specifications........................................................................................... 3-16
3.4.4 Applications ............................................................................................. 3-16
4 PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS ............................................................................... 4-1

4.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 4-1
4.1 Intrinsic Sensors ............................................................................................... 4-1
4.2 Extrinsic Sensors .............................................................................................. 4-2
4.3 Fiber Bragg Sensors ......................................................................................... 4-5
4.4 Application of Pressure Sensors ....................................................................... 4-6
5 CHEMICAL MEASUREMENT WITH FIBER-OPTIC SENSORS .............................. 5-1

5.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 5-1
5.1 Distributed Non-Intrinsic Chemical Sensing ...................................................... 5-2
5.2 Extrinsic Point Chemical Sensors ..................................................................... 5-4
5.3 Fiber Bragg Grating Chemical Sensing............................................................. 5-6
5.4 Evanescent Wave Chemical Sensing ............................................................... 5-6
6 ELECTRIC FIELD MEASUREMENT ........................................................................ 6-1

6.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 6-1
6.1 Distributed Sensors........................................................................................... 6-2
6.2 Extrinsic Sensors .............................................................................................. 6-3
6.3 Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors ............................................................................ 6-5
7 MEASURING MAGNETIC FIELDS WITH FIBER-OPTICS ...................................... 7-1

7.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 7-1
7.1 Intrinsic and Distributed Sensors ...................................................................... 7-3
7.2 Extrinsic Point Sensing ..................................................................................... 7-4
7.3 Fiber Bragg Gratings......................................................................................... 7-5
7.4 Other Items of Interest for Measurement of Magnetic Fields ............................ 7-7
x
7.4.1 Magneto-strictive Elastomers..................................................................... 7-7
7.4.2 Ferromagnetic Shape Memory Alloys, “FSMA”.......................................... 7-8
8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS......................................................... 8-1

8.0 Summary........................................................................................................... 8-1
9 REFERENCES.......................................................................................................... 9-1
A BACKGROUND INFORMATION ............................................................................ A-1

A.1 Companies, Contacts, Sources and Manufacturers .........................................A-1
A.1.1 Companies / Manufacturers ......................................................................A-1
A.1.2 University / Government Sources..............................................................A-3
A.1.3 Other Information Sources ........................................................................A-5
B GLOSSARY OF OPTICS TERMS........................................................................... B-1
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1 Light traveling through an optical fiber by multiple internal reflections .................... 1-1
Figure 2-1 Fabry-Perot setup .................................................................................................. 2-2
Figure 2-2 Mach-Zehnder setup.............................................................................................. 2-3
Figure 2-3 An example wave spectrum showing the backscattered signals for both the
Stokes and Rayleigh lines ............................................................................................... 2-3
Figure 2-4 Distributed fiber optic temperature sensing equipment........................................... 2-4
Figure 2-5 Typical setup for making temperature and strain measurements ........................... 2-5
Figure 2-6 Flowchart showing the various mechanisms and the measurands for intrinsic
sensors. The flowchart starts with the Rayleigh OTDR which is the spatial locator
for intrinsic fiber sensors.................................................................................................. 2-6
Figure 2-7 There are hundreds of variations for point or extrinsic sensors. The chart
depicts the operational mechanism, i.e., total reflection, and then the application,
i.e., liquid level................................................................................................................. 2-7
Figure 2-8 An input of broad wavelengths into an FBG results in a coherent single
wavelength backscatter. Each grating acts like a tiny mirror that reflects only a
preferred wavelength....................................................................................................... 2-9
Figure 2-9 Schematic of a grating written onto the fiber core. The transmission signature
is on the right side. .........................................................................................................2-10
Figure 3-1 Illustration showing Raman spectroscopy .............................................................. 3-2
Figure 3-2 Schematic of typical distributed temperature sensing equipment ........................... 3-4
Figure 3-3 View of internal components in SensorTran’s distributed temperature sensing
equipment ....................................................................................................................... 3-6
Figure 3-4 Typical Brillouin setup for measurements of temperature or strain ......................... 3-8
Figure 3-5 Illustration showing one of the first optical-based temperature measurement
systems..........................................................................................................................3-10
Figure 3-6 Light patterns in phosphorescent temperature sensor...........................................3-10
Figure 3-7 Schematic of extrinsic measurement system ........................................................3-11
Figure 3-8 Example of a fiber with multiple discrete Bragg gratings on the fiber.....................3-14
Figure 3-9 Figure showing a typical multiplexed grating arrangement. ...................................3-15
Figure 4-1 Example micro-resonator in a silicon substrate ...................................................... 4-3
Figure 4-2 Example of a small gap extrinsic pressure sensor.................................................. 4-4
Figure 4-3 Wavelength response to pressure applied to three sizes of diaphragms with
two polarizations.............................................................................................................. 4-5
xiii
Figure 5-1 A schematic of a geo-synthetic monitoring system................................................. 5-3
Figure 5-2 Figure showing a robust sensor head arrangement for making chemical
measurements. The dye is the fluorescent material shown............................................. 5-5
Figure 5-3 Evanescent wave sensor concept for detection of chemical species...................... 5-7
Figure 6-1 A typical experimental setup that produces a rotation in polarization plan
caused by an applied field to the cell ............................................................................... 6-1
Figure 6-2 Pockels cell setup for measurement of large electric fields showing a change
in the incident light polarization........................................................................................ 6-2
Figure 6-3 Figure showing an alternating field modulated through an electro-optic crystal ...... 6-2
Figure 6-4 Example electric field measuring point sensor ....................................................... 6-4
Figure 7-1 Illustration of indirect magnetic field sensing .......................................................... 7-1
Figure 7-2 Figure showing plane polarized light turned into a Faraday rotation (refracted
polarized rotation) after passing through a magnetic material.......................................... 7-2
Figure 7-3 Illustration of of the magneto-optic Kerr effect ........................................................ 7-5
Figure 7-4 Figure showing a magneto-strictive element covering a region containing a
Bragg grating................................................................................................................... 7-6
Figure 7-5 A photograph is shown of a small magneto strictive sensor element...................... 7-6
Figure 7-6 Illustration of indirect magnetic field sensing .......................................................... 7-7
Figure 7-7 Example shape memory alloy ................................................................................ 7-8
Figure 7-8 Shape memory alloy with and without applied magnetic field ................................. 7-9
xiv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3-1 Comparison of Point and Distributed Temperature Sensors.................................... 3-1

Table 4-1 Pressure Measurement Characteristics with a Fiber ............................................... 4-4
Table 5-1 Commercial Chemical Sensor Companies and Applications ................................... 5-5
Table 6-1 IPMC Force, Reaction Speed and Voltage Responses for Actuator Usage............. 6-3
Table 6-2 Electrostriction Constants for Polymer and Ceramic Materials ................................ 6-6
xv
1
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
Fiber optic sensors have been used for many years, principally in the area of communication.
Fiber optic technology relies on “total internal reflection” when light moves from a medium
having a high index of refraction (glass fiber) to one of a lower index of refraction (air or a
“buffer” coating on the outside of a fiber), with a relatively low loss in the reflected light waves
even when the fiber is flexible as shown in the following illustration.
Figure 1-1
Light traveling through an optical fiber by multiple internal reflections
There are many physiological characteristics of fibers and the way light interacts within the fiber
and the fiber coating or environment around the fiber. These characteristics serve as the basis for
various sensor technologies that will be discussed in the balance of this report.
Sensors and networks of sensors for controlling or for diagnostics have been very important in
almost every facet of industry. Most sensors still in use today use semiconductors as the main
“ingredient”. These types of devices are subject to failures caused by external influences.
Fiber-optic sensors have a great advantage over discrete semiconductor sensors for the following
reasons:
• They are not subject to EMF
• They are small, using photons instead of electrons
1-1
Introduction
• They can be configured to function as a distributed sensor, a point sensor, or both

• They can operate at high electrical potential because they are an insulator
Fiber-optic sensors have become prominent due to the marriage of two technological areas;
1
communications and optoelectronics . The latter area has shown that lasers and photons can be
made to do a variety of functions and measurements. Compact disc players, CD-ROM drives,
DVDs, and laser printers are a few consumer items. The medical area also uses optoelectronic
devices for measuring blood gases, insulin level and oxygen uptake.
The principal advantages that fiber optic sensors possess over conventional sensors include:
• Small size
• Very wide frequency bandwidth response
• Low weight
• Simultaneous sensing of more than one parameter
• Robust
• Very wide operating temperature range
• Low unit cost
• High tensile strength
• High sensitivity
• High fatigue life
• High spatial resolution
• Fast response times
• Corrosion resistance
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference (EMI)
• Non-conductive
• Plus numerous systems-related advantages
Optical sensing of the external environment can be cross-categorized by the influence on the
fiber and by the type of fiber sensor. Sensors are either extrinsic or intrinsic to begin with.
Extrinsic means that the glass fiber wire and the interrogation means (usually a laser or diode)
are used as the transportation system for the measurement. In other words, the fiber attaches to
an item or black box, which makes the measurement and the laser interrogates the item for
information to be transported back over the fiber. Most extrinsic sensors are considered as
“point” or discrete sensors. An intrinsic sensor is one where the glass fiber itself is influenced by
an external event and the laser interrogates the glass fiber for answers to the measurement. The
1
There is a comprehensive glossary of fiber optic-related terms included in Appendix B. The reader is encouraged
to review these terms when reading this report.
1-2
Introduction
external item, such as temperature, changes the glass indices that can be measured by infrared
spectroscopy and the proper interferometer. This type of sensor is usually considered as a
distributed sensor.
There is still one more type of sensor that uses a glass fiber. It has been the subject of thousands
of research projects in many different technical areas. These are referred to as Fiber Bragg
Gating Sensors. These are considered combination sensors since the fiber is etched at various
locations along its length, effectively creating a “sensor” at each etching. These etchings are the
lines that make up the grating.
Bragg gratings have been used for 30 years along with photonics. In the 1970’s, these were
called surface acoustic wave devices (or SAWs). SAWs are used to modulate light with sound,
thus allowing for transport of sound over a light beam. Now, Bragg gratings that are incorporated
into fibers themselves can be used to modulate light with respect to a change in wavelength of
the grating caused by vibration, sound, pressure, etc.
Industries have found commercial uses for both intrinsic and extrinsic types of sensors. For
instance, applications use extrinsic sensors to measure temperature, pressure, liquid level, and
flow in process control and to monitor linear and angular position in aircraft fly-by-light
operations. In other applications, intrinsic sensors make rotation, acceleration, strain, acoustic,
pressure, and vibration measurements. Multimode fibers also make temperature measurements.
There are advantages and disadvantages to using either type of sensor. Extrinsic sensors tend to
be less sensitive but are more easily multiplexed, and easier to use. They also require more
connections, which can cause problems (into and out of the light modulator regions) from signal
loss and optical interference (“cross-talk”) through the multiplexed connections. Generally,
there is much greater signal attenuation when extrinsic sensors are placed into a matrix material
such as a smart skin structure. Intrinsic sensors are more sensitive and more difficult to shield
from unwanted external influences. Their “all-fiber” design reduces or eliminates most
connection problems experienced with extrinsic sensors, but they usually require more elaborate
signal processing via interferometry and spectrometer analysis. From a commercial standpoint,
intrinsic sensors tend to be significantly more expensive than extrinsic sensors but are more
versatile for installation and are more robust.
In this report there will be an attempt to cover the various types of sensors under each
measurand, i.e. what is being measured. Some measured parameters may only be supported
using one type or another. In these cases, a statement will appear letting the reader know that to
date only one type might be able to be used.
Measured parameters that might have the greatest importance to the electric industry, and
specifically the underground transmission community, are:
• Temperature
• Electric Field
1-3
Introduction
• Magnetic Field
• Chemicals / Hydrocarbons
• Chemicals /XLPE by-products
• Acoustics and or Vibration
• Strain (splices)
• Proximity / Perimeter Security
A more complete listing of possible measured parameters is presented below:

• Strain
• Displacement
• Damage
• Residual strain
• Acceleration
• Cracking
• Vibration
• Deformation
• Wear
• Frequency
• Impact
• Corrosion
• Acoustic emission
• Liquid levels
• pH levels
• Pressure
• Index of refraction
• Temperature
• Load
• Angular velocity
• Linear velocity
• Chemical composition
• Chemical reactions
• Electric fields
1-4
Introduction
The above list shows the many measurements that can be gleaned from the interrogation of either
type of fiber optic sensors. As is usual in most sensor applications, the measured parameter is
measured by proportion or other relationship to some optical characteristic that is measured;
direct measurement is generally not used for most of these sensors.
When appropriate, each measurement style that is useful for other power applications, i.e.
transitions from overhead to underground, substations and power station get-a-ways, will be
discussed as well. It is also important to note that there may be some redundancy in the report
due to the fact that some of the measured parameters utilize the same intrinsic property or the
same point sensing element. As an example, acoustic, pressure, vibration and intrusion detection
all use common mechanisms.
A practical consideration for many of the fiber sensor technologies described in this report is
access to the appropriate type of fiber in a location where measurements are meaningful. While
insulated cables date back to the late 1800s, optic fibers have only been around for 40years
(initially in laboratories such as Hughes Aircraft Corporation) and somewhat routinely combined
with power cables in the last 10 or so years. While many of the fiber technologies described in
this report show great merit, there may be some difficulty in introducing a fiber to an existing
cable system. However, new cable systems may incorporate sensors based on these technologies
much in the way power transformers now include fiber-based extrinsic sensors to measure hot
spots and other transformer parameters. This installation or incorporation of the necessary fiber
to use these sensor technologies is not the subject of this report but is a practical matter the
reader may face when applying some of these methodologies.
1-5
2
SENSOR SYSTEMS BACKGROUND
2.0 Types of Sensors
The technology and applications of optical fibers have progressed very rapidly in recent years.
Optical fiber is subjected to various forces on it at all times and therefore can have size, shape
and or property changes. In communications, external factors affecting the fiber are minimized
as best possible since signal quality is paramount to data transfer. This is in contrast to sensor
applications where it is desirable to enhance an external factor to improve the measurement
quality. Responses to external influences are deliberately enhanced so that the resulting change
in optical radiation can be used effectively as a measure of an external influence. Data and
communication fibers use signal modulation to affect the data transfer rate, but in sensing, the
fiber itself acts as a modulator in response to influences. As a result, fibers for communications
and for sensing generally are on separate dedicated fibers, although they may cohabitate in the
same fiber optic cable. The sensing fiber also serves as a transducer and converts measurands
like temperature, stress, strain, rotation or electric and magnetic currents into a corresponding
change in the optical radiation.
The advantages of fiber optic sensors are freedom from electro-magnetic interference (EMI),
wide bandwidth, compactness, geometric versatility and economy. In general, fiber sensors
exhibit fairly high sensitivity when compared to other types of sensors. Specially prepared fibers
can withstand high temperature and other harsh environments. In telemetry and remote sensing
applications, it is possible to use a segment of the fiber as a sensor gauge while a long length of
the same or another fiber can convey the sensed information to a remote station. This
arrangement can be taken one step further and become a distributed sensor, by multiplexing the
various point sensors along the length.
Deployment of distributed and array sensors covering extensive structures and geographical
locations are also feasible, though retrofitting on an existing cable system may be difficult.
Many signal processing devices (splitter, combiner, multiplexer, filter, delay line etc.) can be
made of fiber elements thus enabling the realization of an all-fiber measuring system.
There are a variety of fiber optic sensors. These can be classified as follows.[2]
A) Based on the modulation and demodulation process, a sensor can be called an intensity
(amplitude), a phase, a frequency, or a polarization sensor. Since detection of phase or
frequency in optics calls for interferometric techniques, the latter are also termed as
interferometric sensors. From a detection point of view, the interferometeric technique
2-1
Sensor Systems Background
implies heterodyne detection/coherent detection where the backscatter is of a differing

wavelength from the incident wavelength using an interferometric means to determine the
maxima and minima. On the other hand intensity sensors are basically incoherent in nature.
Intensity or incoherent sensors are simple in construction, while coherent detection
(interferometric) sensors are more complex in design but offer better sensitivity and
resolution.
B) Fiber optic sensors can also be classified on the basis of their application: physical sensors
(e.g., measurement of temperature, stress, etc.); chemical sensors (e.g., measurement of pH
content, gas analysis, spectroscopic studies, etc.); bio-medical sensors (inserted via catheters
or endoscopes which measure blood flow, glucose content, etc.). Both the intensity types and
the interferometric types of sensors can be considered in any of the above applications.
C) Extrinsic sensors and intrinsic sensors are other classification schemes. In the former,
sensing takes place in a region outside of the fiber and the fiber essentially serves as a
conduit for the to-and-fro transmission of light to the sensing region efficiently and in a
desired form. In an intrinsic sensor, one or more of the physical properties of the fiber
undergo a change as mentioned in A) above.
2.1 Distributed Measuring on Fibers
Temperature and Strain
For distributed sensor applications, there are three important types of scattering that must be
measured; Rayleigh, Brillouin and Raman. There are other mechanisms that use one of these
scattering approaches in spectroscopy and or interferometry, such as Sagnac Interferometry used
in fiber optic gyroscopes. Two basic concepts of fiber optic interferometers are known: Mach-
Zehnder and Fabry-Perot interferometers. In fiber optic Fabry-Perot interferometer, the
interference occurs at the partially reflecting end face surface of the fiber and an external mirror.
Figure 2-1
Fabry-Perot setup
2-2
Figure 2-2
Mach-Zehnder setup
Rayleigh scattering is elastic meaning that the incident wavelength of light is the same as the
scattered wavelength. This type of scattering in the glass fiber accounts for the majority of
backscattered light. Brillouin and Raman scattering are inelastic types; in Brillouin scattering,
phonons scatter the incident light in a process that changes its wavelengths while in Raman
scattering, the wavelength of the incident light is shifted by electronic energy level shifts in
molecules of the material. These both have their incident light affected by acoustic and optical
phonons. As one may remember from solid state physics or a good materials book, phonons are
vibrations in the crystal structure and the gap between the optical and acoustic phonons is the
“band gap”. Raman scattering relies on the optical band of phonons whereas Brillouin relies on
the acoustic ones. Because these are inelastic, the power of the backscattered light is very much
weaker than elastic or Rayleigh (these will be discussed in more detail in Section 3).
Figure 2-3
An example wave spectrum showing the backscattered signals for both the Stokes and
Rayleigh lines
2-3
As can be seen, the Rayleigh line is much stronger since it represents an elastic scatter. The
Stokes and Anti-Stokes lines are much smaller and are shifted symmetrically around the central
Rayleigh line. The temperature information gleaned from Raman backscatter is the ratio of the
Stokes and Anti-Stokes intensities; the ratio is proportional to temperature.
Raman backscatter in silica or glass fiber is responsive (a small component) to variations in

temperature. This is why the initial commercial systems use this type of approach. Because of
the Brillouin frequency shift property in glass fiber, more recent applications of this sensor
technology have observed that this shift is affected by both a temperature change and also strain
in the fiber itself. For this reason, more commercial systems are now being marketed as a
distributed temperature and strain sensor combination.
Figure 2-4
Distributed fiber optic temperature sensing equipment
Because of the strain measurement capability, the communications industry have been using the
Brillouin approach for making cable measurements in both buried underground and submarine
types of cable. Since these cables are pulled into conduits (similar to power cables), the fibers are
measured for strain before the installation and after the pulling to make sure there are no kinks in
the cable or excessive strain regions. The fibers are also used to sense pressure caused by frozen
water in the conduit. If the frozen water applies too much pressure, permanent damage may
occur. This technique will indicate the location for further testing.
2-4
Figure 2-5
Typical setup for making temperature and strain measurements
In the figure, “DFB” is “distributed feedback”, “EOM” is “electro-optic modulator”, and “EDF”
is “erbium doped fiber”.
There have been many attempts to turn a single fiber into a multi-use sensor for measurement of
temperature, pressure, strain, acoustic emissions and many more. It becomes fairly obvious that
after several years and hundreds of R&D teams attempts, that the best way to a multi-performing
wire is to use the Bragg grating approach or a multiplexed point sensor approach.
For certain, distributed fiber-optic sensing is a much more complicated setup due to the fact that
one must not only use the basic backscatter property to find the measurand value but also use
optical time domain reflectometry (OTDR) to locate each section being measured along the path
length. Figure 2-6 illustrates the many items that need OTDR to locate the location. Each
technique requires a certain length of fiber to actually get a significant response. In the case of
the first category, birefringence-dependent measurands, one must have an effected length of fiber
long enough for the Kerr electro-optic effect to yield a change in rotation of the incident and then
back reflected light. The Kerr effect is for electro and magneto-optic measuring, whereas the
stress /strain would use the Faraday rotation of the glass. In each case, approximately one meter
of length – usually referred to as the “spatial resolution” – would be necessary to obtain a
sufficient signal to correlate to the OTDR location measurement.
2-5
Figure 2-6
Flowchart showing the various mechanisms and the measurands for intrinsic sensors.
The flowchart starts with the Rayleigh OTDR which is the spatial locator for intrinsic fiber
sensors.
2.2 How Point or Extrinsic Sensors Function
Just as in distributed systems, discrete extrinsic fiber-optic point sensors were first used to
measure temperature as well.
Initially fiber optic wire was merely the transport medium for the light to pass down to an
ampoule filled with a phosphorescent material that would change the incident light’s wavelength
with temperature.
EPRI had funded such research in the early 1970’s with the application of transformer
temperature measurement. While a good idea, this technology still required a person to carry out
the proper spectrometer to measure the wavelength of the reflecting light and interpret the
measured temperatures. Some companies started then to develop an all-in-one approach making
it easier to perform measurements. Luxtron was one of the first to develop commercially viable
systems.
2-6
Extrinsic or point sensors have progressed significantly in the last 35 years. The most up to date
list of techniques that are have either commercial backing or have undergone extensive R&D are
represented in the chart below.
Figure 2-7
There are hundreds of variations for point or extrinsic sensors. The chart depicts the
operational mechanism, i.e., total reflection, and then the application, i.e., liquid level.
As can be seen, there are nine other technologies involved in extrinsic sensing beyond that of
fluorescence.
Many of the types of sensor modes – encoder, reflection/transmission, gratings etc. – all work off
of similar principles in that the fiber makes a contact or the light coming out of the fiber
impinges onto a substrate, mirror, or Fabry-Perot etalon (simple Fabry-Perot interferometer
placed at the end of a fiber where there are at least two reflecting parallel surfaces). The spacing
of the two reflecting surfaces provides for the interference of the incident and reflected light back
at the source. The main difference between an etalon and interferometer is that the etalon has a
fixed spacing between the plates for a specific measurement only (wavelength and resulting
2-7
pattern). A standard interferometer can be adjusted providing a variety of interference patterns

for many wavelength separations.
An interesting sensing type is the evanescent wave mode of operation where the light in one fiber
is somewhat affected by another fiber not in direct contact. The evanescent wave mode uses the
electromagnetic radiation properties of light (magnetic vector , B, and electric vector, E). The
light’s power flow density in the direction of travel, also known as the Poynting Vector, defined
by:
1
P= E × B [Watts / meter ]
2
µ0
The perpendicular component of the light’s electric field from the light’s direction of travel can
interact with the environment, causing a change in the Poynting Vector’s magnitude that may be
detected. This has been used successfully in the medical industry to detect blood oxygen content
or glucose levels.
2.3 Use of Gratings on Fibers for Making Measurements
Surface acoustic wave devices have been around for over 30 years. When used with light, these
devices sparked a fury of research involved with acousto-optical systems. The surface acoustic
wave or SAW, used Bragg gratings. Now Bragg gratings can be etched into glass fibers to allow
for measuring many different items that affect the wavelength spacing of the grating. Heat or
temperature affects the glass and or cladding which then changes the grating and thus the
effective wavelength. Pressure and flexure on or of the fiber also has an effect on the grating and
2-8
thus the wavelength spacing. These Bragg gratings when placed onto a fiber optic wire as part of
a sensor “suit” are termed Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBGs).
Most of the research being done today focuses on making the grating on the fiber in a continous
and lasting process, rather than on making measurements themselves. Claddings that are
internally optically sensitive to certain laser wavelengths have now been shown to retain the
grating lines when the proper laser interference pattern is “burned” into the cladding. Another
way of doing this is to directly affect the fiber core material.
To make the fiber Bragg gratings as sensor elements, the gratings or lines are etched similar to
semiconductor chips by using photo-writing using intense ultra-violet laser beams. These types
of sensor elements, when written onto long lengths and then multiplexed, have the potential for
the measurement of strain/deformation and temperature together. Current applications include,
monitoring of highways, bridges, aerospace components, naval ship and submarine monitoring
and diagnostics and also as chemical and biological sensors. In Great Britain and the United
States, the expansion caused by many R&D efforts has now played a role in the development of
a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) measuring system for monitoring and recording the actual seismic
responses of underground structures, rock mass and bridges etc. These are also used along fault
lines for measuring pressures and shifts.
The basic principle of a fiber Bragg grating (FBG)-based sensor system lies in the monitoring of
the wavelength shift of the returned Bragg-signal, as a function of the external influence or
measurand (e.g. strain, temperature and force); the measurand will change the Bragg grating
spacing resulting in a shift of the reflected wavelength. The Bragg wavelength is related to the
refractive index of the material and the grating pitch or Bragg angle. Sensor systems usually
work by injecting light from a broadband spectral light source into the fiber, with the result that
the grating reflects a narrow spectral component of the incident light at the Bragg wavelength. In
the transmission through the fiber length, the Bragg component is missing from the observed
spectrum.
Figure 2-8
An input of broad wavelengths into an FBG results in a coherent single wavelength
backscatter. Each grating acts like a tiny mirror that reflects only a preferred wavelength.
2-9
The grating itself acts like little mirrors whose reflection is only at an angle known as the Bragg
angle. This is a preferred wavelength only. As such, when a broad spectrum is sent into the fiber,
a narrow wave spectrum is reflected back. This is the same reflection that occurs when a person
looks at a glass window at the Brewster angle. That is the angle of total reflection. The Bragg
grating acts in the same manner, only at a preferred wavelength instead.
Figure 2-9
Schematic of a grating written onto the fiber core. The transmission signature is on the
right side.
2-10
3
TEMPERATURE MEASURING SYSTEMS
3.0 Types of Temperature Measurement Systems
Measuring temperatures with glass fibers was first used in the point sensor arrangement back in
the late 1970’s. These point sensors, which used phosphorescent material at the end of the fiber,
quickly became commercialized. Many of the companies were start-ups that still exist today.
Distributed sensors took a while longer to emerge. Raman spectroscopy initialized the work in
glass fibers that resulted in the Raman backscattering approach to the measurement of
temperature along the length of fiber. As more applications developed, other interferometric
means were commercialized. Typical sensitivities for temperature measuring are below.
Table 3-1
Comparison of Point and Distributed Temperature Sensors
Parameter Point Sensing Distributed Sensing
Range (°C) -50°C to 1,100°C -10°C to 500°C
Accuracy (°C) +/-1°C +/-1°C
Resolution (°C) +/- 0.1°C +/-0.1°C
Length Resolution (meters) n.a. 1-5m
The range of sensitivities and / or specifications for both point (extrinsic) and distributed
(intrinsic) sensors are given above. These are general sensitivities since there are many newer
sensors in the laboratory environment and near commercial that take advantage of various
multiplexing schemes to improve items like spatial resolution down to 1 centimeter.
3.1 Distributed Raman Systems
Raman spectroscopy is based upon the Raman Effect, which is described as the scattering of
light from a gas, liquid or solid with a shift in wavelength from that of the usually
monochromatic incident radiation.
When a transparent medium is irradiated with an intense source of monochromatic light, such as
a laser, and the scattered light is examined with a spectrometer, not only is the incident light, ν0,
observed in the scattering, i.e. same frequency- Rayleigh scattering, but also some weaker
“bands” of a shifted frequency from the incident light are detected. The shifted bands are of
lower frequency ν0 - νi, and some are at higher frequency, ν0 + νi. These bands above and below
3-1
Temperature Measuring Systems
the center frequency are known as the anti-Stokes and Stokes bands respectively. The Stokes
and anti-Stokes bands are equally displaced about the Rayleigh band; however, the intensity of
the anti-Stokes bands is much weaker than the Stokes bands and they are seldom observed. It is
these bands that exhibit the temperature dependence for Raman distributed temperature
measuring fibers.
Figure 3-1
Illustration showing Raman spectroscopy
The phenomenon of Raman spectroscopy from material science follows the general backscatter
wave number or frequency shifts shown above for the Stokes / Anti-Stokes lines. The laser
interacts with optical phonons in an inelastic manner to produce this backscatter. The Rayleigh
line in the center is an elastic scatter and thus much bigger intensity.
A molecule changes its polarization due to its rotation or vibration modes. These modes scatter
incident light back elastically which is the Rayleigh scattering in glass. The Raman scattering is
based on the molecules rotation or vibration. These are temperature dependent and are
represented as the molecule’s frequency νI, which are the shifts away from the incident radiation
of frequency ν0
Sensors that use a multi-mode fiber or single mode2 fiber and the Raman backscattering
phenomena for measurement of temperature are thusly of the intrinsic type. The temperature
effect is a material property of the glass caused by the glass molecular vibration. Temperatures
are measured along the entire length of the fiber by using a time domain reflectometer system or
OTDR. The only requirement is that there is enough of an active length of fiber to produce a
significant backscatter response. In multi-mode fibers, this is approximately one meter of length
2
Single mode fibers are much less lossy, which makes the photon interaction with optical phonons more difficult.
When there are multiple modes of propagation, some are more preferential to scattering by the phonon lattice that
produces the phase shifts and the backscatter. Fibers with only one mode of propagation produce less backscatter so
a much longer time and distance (lower spatial resolution) are required to produce a detectable reaction.
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while in single-mode fibers, this is 4-10m. The resulting measurement effectively averages the
temperature over the 1m (for multi-mode or 4-10m for single mode) fiber length. This is where
the system resolution is set.
In Raman-based multi-mode fiber optic systems, there is a length limitation that is based on the
fact that light does attenuate per unit length faster in these types of fibers. Attenuation also
occurs at junctions and or splices. The typical system, be it from Sumitomo, Hitachi, LG, Sensa,
or SensorTran has a multi-mode limit of around 10 km. Some of the aforementioned companies
now have single mode fiber systems that can go 3-4 times farther for a single system.
For the Raman-based systems to work, information about the fiber must be known ahead of time
to apply single-ended measurements. Specifically, the losses per unit length and the propagation
velocity must be known or else calibration of the fiber must be done using a known temperature.
Some instrumentation uses “doubled-ended” measurements that are self calibrating, but this
effectively reduces the test length by half (down to 5-6km instead of 10-12km).
3.1.1 Typical Setup
As mentioned above, there are several commercial systems that are widely sold throughout the
world. All use pretty much the same style of setup in the field. All of these systems are portable,
but typically are not installed on a permanent basis. Most of the Raman-based equipment has a
fairly narrow operating range (10-35°C) for the instrumentation, which limits its long-term
installation in outdoor locations (e.g., substations, etc.). Technicians will truck the unit out to the
field and gain access to the already installed fibers at opportune locations. Several utilities,
including ComEd/Exelon and BC Hydro have dedicated Raman type units permanently installed
in a substation for monitoring cable temperatures.
3-3
Figure 3-2
Schematic of typical distributed temperature sensing equipment
Above is a schematic of a typical distributed temperature measuring instrument based on the

separation of the Stokes and Anti-Stokes frequency shifts for measuring temperature.
3.1.2 Mode of operation
Multi-mode or single-mode fibers are used to make the temperature measurements. The fibers’
molecules increasingly vibrate as the local temperature along the length increases. The
backscattered light is dependent on this. In multi-mode Raman systems, about one meter of fiber
length is needed to give a significant backscatter signal; 4-10 meters is needed for the less lossy
single-mode fiber. These requirements designate the spatial resolution.
3.1.3 System Specifications
There are several manufacturers of temperature profiling systems, but all of them must use
essentially the same specifications limits. The specification limits are set by the physics of the
fiber and the interferometric limits.
The typical multi-mode Raman system has a measurement limitation of approximately 10 km.
This length limit changes to shorter lengths when more connectors are use, increasing the signal
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loss. The connectors have more losses – 0.1-0.2 dB for fusion spliced fibers, 0.5 dB for
mechanical splices – than the fiber itself.
As mentioned above; the spatial resolution is one meter over long length fiber systems. The
signal that is received from each segment of fiber is equated to approximately 1 degree Celsius in
temperature resolution.
EPRI and other organizations have done research using Raman systems for transformer end
winding monitoring. Those systems are not long in length and are compact. As a result,
temperature resolution over short lengths is 1/10th degree Celsius, and the spatial resolution is
1cm. The entire distributed sensor is only a few meters long, allowing for very small
Stokes/Anti-Stokes signals to be received from relative short (1cm) sections of fiber. The
resolution and sensitivity is good because signal attenuation over the few-meter length is
virtually non-existent (as compared to conventional distributed temperature sensing equipment
that might be looking over several kilometers).
3.1.4 Current Applications
Temperature monitoring and profiling using Raman backscatter received its start in the drilling
industry for oil and gas. Down hole monitoring during drilling is important. These intrinsic or
distributed systems have found hundreds of applications over the last ten years.
EPRI began using this technology for underground cable systems in the mid-1990s with a York
DTS-80 (in 2003, the equipment was updated to a Sensa DTS-800) system for profiling several
underground cable circuits. Others such as Con Edison, ComEd/Exelon, NSTAR, Southern
California Edison and BC Hydro have done the same. End windings were mentioned for
generators as another application using the same principles.
The following industries either use deployed systems or have embedded systems into their
application infrastructure:
1. Aerospace for use as aircraft wing monitoring on Shuttle flights and in the military aircraft
arena. NASA has used fiber-based distributed temperature sensing to monitor cryogenic fuel
tank temperatures.
2. Environmental industry uses distributed systems for temperature profiling ocean and fresh
water.
3. The building industry, more specifically high rise buildings, use these for temperature control
zones for HVAC.
4. Power industry can apply this technology for monitoring buried cable temperatures,
transformer tank temperatures or overhead line conductor temperatures (as is being done
currently by SouthWire and ComEd/Exelon over a 3-span test length).
3-5
There are literally hundreds of uses for this type of short-range temperature sensing. The biggest
hurdle towards the Raman interferometric system is the cost. The black box that contains the
signal separation optics and the software to produce a temperature equivalent is very expensive
(US$60-140k at the time this report was prepared). In actuality, the optics portion of the
instrument is relatively inexpensive, as is the multimode fiber, but the fiber must be connected to
the cable, and there are typically a limited number of underground cable circuits going into a
central location -- especially at transmission voltages – for a single unit to monitor multiple fiber
loops without transporting the electronics.
There are some companies that are taking these measurement systems and making them stand
alone field mounted devices. SensorTran is one company that has auto calibration and field
mounted boxes. They have taken the laboratory type of box, made it smaller, and multiplexed it
to make temperature measurements on multiple fibers.
Figure 3-3
View of internal components in SensorTran’s distributed temperature sensing equipment
SensorTran, which is an affiliate company of SPEC, is improving the use of Raman backscatter
DTS systems for utility applications by providing rugged, self calibrating systems that can be
installed outside in a substation environment. These units, shown open above, can measure many
fibers through the use of a multiplex system. In addition to the optics and a reference coil of
fiber (with a known temperature), the equipment includes an industrial computer, hard disk for
3-6
storing data, monitor and keyboard. It’s fair to say that the Raman-based temperature
measurement equipment is the most mature of the fiber-based instrumentation.
3.2 Distributed Brillouin Systems
Brillouin light scattering is generally referred to as inelastic scattering of an incident optical light
by thermally excited elastic waves in a sample.
In most Brillouin experiments, the Fabry-Perrot interferometer has been the instrument of choice.
In the case of a transparent solid, most of the scattered light emanates from the refracted beam in
a region well away from the surface, and the conditions relating wave vector and frequency shift
of the light to bulk acoustic wave scattering (acoustic phonons). The scattering, in this case, is
caused by a strain field. This brings about fluctuations in the dielectric constant and this also
affects the index of refraction. As a result, the fluctuations are the cause of inelastic scattering.
The phonons present inside a solid move in thermal equilibrium with very small amplitudes
creating fluctuations in the dielectric constant, which is viewed as a moving diffraction grating
by an incident light wave. Therefore Brillouin scattering can be explained by the two concepts of
Bragg reflection and Doppler shifts. The Doppler Effect comes into play because of the
frequency response of the acoustic phonons; moving away gives a lower frequency and moving
towards gives a higher one. The acoustic phonon band then becomes a moving Bragg grating in
effect.
Brillouin distributed temperature systems use single mode fiber as the measurement waveguide.
Because single mode has much lower attenuation rates per unit length, longer distances can be
monitored over one fiber. Many of the companies that supply Raman systems also have
commercialized these as well.
Raman systems use the intrinsic property of optical phonons and Brillouin systems acoustic
phonons. Interferometers vary by company. The interferometer is used exclusively to “convert”
the backscattered phase shifts (frequency) to an amplitude that can be related to the temperature.
Optical time domain reflectometers are fundamental of both systems. These OTDR’s are the
location measurer.
3.2.1 Typical Setup
A Brillouin type of system looks identical to that of a Raman based system. Pictured below is a
typical setup for making measurements of both temperature and strain. With the advent of
“stimulated” Brillouin scattering, many more measurands can be measured, while providing
improved signal response and longer measurement distances.
3-7
Figure 3-4
Typical Brillouin setup for measurements of temperature or strain
In the figure, “DFB” is “distributed feedback”, “EOM” is “electro-optic modulator”, and “EDF”
is “erbium doped fiber”.
3.2.2 Mode of Operation
As mentioned before, Brillouin scattering is caused by the interaction of photons with acoustic
phonons in the glass fiber. These phonons represent certain vibration rotation states of the
material. These lattice vibrations cause the photon source to be scattered. This is still an inelastic
scattering process so the signal levels are low as in Raman systems.
Most distributed sensing systems based on “stimulated” Brillouin scattering have to use a pulsed
light source – a sharply pulsed laser is also used for “regular” (non-stimulated) Brillouin
systems. The problem is that the spatial resolution of the sensor is no better than several meters.
This resolution is not sufficient for many underground cable applications. A continuous-wave
(CW) source excites the acoustic phonons to a higher energy states as compared to the non-
continuous source. By doing this, they provide better back-scattered responses to the pulsed
light (as compared to the non-continuous source) for measurements. This coherent sensing
approach can improve the spatial resolution down to centimeter lengths. This means that for
measuring temperature and strain together, Brillouin systems have the same resolutions as Fiber
Bragg Gratings, but do it in a distributed manner as opposed to discrete grating locations.
Both temperature and strain measurements are almost always done together in these systems, by
nature of the measurement itself. When making strain measurements caused by the strain field
set up by the acoustic phonons, temperature effects must be correlated and filtered out. The same
is true for responses to temperature; the strain field must be factored out.
3-8
3.2.3 System Specifications
Systems specification limits for distributed Brillouin systems are a little different than for the
previous technique. First of all, acoustic phonons reside in a lower energy state in glass as well
as in semiconductors. Single mode (with only one mode of light propagation) fiber has less
signal attenuation. All of this translates to a spatially active segment that is longer than in the
multi-mode / Raman case. Brillouin systems need approximately 5-10 meters of length for a
significant signal return. Temperature resolution over this length is the same. Where this system
shines is that much longer lengths – 30-40km – can be monitored from a single site. In the new
area of Stimulated Brillouin Scattering, spatial resolution is improved dramatically however
range might be degraded. By stimulated emission of Brillouin backscattering, the range is
degraded due to higher attenuation and pulse broadening; the range comes down to 2-4km.
However, the spatial resolution is dramatically improved because of the acoustic phonon
excitations.
3.2.4 Current Application
Most of the cable / power industry applications of this technology have switched over to
Brillouin systems because of the distance advantage. Cable temperatures vary little over their
length unless caused by “hot spots” external to the cable. The 10 meter spatial resolution is
deemed okay for cable monitoring as a result, particularly for pipe-type systems where there is a
large cable mass and some thermal smoothing from dielectric fluid migration during load cycling
(if no active fluid circulation is in place).
Other industries still need smaller spatial resolutions. 5-10 meters is too large a limit for
aerospace applications; however the Navy uses some systems in ships.
For smart structures or skins, stimulated scattering systems can be used, however these are less
mature systems to date.
Undersea communications organizations have now employed the system to keep aware of
temperature and strain at once. The system is in essence a condition monitor that will alert the
company of a break or a problem area.
Down hole well monitoring has been one of the bigger driving forces for multiple sensing
distributed fiber. The original York DTS systems were designed for well monitoring.
Another potential advantage is that Brillouin-based systems provide better temperature accuracy
over single-mode Raman-based systems using single-mode fiber. There is more often an
existing infrastructure of single-mode fiber installed for communications that could be used for
temperature measurement. It’s much less common to see multi-mode fiber installed for anything
but temperature monitoring because it is so much more lossy. Raman backscatter is limited by
photon and optical phonon scattering, while Brillouin scattering in single mode fibers is caused
by acoustic phonons. Lattic vibrations are acoustic phonons at the lower frequencies of a
3-9
thermal field. Although the signal intensity with acoustic phonons is less than with optical
phonons, a highly coherent light source is used to enhance the signal.
3.3 Point Sensor Systems
Fiber optic wire coupled to point type or extrinsic sensor elements were the first to measure
temperatures in various harsh environments. Typically the fiber wire was used to transmit a light
pulse down to the element where either a reflection based on temperature or a change of
wavelength in the light is sent back on the wire due to a fluorescent material that changes with
temperature.
Figure 3-5
Illustration showing one of the first optical-based temperature measurement systems
One of the first optical-based temperature measurement systems (see Figure 3-6) used the
principle of fluorescence to change the incident light to a reflected one with a different
wavelength that is based on the temperature of the phosphor.
Figure 3-6
Light patterns in phosphorescent temperature sensor
3-10
Figure 3-6 shows the transmitted light pulse (shown as an LED in the figure) traveling down the
optical cable to the phosphorescent tip. This tip is the extrinsic sensor that returns a response in
wavelength and intensity that is shifted from that of the LED. Three temperature responses are
shown. This arrangement can have multiple sensors tied into one optical cable.
Because glass fibers do not conduct electricity, many of the harsh environments where point
sensors excelled were in the electric, automotive and aerospace industries. The utility industry
immediately saw opportunities for use in transformer cores, SF6 equipment and even gas bus.
Point sensing has the advantage of simplicity of use as well as the ability to measure much
higher temperatures. Point or extrinsic sensors can be multiplexed for measuring many points at
once. The setup would be similar to that of having isolated Bragg gratings as well, or somewhat
like application of thermocouples where all “leads” (copper or optical) are brought back to a
central location.
There are many commercial companies that make excellent sensors, with many gaining
experience supplying sensor arrays to the increased demand in the automotive industry.
3.3.1 Typical Setup
Figure 3-7
Schematic of extrinsic measurement system
3-11
As the figure above indicates, extrinsic measurement systems are by far less complicated and as
a result much less expensive that the intrinsic distributed systems.
3.3.2 Modes of Operation
Extrinsic temperature sensors can use any external means of measuring temperature where the
light transmitted is affected by an external stimulus. Photoluminescent materials respond to the
incident light but the temperature of the material gives a change in reflected wavelength. Note
that photoluminescence is the long afterglow light re-emitted after excitation (e.g., as is
sometimes apparent when turning off a television but a glow remains on the screen for a period
of time). Basically a material at the end of a fiber absorbs the energy and emits it later (few
seconds) at a wavelength dependent on the temperature. Sometimes used interchangeably,
fluorescence is the absorption of light at one wavelength, which is changed to another
wavelength by the material vibrations. Stated differently, the absorption and subsequently re-
radiation of light is the process of photoluminescence. If the light emission persists for up to a
few seconds after the incident light is withdrawn, this is phosphorescence. Fluorescence,
however only continues during the absorption of the incident light. The time interval between
absorption of incident light and emission of re-radiated light in fluorescence is very short
duration, usually less than a millionth of a second based on molecular vibration times. The mode
of operation in most extrinsic sensors involves the use of fluorescent materials that are usually
dyes. A portion of the fiber is doped with dye, and different dyes span different temperature
ranges.
3.3.3 Specifications
Temperature is most often measured by the fluorescent emission decay times from rare-earth-
doped tips and or doped phosphors. Neodymium-doped glass(which is also a major type of laser
material) shows good performance over the range -50°C to 300°C . Chromium (LiSAF) crystal
has sensitivity from 0°C to 100°C and is used for biomedical sensing. Yttrium oxide and yttrium
orthovanadate, activated with europium (Eu), are suitable only for measurements in the 500°C to
1000°C range. Recently, Cr:YAG (another lasing material) has been shown to operate over the
range -25°C to 500°C.
By using a digital signal processing scheme for the decay measurement, resolution of 0.1°C over
these entire ranges is possible. Companies using and selling these instruments using this
technique include Nortech Fibronics of Canada, whose products operate in the range -40°C to
250°C; Optrand, Inc., which sells devices for high-temperature engine control applications; and
Takaoka Electric, which has taken over the activities of ASEA.
3-12
3.3.4 Applications
Point Sensors have been around the longest. They also utilize proven simple technologies for
making temperature measurements. Depending on the environment, temperature measuring
range is custom made.
Point sensors are used in the automotive industry, as well as in just about all industrial
complexes. They are suited for being placed in extreme high heat environments for process
control monitoring. They are also used to monitor chemicals for temperature of reactions.
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Flow
• Liquid level
• Displacement (position)
• Vibration
• Rotation
• Magnetic fields
• Acceleration
• Chemical species
• Force
• Radiation
• pH
• Humidity
• Strain
• Velocity
• Electric fields
• Magnetic fields
Extrinsic point sensors can measure just about any entity when properly configured. The list
above is just a short representation of the many measurands. As stated before, these instruments
are used in hundreds of applications. Many of the applications use the fiber as the transmission
medium to connect to a MEMS device. MEMS is the acronym for micro-electro-mechanical
systems.
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3.4 Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBGs)
This type of sensing mechanism can be deployed on a fiber, either discretely at multiple points or
in a continuous manner. The grating is etched onto the fiber’s glass, or is done on the cladding.
The grating can be made by a variety of methods. One of the more common methods of
fabrication is to use two very strong UV lasers to setup interference fringe patterns of the needed
spacing and wavelength. This effectively creates a grating onto the specially doped glass fiber.
The result is a long lasting continuous FBG.
The production of gratings at discrete locations is done by lesser means. These grating locations
can be mechanically etched onto the fiber. In this way, the sensing location is predetermined and
pre-set before installation. Wavelength Domain Multiplexing, WDM is then employed by the
“black box” to make sense of the signals since many different grid spacings might be etched onto
one fiber.
Figure 3-8
Example of a fiber with multiple discrete Bragg gratings on the fiber
FBG’s are very versatile and can be used for many other measurands as well.
3-14
3.4.1 Setups
Figure 3-9
Figure showing a typical multiplexed grating arrangement
In Figure 3-9, a multiplexed systems using a single fiber with multiple discrete gratings is
shown. This arrangement is simple to use since the grating locations along the fiber are already
known. The signals simply need to be time gated in order to determine the location with the
incoming returned wavelength.
FBG’s are not limited to only the measurement of temperature. If one is to employ the above
setup on a utility system, it would be prudent to configure the grating areas with other capability.
The cladding in those areas could be made to measure acoustics through acousto-optic materials.
The clad material can also be magneto-strictive or electro-strictive for magnetic and electric field
measurements.
3.4.2 Modes of Operation
The grating on the fiber measures the temperature adjacent to the fiber in an indirect fashion. The
grating, when interrogated with a broadband light or white light source, has a certain wavelength
response based on its grating spacing. The grating area returns a specific wavelength of light
based on the temperature. Each grating line at the same location does the same. This produces a
pulse of light which returns to the instrument that has one wavelength and is coherent. The
spacing varies because of the temperatures affect on the fiber’s expansion, or in the case of cold,
contraction. The spacing then changes the wavelength response, which is then converted into a
temperature measurement back at the box.
Strain, pressure and sound can all exert or affect a change in the grating that will also result in a
specific wavelength response to those influences as well. This can cause some confusion with the
temperature responses if not filtered effectively.
3-15
3.4.3 Specifications
FBGs can be very accurate because of the lack of attenuation effects since wavelength (not
intensity) is the main response to be measured. The location is of course known in the case of
discrete gratings, and an optical time domain reflectometer is used to determine signal origin
when using a continuous grating of the fiber. Resolution of the temperature spatially along the
length is about one centimeter.
3.4.4 Applications
FBGs have been used in many different industries. Because the grating is a selection of tiny
mirrors that have a preferential reflection, when these “mirrors,” so to speak, are changed, the
reflection is also affected. The two things that affect the grating response are temperature and
strain. Any application that produces a pressure or strain on the fiber can be measured. Bonding
various other materials to the grating location on a fiber can also be use to affect a strain onto the
fiber.
An example is to bond a palladium plate to the grating for measuring the gas hydrogen. Another
example would be to use a magneto-strictive material to make magnetic field measurements.
The civil engineering area has been the most prolific user of FBGs to monitor structures such as
highways, bridges and buildings. Overhead towers for transmission lines can be monitored to
determine their response to wind and ice loading in the field. The temperature aspects of the
monitoring process have not been as prevalent as the strain and pressure monitoring.
Fiberglass and carbon fiber composite materials are found more often than metal in the aerospace
and aeronautics areas. Composites are very lightweight and strong, but they also can have
internal crazing and de-laminations that may not be picked up from surface measurements or
inspection. Optical fibers that have Bragg gratings can be spun and molded with the composite to
become part of the structure itself. This is a built in internal monitoring capability. The concept
of “smart structures” and smart skins thus has come about.
3-16
4
PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
4.0 Introduction
Strain sensors, vibration sensors and acoustic sensors all rely on the application of a pressure to
the sensor head or grating in order to register an effect on the transmitted light. Pressure
monitoring is extremely important in the oil and gas industries, drilling industries and chemical
plants.
Distributed pressure sensing is not yet commercial although there are strain sensors that use
Brillouin scattering in a single mode fiber. On a distributed basis there are micro-bend sensors
and those that are interferometric. Strain seems to be the major measurand since composite
material cracking and fatigue are important to monitor. Hydrostatic pressure monitoring tends to
be at discrete points in most systems. Because hydrostatic pressure on a fiber is fairly well
understood, some sensors are of the fiber Bragg grating variety. The two largest categories that
are discussed below are extrinsic and FBGs sensors. Distributed sensors or intrinsic designs are
discussed briefly below for continuity, however these are not as effective for pressure
measurement.
4.1 Intrinsic Sensors
Micro-bending sensors are those that rely on a pressure induced localized loss of radiative
signature in the fiber that correlates to the extent of the applied pressure (indicated by extreme
attenuation in the monitoring equipment due to the power loss where the pressure is applied).
This is the simplest way of detecting pressure at a point along a continuous fiber. Rayleigh
backscatter is employed in the form of an OTDR to detect those regions of signal loss due to the
bending action of the fiber. This mode of sensing is in essence a radiation attenuation
measurement. A quasi-continuous microbending loss can be introduced in a fiber by stringing it
along a zigzag path attached to a structure. This provides for multiple measurement points
because of the point bends. Another way to get a somewhat continuous effect along the length is
to use a special cladding material that can introduce micro-bending on the fiber when subjected
to outside pressure. One such concept is the use of a spiral jacket material over the fiber that will
produce a localized bend loss when a lateral pressure is applied to the jacket.
A more distributed intrinsic sensing approach uses the internal birefringence property of glass
fiber. Specifically, single mode fiber has the best bi-refringent property. Because this intrinsic
4-1
Pressure Measurements
detection scheme relies on polarization of the backscattered light and not radiation loss
(amplitude or intensity), a polarization OTDR is required.
Polarization optical time-domain reflectometry (PO-OTDR) is a variant of OTDR, which was the
first to be proposed for use in sensing applications. Here the polarization of the Rayleigh
backscattered light in a single mode fiber is detected as a function of time. The birefringence
parameters of single mode fiber are very sensitive to a number of measurands, with pressure
being one of them. Other measurands that can be measured if there is enough of a change in
polarization are strain and electric and magnetic fields. The state of polarization (SOP) of the
backscattered light varies with distance along the fiber. This variation of the standard OTDR
technique is proposed for the distributed monitoring of electric (via the electro-optic Kerr Effect)
and magnetic fields (via the magneto-optic Faraday Effect) as well. These effects on the
polarization of light will be discussed later in the report.
Since the concept of a polarization OTDR is introduced here, it is worth noting the various other
OTDR strategies in use and their respective acronyms.
• Coherent OTDR (CO-OTDR) - The weak returned backscattered signal is mixed with a
strong coherent local oscillator optical signal to provide coherent amplification
• Correlation OTDR (COR-OTDR)
• Low correlation OTDR (LC-OTDR)
• Photon-Counting OTDR (PC-OTDR)
• Optical Frequency-Domain Reflectometry (OFDR)
– OFDR with the frequency scanning (OFDR-FS)
– OFDR with the synthesized coherence function (OFDR-SCF)
• Polarization OTDR (PO-OTDR)
4.2 Extrinsic Sensors
Reflection and transmission mechanisms, total reflection, gratings and photo elastic effects are
all extrinsic systems that can measure pressure. Some sensor heads use small diaphragms that
deflect. The light is then used to measure the degree of deflection and correlated to the external
pressure applied. Micro-machined balance beams and ceramics are other sensor head designs.
Fiber optic sensors that use a micro-mechanical resonator as the sensing element can be used for
measurement of many physical parameters, such as force, temperature, pressure and acceleration.
The operating principle is that the measurand changes the micro-resonator’s natural frequency.
The flexural vibrations of the micro-resonator are excited and detected by light. This optical
approach of using fibers for light transmission offers immunity to electrical problems. The
output of the actual sensor head is a frequency. Because of this output, the line length is really
not a factor. The use of metallic glasses (such as the now famous “Metglas” used for
transformers) as a micro-resonator material opens the possibility for sensing the changes of a
4-2
measured magnetic field and still perform as a pressure sensor as well. The metallic glasses used
in transformers offer magnetic field point measurements. The micro resonant system is an
extrinsic type of sensor.
Figure 4-1
Example micro-resonator in a silicon substrate
The figure above shows an example of a very small micro-resonator built into a silicon substrate.
Shown is #1, the silicon microstructure surrounding frame, #2 is a support beam, #3 is a movable
mass area, and #4 are the micro-resonators.
Other extrinsic pressure sensors that are not as exotic as the micro-resonator use diaphragms and
small beams to relay pressure information over a fiber. An effective way of making a quasi-
distributed sensor system and measuring several pressure locations is to “pigtail sensors onto a
distributed temperature system. In this way each point sensor can be made very accurate due to
knowing the temperature in order to self-calibrate the pressure measurement. This arrangement
uses extremely small ceramic sensor heads. The head has a micron-sized gap in it that responds
to pressure applied to it externally. Light entering the gap is then caused to setup interference
fringes. These interference fringes are then responsible for measuring the pressure through their
shifting. The ceramic heads of these sensors are around ½ inch outside diameter (12 mm.). They
exhibit good response over a wide range as shown below
4-3
Table 4-1
Pressure Measurement Characteristics with a Fiber
Functional ranges 0-18,000psi

3
Individual pressure sensor range 2000
Accuracy + / - 1.5psi
Resolution < 0.05 psi
Stability < 5 psi / year
Range 12,000 meters
The above table reflects the accuracy for making pressure measurements using a distributed
temperature fiber and also as a standalone point sensor connected to a short fiber length. There is
no degradation of performance, although there is a slight signal loss and time delay as the
distance to the point sensor increases.
Figure 4-2
Example of a small gap extrinsic pressure sensor
The figure above shows a small gap extrinsic sensor that could be very useful for utility point
sensing applications in pipe-type cable joints.
3
Pressure range can be extended to 6,000 psi if so required.
4-4
4.3 Fiber Bragg Sensors
FBGs offer a variety of ways to measure pressures. External enhancement tools such as
diaphragms can be attached to the sensing region of the grating. The diaphragm pushes on the
grating, which changes the grating spacing slightly. This in turn changes the coherent
backscattered wavelength. The black box instrumentation then needs to have a small program in
it to determine wavelength with pressure.
A diaphragm places both stress and strain on the fiber it is attached to. This in turn can cause a
birefringence on the backscattered light. The birefringence is made up of a parallel component
and a perpendicular component. These two polarizations need to be taken into account when
measuring pressure since each one will yield a slightly different pressure range for the same
wavelength range. The figure below illustrates the two polarizations and the pressure ranges of
diaphragms the have differing radii to thickness ratios. Each ratio corresponds to a different
pressure range.
Figure 4-3
Wavelength response to pressure applied to three sizes of diaphragms with two
polarizations
FBGs have been looked at as acoustic sensors for the detection of very small pressures. These
sensors are, in essence, acoustic transducers that are responding to sound pressures. The grating’s
response is due to the axial and radial strain caused by the application of hydrostatic pressure.
These sensors are extremely sensitive and can be a considerable an asset to the cable engineer
possibly for detecting insulation partial discharge, cracking or crazing of plastic cable jackets,
detection of singular events such as dig-ins, and other events such as joint movement.
The FBGs sensitivity is on the order of 34 psi for every 0.001 nm of wavelength shift in the
Bragg Grating backscatter. To increase sensitivitity to below the 1 psi range, two coated FBGs
are arranged to form an interferometer. By doing so, acoustic emissions could be detected. This
4-5
is important in the monitoring of composites for crazing (minute crack propagation) in laminated
composite materials. Pressures down to 0.002 psi were detected for an EPRI experiment.
4.4 Application of Pressure Sensors
There are a myriad of industries that already use point or extrinsic sensors. The automobile, oil,
gas, industrial chemicals and processing plants all use these.
Extrinsic sensors for the utility industry could be a valuable monitoring item for the following:
• Transformer Fluid Monitoring
• High Pressure Fluid Filled Cable
• Pot Head or Termination Gas Pressure Sensing
• SF6 Gas Bus and Interruptors
The FBG style of extrinsic sensors can be used in a “pigtail” (e.g., a fiber section with the FBG is
connected on an as-needed basis to the end of a distributed temperature sensing fiber) fashion
and be coupled to a distributed temperature sensor for simultaneous pressure and temperature
monitoring at joints and in the joint casings for high pressure fluid filled cable systems. By using
this approach, a utility could take the concept one step further and monitor for gas chemicals in
the manholes by “pigtailing” in chemical sensors to the distributed temperature sensing fiber.
This is mentioned here and in the next chapter on chemical sensing because fiber Bragg Gratings
can be used as discrete chemical sensors by using sensitive cladding that reacts to certain
chemical species and returns a pressure measuring from the fiber grating by causing a
wavelength shift due to strain.
As for the intrinsic style of fiber sensor; a Brillouin temperature and strain sensor could be pulled
into a pipe-type cable for continuous monitoring over the entire length. Enhancement points can
be made to the cladding material to affect strain changes caused by pressure variations. In this
way pressure drops can be monitored. The temperature and pressure information could be
inputted into hydraulic calculation programs to determine size and location of leakage areas
along the pipe length. In extruded cables, the fiber might be able to detect capacitor discharge
(“thumping”) during fault location. While there is no commercial system available for the utility
use, there are systems provided by the former York Sensors Co. (now called Sensa) for the oil
industry and the undersea cable communications industry.
Taking all of the sensor types into account, the most versatile and easy to employ are the
extrinsic sensors although “pigtails” must be brought back to a central monitoring location.
There are many commercial entities that can supply these, and the instrumentation is less
complicated the less expensive than distributed sensor types.
A versatile sensor configuration when more than one measurand (other than pressure) is being
obtained involves a fiber Bragg grating. Instrumentation is more expensive, but still is easy to
4-6
operate. Bragg gratings at discrete points can be pigtailed into other fibers used for distributed
sensing as well as for communications. Bragg gratings can be used to monitor stresses on
overhead line towers and relay the information over the optical fiber ground wire (OPGW).
One last application of any of these sensor types is intrusion detection. Substations and
generating stations can use pressure and or strain sensing fibers for the detection of intruders.
Security systems can be tied into the fiber optic system to provide for security that is immune to
electric and magnetic interference (e.g., Intelligent Fiber-Optic Sensors Systems, Inc. See
Appendix A).
4-7
5
CHEMICAL MEASUREMENT WITH FIBER-OPTIC
SENSORS
5.0 Introduction
Measurement of chemicals and or component species of chemicals is usually done in a

laboratory environment. The tools of the trade are mass spectrometers, gas chromatographs,
liquid chromatographs, IR and NIR spectroscopy, NMR and many more.
By no means will fiber optic sensing of chemicals take the place of laboratory analyses.
However, these sensing elements and or fibers can make for less expensive and less complex
systems that are field portable.
In the case of hydrocarbons, fiber optic wire is being used to monitor buried tanks, lines and
storage structures for leakage into the surrounding soil. Optosci Ltd. is one company that sells a
distributed hydrocarbon sensor. The sensor comprises a length of proprietary fiber optic cable
addressed by an optical time domain reflectometer (OTDR). The OTDR measures the
distribution of optical power loss with distance along the entire length of the cable up to a
maximum of 2.5km. Hydrocarbons in contact with the cable induce a local power loss, which is
detected and located by the OTDR to a precision of ±2.5m. Cables can be designed for the
detection of almost any petroleum derivative plus many synthetic organic liquids such as
solvents.
There are many other systems that use fibers to make chemical measurements. Most of the
distributed systems rely on a change in refractive index of the fiber, or an effect on a special
cladding. The more high technology sensors use evanescent waves between two sections of
similar fiber to pick up chemical species. An example of this type of measurement is in the
medical field for making oxygen concentration measurement in a patient’s blood.
Fiber-optic hydrocarbon and other chemical sensors have been used for a few years for
monitoring large chemical storage facilities for leaks. The fiber sensor can be “tuned”, so to
speak, for various chemical species. The application for the power industry turns out to be the
easiest chemical to detect; aromatic hydrocarbon fluids.
Point sensing is usually accomplished by passing the light spectra, reflected back for a certain
chemical species, through an optical spectrometer. Ocean Optics out of San Diego, California
makes complete optical systems for making ocean measurements. These are compact rugged
systems that lend themselves to being towed behind boats. Such a setup would most likely detect
5-1
Chemical Measurement with Fiber-Optic Sensors
hydrocarbon fluids emanating from submarine pipe type or self-contained fluid-filled cable
circuits.
Point sensors that use a fluorescent tip to monitor temperature are also used in the chemical
industry. Because optical fiber can withstand harsh chemicals, chemistry labs use fiber-optic
probes to monitor the temperature of electrochemical syntheses and oxidation reactions.
The concept of optical chemical sensing uses the following principles or mechanisms, in
conjunction with the glass fiber:
• Absorption
• Change of index of refraction
• Polarization
• Fluorescence.
5.1 Distributed Non-Intrinsic Chemical Sensing
Distributed sensing of chemicals is usually a non-intrinsic phenomenon. What is meant is that

even though the sensor spans a great distance, the sensing itself is not a property of the glass
fiber. The sensing is more likely a change in property of the cladding material.
Some commercial systems either employ one or two fibers. In the case of the single fiber system,
the cladding material is made up of a composition such that a large attenuation of light occurs in
an area where the cladding reacted to the chemical or chemicals of interest.
Since the only real application for chemical sensing external to underground cable is to sense for
hydrocarbon leaks, the distributed hydrocarbon sensor is very applicable. The only drawbacks
are that it must be installed in the trench when the cable is placed. Also, with fiber leak detection
that uses a swellable cladding, the fiber section exposed to the dielectric liquid must be replaced
when the leak is repaired. Other systems using an evanescent method do not detect the nearby
dielectric liquid through a cladding change, so the leak detection system would have lower
maintenance and repair requirements.
A particular commercial system for hydrocarbon detection has two types or styles of sensor:
• Type I sensors are cut on contact with the contaminant because of swelling and degradation
of the polymer cladding material. An optical time domain reflectometer sends a light pulse
along the cable and measures the amount of time it takes to reflect back to determine the
distance to the cut, and therefore the location of the leak. These cables can monitor distances
of up to 50 miles.
• In type II sensors, contaminants near the fiber effectively change the refraction of light pulses
traveling through the cable. A light emitting diode and a photo detector are used to detect the
leak. This type of sensor is reversible and can be used again after cleanup. This type of cable
can only monitor distances of up to 100 feet because the cables are made of fibers with high
5-2
optical attenuation. The good news is that a low attenuation fiber can be used as the
transmission path over longer lengths where the 100 ft sections of “active sensor” are
pigtailed in.
Type II sensors are also used to monitor storage tanks that contain other types of chemical. The
fibers and the refractive changes can be geared or tailored to the specific application.
As mentioned in the introduction, Optosci, is another commercial company that uses a

proprietary glass fiber to obtain a true distributed chemical sensing and location system. Their
system extends the detection/location range to 2.5 km (1.56 miles).
Since the underground application is to detect and locate hydrocarbon fluid leaks, another optical
fiber(s) system shows some promise since it is the underground equivalent of a “smart skin”
structure. Fiber optic sensors made in a variety of manners are woven into a geo-synthetic fabric
to be laid in a trench; this is called the “smart geo-membrane concept”. The fabric is then
connected to a long length of standard non-sensor fiber to take the data back to a central
processing area.
Geo-synthetic materials are used in some countries to surround XLPE cables with a backfill
material to enhance heat transfer away from the buried circuit. The same fabric material could be
use in a trench for HPFF cable as well. The only difference is the fabric would have optical
sensors distributed throughout its length along the cable. Bragg or FBGs and evanescent wave
sensors can be incorporated. Point sensors could also be used, multiplexed and connected to the
transmission fiber. The figure below is a schematic.
Figure 5-1
A schematic of a geo-synthetic monitoring system
5-3
The use of a fabric membrane brings up other possibilities as well. The use of a surrounding
membrane that contains optical hydrophones or micro-bend sensors could be used to detect
excessive strain over the top of an XLPE cable circuit and possibly the detection of partial
discharge acoustics. The acoustics signature would be enhanced in this particular concept by the
fact that the cable is wrapped in the smart membrane.
5.2 Extrinsic Point Chemical Sensors
Point sensors used for the detection of certain chemical species, sometimes referred to as fiber
optic chemical sensors (FOCS), offer several advantages over traditional sensors. These extrinsic
type sensors are lightweight and small size, and fiber optic sensors are robust and have a strong
immunity to electromagnetic interference. Since the fiber sensors are made of glass, they are
environmentally rugged and can tolerate high temperatures, vibration, shock and they can
operate in extremely harsh conditions.
Extrinsic sensors consist of three main parts: light source, optrode and detector. The main part of
the sensor, the extrinsic head section is referred as an optrode, The optrode or sensor head
contains an appropriate indicator which changes its optical properties in dependence on the
chemical species. In these types of sensors, it is necessary to use a sensing head indicator
because the measurand chemical most likely cannot directly affect the optical properties of the
glass fiber itself. The sensor head indicator can change, for example, absorbance or fluorescence
intensity. The light source is matched to the so-called analytical wavelength of the head. In this
way, the best sensitivity of the sensor can be obtained per chemical species.
The extrinsic sensor head can use a variety of properties to make a chemical concentration
measurement. They can use absorption, phosphorescence, fluorescence, diaphragms and
membranes sensitive to chemicals and hydrocarbons and a newer method that is based on color
changes.
The color-changing sensor is a reversible one which makes it very useful for the detection of
fluid leaks from HPFF cable circuits. The color changes occur when special dyes called
solvatochromic (SV) dyes experience polarity changes, in a similar manner as liquid crystals
(displays, etc.) change dipole polarity in response to an applied electric field. Effectively, the SV
material “senses” the hydrocarbon by the electric field of the incoming light interacting with both
the hydrocarbon and SV dye causing a change in the dipole orientation and the color that
flouresces. The sensor head itself is then made by immobilizing an SV dye in a polymer film
that is coated and then attached to the end of an optical fiber. These SV’s can also be placed
along the length (short length) on the sides of an unclad optical fiber for monitoring a larger area.
The figure below shows such a setup.
5-4
Figure 5-2
Figure showing a robust sensor head arrangement for making chemical measurements.
The dye is the fluorescent material shown.
Environmental engineering groups for monitoring contaminants in water and soils use extrinsic
sensors. These sensors can be configured to measure chemicals and items such as moisture, PH
and airborne gases.
Table 5-1
Commercial Chemical Sensor Companies and Applications
Company Measurement Technique Application

ADC Ltd. Absorption/Interference Multiple Gas sensing
AVL Photronics Fluorescence CO2/Blood Gas Analysis
Biomedical Sensors Fluorescence PH, CO, CO2, O2, Blood Gas
Analysis
CDI/3M Healthcare Fluorescence PH, CO, CO2, O2, Blood Gas
Analysis
Ciencia Inc. Fluorescence Aromatic Monitoring
Fiberchem Inc. Refractive Index/Cladding Hydrocarbon Detection
Lightsense Corporation Fluorescence Medical and Industrial CO2 and
O2 monitoring
Rosemount Analytical Gas Correlation Spectrometry Flue Gases - CO
Seres Spectrometer THC and Nitrate Monitoring in
Water
Servomex NIR Spectrophotometer CO, CO2, CH4, NOX, SOX
Synectics Medical Dual Wavelength Absorption Bile Detection
UOP/Guided Wave NIR Spectrophotometer Petroleum Octane and Total
Aromatics
5-5
Fiber Bragg Gratings are also extremely effective in making measurements as well. This is
discussed in the next section.
5.3 Fiber Bragg Grating Chemical Sensing
Because Bragg gratings respond to strain by returning a coherent reflected wavelength of light,
almost any item that can exhibit a strain field onto the grating can in fact become a sensor.
Claddings that are susceptible to chemical species can be used to place strain onto the grating
and thus become a point sensor using FBGs.
There are a few ways to measure chemicals and more importantly hydrocarbon fluids, using
these gratings:
• The first approach (mentioned above) is done by bonding materials to the fiber grating that
will change shape and exhibit a force upon absorption of a particular chemical. An example
is the use of a very thin palladium wire bonded to the fiber grating for the detection of
hydrogen. Parts per million can be detected like this.
• A second way of detection using gratings is to use an evanescent field approach. This field
will be discussed below in more detail since it is not necessary to use a grating, but
sensitivities are improved when the two are used together. The use of the grating in this
situation does require a special fiber that is “D” shaped. The evanescent field is a component
of the electric vector of light that responds to chemicals by changing the index of refraction.
This in turn changes the grating and produces a wavelength shift from the Bragg wavelength.
• A third sensor uses an optrode, or sensor head that is fluorescent. The fiber is “tapped” so as
to allow the light to exit and enter the fiber after passing through a fluorescent material that
responds to external chemicals. The grating itself is used to measure temperature to help
compensate for the temperature response of the fluorescent dyes. This then becomes a self-
compensating system of point sensors along a fiber length that are all queried via OTDR.
In general, the Bragg sensor has several advantages over all other fiber optic sensors; it is
constructed from a single fiber and its response is linear to the measurand. The Bragg sensor also
has the greater advantage of temperature compensation by overlaying two gratings where one is
for temperature compensation.
5.4 Evanescent Wave Chemical Sensing
Another fiber optic sensing technique that has been gaining popularity is evanescent wave
spectroscopy (EWS). EWS have been extensively applied for studying the chemical reactions
associated with the polymer curing.
Evanescent wave sensors function by passing a light beam through the length of the fiber such
that internal reflections occur at the fiber core-cladding interface. At each reflection, a small
amount of the electric field associated with the light beam (called evanescent wave) actually goes
5-6
beyond the fiber and penetrates the cladding surrounding the fiber. The strength of this
evanescent electric field depends on the refractive indices of the core and cladding, wavelength
of the light beam, and the angle of incidence of the light beam at the core-cladding interface.
These fibers use transparent cladding in most cases. The evanescent wave is set up internally to
the fiber and cladding by “total” internal reflection, so, if the cladding is thin enough or a portion
of the cladding is removed, the evanescent wave can be used to sense the medium in which the
fiber is embedded. If the vibration frequency of the molecules in the surrounding medium
matches with the frequency of the light wave penetrating the medium, the wave is absorbed.
When infrared (IR) radiation is used as the light beam, the absorption becomes more along the
lines of an infrared spectrometer by using absorption bands in the IR spectrum. As a result, the
fiber uses its internal reflections to only allow the e-field of the light to penetrate. This becomes
a total (e.g., infrared, near-infrared and far-infrared) infrared spectrometer with which one can
analyze many types of chemicals that have vibrations tuned to certain IR wavelengths. The
concept in sensing makes for a very powerful chemical analyzing system.
Figure 5-3
Evanescent wave sensor concept for detection of chemical species
The style of evanescent wave sensor shown in the figure uses a thin section in the cladding and is
an absorption technique for determining the chemical through IR spectroscopy.
A very unique means of providing distributed environmental chemistry data and instrumentation
data employs a D-shaped optical fiber. A D-shaped optical fiber consists of a normally circular
single mode fiber with a portion of its cladding removed on one side parallel to the optical axis.
This asymmetrical or half cylinder shape resembles the alphabetical letter "D" when viewed at
the fiber's face. Within this fiber type, a single optical mode propagates and has its IR energy
extending into the cladding as the evanescent wave and subsequent mode field diameter.
Normally this field is a lot closer to the core surface and / or deep within the cladding thickness.
However, because of the D-shaped geometry, the evanescent wave propagates precariously close
to and, in the proximity of, the flat surfaced side. This continuous feature allows for the ambient
conditions and / or chemicals in the vicinity of the "D", to affect the propagating field. The
affects along this fiber type can be measured with the appropriate “black box”, known as an
optical-to-electrical converter.
This “D” shaped evanescent wave system can measure such items as air quality, pollutants,
surface contamination and chemical and biological corrosion on metal pipelines and structures.
Other affects can be measured as well, including pH, blood gases, water chemistry and magnetic
5-7
fields. This sensor system has been developed and used to monitor the presence of pollutants on
high-voltage insulators helping to predict a flashover potential. Researchers at the University of
New Orleans, who have had great success in developing the “D” shaped system, apply this fiber
optic sensing to damage control monitoring and shipboard corrosion monitoring.
Another application on ships is with the U.S. Navy. The Navy has been moving towards the use
of double hull warships. This is similar to oil tanker double hulls. The hulls are separated with
closed cells of expanded metal. The area between the two hulls is thusly, not accessible after the
hulls are built. Since these areas are inaccessible, the Navy is employing corrosion monitoring
inside these hulls, with the sensor systems being inserted when the ship is first manufactured.
Virtually every one of the sensors and types of sensors for measuring chemicals could be
deployed and used by the utility industry. The sensors, whether Bragg type or evanescent or
point, would of course have to be precisely “tuned” to give the right response to the chemical
need for detection and location. All of the technologies discussed in this chapter can be used for
detection and location of hydrocarbon leakage from pipe-type cable systems. Evanescent fibers
under the jacket of XLPE cable could monitor the curing process of the insulation. Likewise, the
sensor could also be tuned to measure moisture ingress under the jacket.
Extrinsic point sensors could be used in manholes for fire and explosion monitoring. If explosive
gas starts to build up in the vault, the point sensor could relay that particular information back to
the operator over an embedded fiber under the jacket as well.
5-8
6
ELECTRIC FIELD MEASUREMENT
6.0 Introduction
Measuring electric fields used to be very difficult since the measuring devices of the past would
also affect the fringe fields around them. By using non-conductive measurement devices, the
fields are less skewed. Many point sensors use a crystal that has a strong Kerr coefficient for
measuring the electric component of electromagnetic fields. The Kerr effect is where certain
materials change the polarization of light entering the medium when the medium is placed in an
electric field. The change in light polarization is dependent on field strength.
Figure 6-1
A typical experimental setup that produces a rotation in polarization plan caused by an
applied field to the cell
Another way of using crystals to measure electric fields is to use a piezo-electric crystal.
Mechanically striking a crystal produces an impulse field, and the reverse is possible – applying
an electric field will produce a mechanical vibration in the crystal.
6-1
Electric Field Measurement
Figure 6-2
Pockels cell setup for measurement of large electric fields showing a change in the
incident light polarization
An electro-optic crystal can have a wide bandwidth for beam modulation. The figure below
shows an alternating field that modulates the beam passing through. This modulation can go
from a few Hertz to tera-Hertz levels.
Figure 6-3
Figure showing an alternating field modulated through an electro-optic crystal
There are other materials and polymers that will respond to an applied field directly. These
would be useful as cladding materials on distributed and Bragg fiber sensor types.
6.1 Distributed Sensors
Intrinsic distributed fiber optic sensing needs to rely on an external cladding to produce a strain
field in the glass. A Brillouin strain / temperature sensor could be configured to measure electric
field strength along the length.
6-2
Some of the cladding materials that could be used would employ an electrostriction effect, a
dielectric effect or a change in the index of refraction. Since this report examines novel
approaches to the problem; a concept used for making artificial muscles seems to be very
appropriate for use as a very sensitive cladding material for either a single distributed sensor and
or a Bragg Grating.
Called ionic polymer metal composites, IPMC’s, these materials are biometric sensors used for
artificial muscles and activation. Strips of these composites can undergo large bending and
flapping displacement if an electric field is imposed across their thickness. Thus, in this sense
they are large motion actuators. Conversely by bending the composite strip either quasi-statically
or dynamically, a voltage is produced across the thickness of the strip. These materials can be
manufactured and cut in any size and shape.
Sometimes referred to as ionic chemo-mechanical deformation of polyelectrolytes, polyacrylic

acid (PAA) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) transduction systems became the first of many
composites used for this purpose. Some of the properties of these IPMC’s are compared below to
other electric field-reacting materials used as muscle actuators.
Table 6-1
IPMC Force, Reaction Speed and Voltage Responses for Actuator Usage
Property Ionic polymer-Metal Shape Memory Alloys Electro active

Composites (IPMC) (SMA) Ceramics (EAC)
Actuation displacement >10% <8% short fatigue life 0.1 - 0.3 %
Force (MPa) 10 - 30 About 700 30-40
Reaction speed Micro-sec to sec Sec to min Micro-sec to sec
Density 1- 2.5 g/cc 5 - 6 g/cc 6-8 g/cc
Drive voltage 4-7V NA 50 - 800 V
Power consumption Watts Watts Watts
Fracture toughness Resilient, elastic Elastic Fragile
6.2 Extrinsic Sensors
Most point sensors or extrinsic sensors make use of either the Kerr effect or an electrostriction
effect of some crystals. Perhaps the most accurate is to use the optics as a Fabry-Perot cavity.
Typical applications for Fabry-Perot cavities to measure field are mainly in the high voltage and
equipment areas:
• Remote measurement of electric fields.
• Monitoring of electrical equipment.
• Measurement of high-voltage outputs from transmission lines.
6-3
The following figure shows an electric field-measuring point sensor that uses a thin membrane
on a silicon substrate to form a Fabry-Perot cavity. This affects the reflected light source coming
out of a fiber optic wire.
Figure 6-4
Example electric field measuring point sensor
Such a sensor can be used to safely measure high voltages and to monitor the performance of
electrical equipment without having to make a hard electrical contact. The sensing mechanism is
based on a Fabry-Perot cavity that consists of two closely spaced, partially transmitting mirrors,
as shown in the above figure. The light reflected from these mirrors is dependent on the spacing
between them. When they are placed in an electric field, a surface charge develops and causes
the spacing to change. The sensor can be calibrated to relate the intensity of the reflected light to
the electric field.
A fiber-optic cable that monitors the light reflected from the cavity interrogates the sensor.
Initially the sensor has demonstrated the ability to measure large fields. It was used to measure
fields of 40 kV/cm and higher. New advances are now continuing to increase the sensitivity of
this type of sensor by making the silicon membrane more compliant. This can be done by
decreasing its thickness, reducing its stress, or using material like silicon nitride.
At the time this report was prepared, SRICO's Inc. of Ohio has been working with NASA on a
fiber optic voltage sensor that could offer improved accuracy in voltage and high voltage
measurements.
A NASA prototype device has also been developed commercially for terrestrial applications.
Among the many commercial uses are;
6-4
• Measurement of electric field and voltage in electric power systems

• Hazardous environments
• Lightning detection in avionics
• Mining
• Fiber optic communications systems
• Non-contact probing of high-speed integrated circuits
• Biomedical engineering and instrumentation
• Charge measurement in photocopiers and ion neutralization systems
This type of integrated optic voltage sensor employs reverse poling technology that permits the
use of simple electrode structures for high voltage sensing without the need for voltage division.
This design eliminates electrical isolation problems between the high voltage system and the
control system. The sensor is immune to electromagnetic interference, thus yielding accurate
measurements over a wide dynamic range.
6.3 Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors
FBG’s or Fiber Bragg Gratings, rely on a change in the strain along the grating area in order to
receive the reflected change in wavelength. The measurement of an electric field then has to use
an outside entity to produce a change in strain. An electrostriction approach yields the desired
result of affecting a strain change.
Some examples of electro-strictive ceramics include, lead magnesium niobate, lead titanate and
lead lanthanum zirconate titanate. These exhibit strain deformation in the presence of an electric
field, along with a hysteresis on the order of 2-3%. They can also achieve positional feedback of
around 10nm and work at voltage frequencies as high as 40kHz. The only disadvantage to these
materials is they are strongly temperature dependent. For example, a material designed to operate
at room temperature may experience a deterioration of up to 50% at 50°C. If used as the
mechanism for FBG’s, then a second FBG would be need to measure the localized temperature
in order to correct for the degradation of the field measurement. Still by using this tandem
approach of measuring the strain field caused by the electrostriction material and the temperature
all at once, a very accurate multiplexed system could be deployed along a power line or cable
system.
The table below shows the electrostriction constants for some polymer and ceramic materials
that could be used as cladding for FBG’s. PMMA is Plexiglas, a common amorphous polymer.
PMMA also exhibits a strong Kerr effect as well.
6-5
Table 6-2
Electrostriction Constants for Polymer and Ceramic Materials
2 2
ES Material ES constant m /V Polymer/Ceramic
α-PMMA -3.7 •10-16 Polymer
s-PMMA -7.7 •10-15 Polymer
i-PMMA -1.5 •10-14 Polymer
PMN-PT 6.0 •10-16 Ceramics
PLZT 6.0 •10-16 Ceramics
While not exactly a distributed sensing system in the purest form, continuous FBG’s can use
doped fibers or special cladding materials that have a response to the electric field along the
length of the fiber. Either the glass is made to have an enhanced Kerr response by doping, or the
cladding is made to have a similar enhancement.
Cladding materials are important components for FBG’s as well as for distributed systems. As
mentioned before, cladding materials made from IPMC’s could be useful for the grating to see an
electric field dependent strain field. Another cladding is a piezoelectric polymer, polyvinylidine
fluoride or PVF2. This material responds directly to an external modulated field. The
piezoelectric effect is small in low field situations, however, given the high voltage environment
the utility industry lives with, the field levels are substantial enough to be accurately measured
along the length.
Some of these materials may be suited for measurement of partial discharges directly by sensing
the high frequency field. Many materials mentioned in this chapter have very high frequency
responses. This holds for all of the sensor technologies; extrinsic, intrinsic and gratings.
In the table and discussion above, PMN is “lead magnesium niobate” and PLZT is “lead ziconate
titanate”, a polycrystalline composite of lead zirconate (PZ) and lead titanate (PT).
6-6
7
MEASURING MAGNETIC FIELDS WITH FIBER-OPTICS
7.0 Introduction
Measuring magnetic fields with an optical sensor is very different than using sensors to measure
pressure, temperature, strain and other characteristics. This is because the magnetic sensor has to
look far a change in the field (differential) as opposed to say a pressure sensor being able to
correlate directly to a specific pressure (absolute measurement). Magnetic sensors (fiber optic or
otherwise) must look for disturbances in magnetic fields that have been created or modified and
from them derive information on properties such as direction, presence, rotation, angle, or
electrical currents. The figure below illustrates the sensing strategy.
Figure 7-1
Illustration of indirect magnetic field sensing
There are several techniques for magnetic field measurement. Depending on the application, an
acoustic sensing system may work better than a magneto-optic or magneto- striction approach.
There have been two sensor technologies studied in the past that offer different advantages:
• Faraday effect sensors offer spatial resolution on the order of a few cubic millimeters with a
sensitivity4 in the low nT/Hz0.5.
• Magneto-strictive sensors offer sensitivity4 below 1pT/Hz0.5 (pic-Tesla / square root of
rotational frequency in Hertz) at frequencies over 500Hz but with larger spatial resolutions
on the order of cubic centimeters.
4
The sensitivity of the magnetic field is measured in nano-Tesla or pico-Tesla but must consider the Faraday
rotation (frequency that the polarization rotates in Hertz). So the Faraday Effect is measured in magnetic field
strength per square root of rotational frequency in Hertz.
7-1
Measuring Magnetic Fields With Fiber-Optics
Magneto-optical effects or devices that use either the Faraday Effect or the Kerr Effect have been
used in the past to make current transformers for measurements on power systems. The Kerr
Effect was described in Section 6 of this report. The Faraday Effect is where there is a change in
the circular polarization of the incident light to that of the opposite polarization. Materials that
exhibit a strong magneto-optic effect are often more effectively used as extrinsic, point type
sensors.
Figure 7-2
Figure showing plane polarized light turned into a Faraday rotation (refracted polarized
rotation) after passing through a magnetic material
For power applications, the need for spatial resolutions less than a few centimeters is not really
needed. Magneto-strictive sensors then would become the more plausible approach for making
field measurements along power cables. Certainly 1pT (pico-Tesla) is enough sensitivity to even
detect magnetic field energy from partial discharges.
Magneto-strictive materials are the magnetic analogues of piezoelectric materials and

electrostriction materials that were discussed in Section 6. As such, they change dimensions
when magnetized. These materials are intrinsically ferromagnetic, i.e. their ratio of magnetic
permeability “µ”, divided by the permeability of free space “µ0” is much greater than 1. There are
also paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials, but these do not produce the necessary changing
dimension with field strength.
In a magneto-strictive material, large magnetic fields (the saturation flux density is typically
around 1T or 10,000 Gauss) will distort the shape of the electron orbit in the material to the
extent that a dimensional change will occur. This change or distortion of the material can be
directly correlated to the intensity of the magnetic field. The only drawback is that it is
independent of the field polarity.
7-2
Materials are said to have positive magneto-striction when the material expands in the direction
of the magnetic field. This results in a transverse constriction. In other words, if a cylinder of
materials lies in the direction of the field lines then the constriction would be radially inward.
The converse applies to negative magneto-strictive materials.
The induced strain has relatively low hysteresis (typically 2-3%), and magneto-strictive elements
can exert high forces (e.g. a 10mm rod operated at 0.1% strain requires a clamping force of
around 4kN (900 lbf. to produce zero displacement). A 0.1% strain is typically about the
maximum strain that can be achieved. Response times to field application are about 1ms, which
is good enough for operation at 60Hz.
Of interest is that these types of materials can be used to convert electrical energy into sound
energy and vice versa. Magneto-striction is the cause of the audible hum heard around
transformer cores in substations and in distribution transformers.
The only disadvantage to these materials is the high cost of production. Raw materials such as
terbium are among the largest contributors to this. These materials are also very brittle and must
be installed carefully.
The best known magneto-strictive material is Terfenol which is a compound consisting of

Terbium (Te) and iron (Fe), and these were first researched at the Naval Ordinance Laboratory,
for ship and submarine detection. Nickel, cobalt and iron are also known to exhibit magneto-
striction, as do some rare earth elements. Nickel and cobalt are negatively magneto-strictive,
whilst iron is positively magneto-strictive in the presence of a weak magnetic field and
negatively magneto-strictive when subjected to stronger magnetic fields.
Magneto-strictive materials are most likely the best for grating type sensors.
7.1 Intrinsic and Distributed Sensors
The measurement of a magnetic field along the length of a distributed sensor has not been
effective to date. The advent of a Brillouin temperature and strain sensor in one fiber leads to
some intriguing possibilities for future development.
The intrinsic nature of the glass fiber is to respond to strain, which causes losses in the fiber. The
strain is caused be bending of the fiber. Work is being done on fabric materials that incorporate
shape memory and magneto-strictive materials within a polymer woven matrix. As discussed
before, Bragg gratings and point sensors had already been incorporated into a geo-synthetic
material. The possibility of a magneto-strictive polymer could become a useful cladding material
for a Brillouin sensor.
Based on a review of available research at the time this report was prepared, there currently is no
true distributed measurement of magnetic field. Multiplexed gratings stretched out along the
7-3
fiber length can make for a quasi-distributed system of sensors; however, this is still not true
intrinsic behavior.
7.2 Extrinsic Point Sensing
The coupling of external sensing probes or sensor heads to optical fiber, for measuring magnetic
field, is very easily accomplished with a wide variety of materials. Magnetic sensing can be
accomplished through use of magnetically affected diaphragms, garnet crystals and even
magneto-rheologic fluids. The following discussion will focus on garnets only.
Iron garnets, such as yttrium iron garnet (YIG), are attractive materials for high-sensitivity
current sensors because their magneto-optic effects are several orders of magnitude larger than
those of glasses. The Faraday Effect is more complicated in these ferrimagnetic materials.
Ferrimagnetic materials are in essence the combining of two ferromagnetic lattice structures.
This produces what is known as twin boundaries. Faraday rotation is linear with applied field for
fields well below a material’s saturation field. Polarization rotation depends not only on material
composition and wavelength, but also on the size and shape of the sensor material.
For an example: a 1mm diameter garnet cylinder, (YIG), has a magneto-optic sensitivity at a
1.3µm wavelength of, 5 x 10-4 Å /(A/m), 833 Å/T to 8x10 –2 Å /(A/m) , (133x10 3 Å/T) at 5 mm
long. This is a variation of 160 times. With proper design, high sensitivity, wide bandwidth, and
high dynamic range sensors can be built.
Many of the same optical materials used as solid state lasers are (or can be) used as extrinsic
sensing elements for magnetic fields due to their strong magneto-optic coefficients. A magnetic
sensing strip of material can be used to look at the changes in light polarization. In the case of
using the Faraday Effect, a linear response is had at low field levels. At higher levels the Kerr
magneto-optic effect comes into play by using a reflection instead of transmission through a
material. A point sensor that would use this technique is illustrated below.
7-4
Figure 7-3
Illustration of of the magneto-optic Kerr effect
The magneto-optic Kerr Effect is most useful in the extrinsic type sensor due to the fact the it
changes the polarization of the incident light in the reflection mode off of a magneto-optic strip
of material.
Macroscopically, an electron in the material feels a Lorentz force in the magnetic field being
measured. This changes the magnetic strip’s dielectric constant that in turn changes the surface
reflectivity. So if incident light is linear polarized, reflected light is elliptically polarized. The
rotation of polarization is known to be proportional to the magnetization of the sample. This can
then be correlated to the field to be measured.
7.3 Fiber Bragg Gratings
As has been discussed in this report, the use of bonded materials to a Bragg grating that can
cause a strain field to be set up is appropriate for use as a FBG sensor. Magneto-strictive
materials can perform this function. Terfenol “D” is probably the more widely known and used,
however, more common items can be useful for an FBG sensor as well.
Nickel is a magneto-strictive material that can be deposited onto the fiber. Amorphous steel (or
the trade name Metglas) is another material useful for sensing. Magnetic field sensors made from
these could be used as excellent methods of measuring current on high voltage transmission
lines.
7-5
Figure 7-4
Figure showing a magneto-strictive element covering a region containing a Bragg grating
If a cyclinder is placed over the grating, a radial compression occurs, causing a strain in the
region of the magneto-strictive element.
A sensor that utilizes a magneto-strictive induced strain onto a FBG looks very similar to the
schematic above. The material that constricts around the grating location is visible in the photo
below. In this case the grating location along the fiber and the magneto-strictive material are
mounted onto a non-conducting polymer bracket.
Figure 7-5
A photograph is shown of a small magneto strictive sensor element
The U.S. Navy’s Naval Research Laboratory has developed a family of fiber optic sensors for
measuring magnetic fields. Their development uses an interferometric method coupled with
7-6
magneto-strictive materials. Fiber optic Fabry-Perot Interferometers are employed as the sensing
device along with the constriction of a Bragg grating. The sensors can detect magnetic signals
over a wide range of frequencies and amplitudes. They are robust, easily manufactured and can
be incorporated with other fiber optic sensors to form multiple sensor arrays. The advantages of
using this type of sensor arrangement are:
• Wide range of measurement frequencies and amplitudes
• Easy formation into sensor arrays
• Compatibility with a variety of fiber-optic sensors
• Compatibility with fiber optic telemetry systems
• All-weather detection and tracking of vehicles
• Can be applied to identification of vehicles
• Can monitor ambient magnetic conditions in hard to reach locations
• Has application to traffic control in streets harbors and airport runways
7.4 Other Items of Interest for Measurement of Magnetic Fields
7.4.1 Magneto-strictive Elastomers
Midé, a materials spin-off company from MIT, has developed a magneto-strictive active rubber
material to improve the passive and active isolation performance of rubber, the preferred
engineering solution for vibration isolation. Magneto-striction, as mentioned above, is the
phenomena characterized by a material changing its length when placed in an electro-magnetic
field. Essentially, the material generates an electro-magnetic field when it is deformed by
external forces (this is a reversible phenomenon). With a Magneto-strictive Active Rubber
Isolation Mount (MARIM), the passive isolation provided by a rubber mount is augmented by
the ability to actively compensate for static load, reject narrow-band disturbances through
notching, adapt control for varying environments, etc. Selectively adding magneto-strictive
properties to rubber is an attractive and innovative approach to enhance both the passive and
active isolation characteristics of rubber.
Figure 7-6
Illustration of indirect magnetic field sensing
7-7
Magneto-strictive rubber materials for engine mount isolation are shown above. If successful, a
rubber coating or cladding could be produced for fiber optic strands.
7.4.2 Ferromagnetic Shape Memory Alloys, “FSMA”
Shape memory effects can be found in more than fifty alloy systems. Today, however, only the
Ni-Ti based shape memory alloys are important for medical applications, and the ternary alloys
are pertinent to thermo-activated actuators and magnetic actuators caused by magneto-striction.
The basic mechanics governing the properties of SMA is a change in crystal structure: a
martensitic structure transforms at a predetermined temperature. Likewise, because of a twin
boundary in ternary alloys, a magnetic field can move the boundary and cause a mechanical
deformation.
Ferromagnetic shape memory alloys (FSMA’s) are an attractive new class of active materials
that have shown very large magnetic-field-induced strains (6%) in single-crystal form. FSMA's
have been observed with blocking stresses ranging from 1 to 10 MPa. The mechanism by which
these materials strain is field-induced twin-boundary motion as opposed to magnetization
rotation relative to the crystallographic axes in the case of Terfenol D.
Shape-memory alloys are characterized by significant dimensional changes. They compete with
piezoelectric and magneto-strictive materials in many smart-material and actuator applications.
Shape memory materials can exhibit large strains but are typically activated by a temperature
change. This mode of actuation is inefficient and has strict frequency limitations.
Figure 7-7
Example shape memory alloy
Shape memory alloys based on nickel have been investigated for approximately 30 years.
Magneto-striction was primarily researched for use as thermal recovery and heat engines, but
research in the last few years has shown promise for magneto-striction. These alloys (as shown
in the figure above) have twin boundaries, which react, to an applied field.
7-8
Figure 7-8
Shape memory alloy with and without applied magnetic field
Figure 7-8 shows the effect of an applied magnetic field. In the left part of the figure, a 26 mm
long crystal of Ni-Mn-Ga alloy at room temperature with no applied magnetic field. In the right
part of the figure, the same sample after application of a field of order 0.4T by a permanent
magnet. The metallic sample exhibits a 5° kink at the twin boundary.
7-9
8
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
8.0 Summary
There is no one system to meet all of the sensing requirements for power cable applications.
However, with the many commercial systems available today, a utility could piece together a
combination of intrinsic and extrinsic devices that could become a cable condition monitoring
system.
With hundreds of available sensor and sensor types available today, it should be fairly easy to
put together an adequate monitoring and diagnostic system for cable circuits. Many of the
distributed and FBG sensors appear to have direct application to cross-linked cable.
Temperature, electric field, pressure/vibration and chemical are all elements that would be worth
monitoring.
Temperature monitoring is an obvious application and the first to be used widely on power cable
systems. Electric fields could be important to monitor in XLPE because of partial discharge
activity. The same is true with the vibration measurands since this can be correlated to acoustic
pressure. The two together (electric and vibration) provide for redundancy in measurement that
may be fairly accurate. The measurement of chemistry for XLPE could give information as to
contaminant ingress into the insulation shield. Water and or cross-linking byproducts may
provide important degradation information.
FBG’s can be “pig-tailed” to the fiber optic wire under the shield of an XLPE cable. In this way,
gratings can monitor the ambient surroundings to provide important information as to volatile
gas build up in manholes, as well as, to measurement of temperature of the cable inside the duct.
For self-contained and high pressure fluid filled circuits, the sensing of and the location of
hydrocarbon leaks is important. The hydrocarbon sensing technology employed with fiber optics
is a winning combination. The combination provides for alarm, detection and very accurate
location. The only drawback is a means of retrofitting existing installations. New installations
could be instrumented with sensing fibers at the time of construction and installation.
A complete diagnostics and monitoring system that can span substation, over head line and
underground cable areas would be the most logical approach. The sensors are either fiber wire or
some phosphor material. It is the interpretation / interrogation system that runs that is the greatest
cost for these systems. If one or a few “black boxes” can be tied into a multiplexed sensor array
8-1
Conclusions and Recommendations
spanning a transmission system, then the larger cost components can be centralized to distribute
the sunk cost over a large area.
Specifically related to magnetic field sensing, magnetic field measurement is plausible using
point sensing and or FBG’s, but there doesn’t appear to be any good sources of intrinsic
distributed sensors that can do the job.
In this report, all of the measurands identified in the previous chapters were either measured
directly or correlated through an intermediate process for all sensor types. Magnetic fields are
the hold out.
In the power industry there are many manufacturers of optical current sensors. These tend to be
large bulky boxes compared to the miniature sensors presented in this report. As a result, these
current sensors are not useful for underground cable application.
The measurement of magnetic fields seems to be the most recent research in the area of optical
sensing. A good example is shape memory alloys. These were first observed in the 1930’s. In
1961 nickel was studied for its magneto-striction properties. It wasn’t until Nitinol, NiTi, which
is nickel and titanium, was discovered in the early 1980’s, that shape memory started to take off
as a commodity worth further investigation.
With continued research into the Ni-alloys, it wasn’t until the 1990’s that the relation of nickel’s
magneto-striction and shape memory alloys were tied together.
With so many variants of alloy, it would be worth a further look at materials aspects and
composites in the future that may be much more directly applicable to underground transmission
and power engineering.
Regarding ongoing research, the most useful technologies for distributed fiber sensing are:
• Temperature measurement – Raman-based temperature measurement systems are
commercially available using either single or multi-mode fiber with fairly good range of up
to 10km. Bragg gratings or other fiber techniques could be applied to provide better spatial
resolution for sensitive portions of underground circuits to improve temperature details at
critical locations. Any new technology would have to either improve on the maximum range
of temperature sensing (maintaining meter or better spatial resolution). A Bragg grating
combined with single-mode fiber would give selecting accuracy with a range – 30km – more
typical of single-mode Raman-based systems.
• Partial Discharge Detection – Detecting partial discharges in extruded cables might offer
commercial interest for some applications. If power cable manufacturing could routinely
incorporate fibers for partial discharge detection, this would be possible. The fiber would
have to located close to the cable core – probably under the metallic sheath – which would
mean the use of the technology would have to initiate from the time of cable design.
8-2
Conclusions and Recommendations
• Leak Detection – Fiber coatings that react to fluorocarbons would be invaluable to leak
detection systems on pipe-type and self-contained cables, particularly those methods utilizing
an evanescent method that essentially makes the leak detection fiber “self healing” after the
dielectric liquid is cleaned following a leak repair.
8-3
9
REFERENCES
The following references were used for this report:
Chapter 1
1. Jasenek, J., “The Theory and Applications of Fiber Optic Sensors with Spread
Parameters”,Slovak University of Technology, Bratislava, Slovakia, 2003
Chapter 2
2. Dakin and B.Culshaw (Eds.), "Optical Fiber Sensors, Principles and Components", Vol. I
& II , Artech House, Boston 1988.
3. D.B.Keck, “Optical Sensors and Specialty Fibers, Chapter 6 of “Optoelectronics in Japan

and the United States”, National Science Foundation & Japanese technology Evaluation
Center, 1996
4. J.Dakin, B. Culshaw, “Optical Fiber Sensors, Applications, Analysis and Future Trends”,
Vol. 4, Artech House, Boston 1997.
5. ChenYang- “Sensors, Magnetics and Measurements”, German Research Center for Earth
Sciences, Potsdam
6. unknown, “Distributed Measurement of Temperature, Moisture and Strain for Civil

Engineering Application Using a Fiber-Optic Sensor”, Lehigh University & Drexel
University, Sponsor NSF, 2002
7. Jozef Jasenek, The Theory and Application of Fiber Optic Sensors with Spread
Parameters”, “A brief overview and classification of the fiber optic sensors”, Bratislava,
EAEEIE Organization, Slovakia
8. Chen Yang, “Fiber Optic Bragg-Grating Sensors”, German Research Center for Earth
Sciences, Potsdam
9. A. Krispin, “Fiber Bragg Grating Summary, EE558, April 2000
9-1
References
Chapter 3
10. G. Pitt. 1990. “Optical Fiber Sensors,” Fiber Optics Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York.
11. ebrochure from Sensor Tran, Division of SPEC, Austin, TX
12. Kazuo Hotate , Masato Tanaka, “Correlation-based continuous-wave techniques provide

high spatial resolution for distributed fiber-optic sensing”, OE Magazine, The
International Society for Optical Engineering, Nov.2001
13. J. Stokes, G. Palmer, “A Fiber-Optic Temperature Sensor”, Sensor Technology and

Design, Sensors Online, August 2002
14. point sensor specs
15. D.J.F. Cooper, P.Smith, Time Division Multiplexing of a Serial Fiber Bragg Grating
Strain Sensor Array, University of Toronto
Chapter 4
16. Sensa Organization, “Multipoint Pressure Sensing”, Sensa Systems Reference 1000,
09/25/2000
17. Physics@ nad.ru, Siltec Fiber-optic Systems Components, Russia
18. Luna Sensors, Luna Innovations, Blacksburg, Virginia
19. W.Morey, “Development of Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors for Utility Applications”, EPRI
Report # TR-105190, September 1995
Chapter 5
20. Borns, D. J.“Geo-membrane with incorporated optical fiber sensors for geo-technical and
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1997
21. Optical Chemical Sensor, Lawrence Livermore Laboratories National Lab
22. J.Dakin, B. Culshaw, S. Crossly, “Optical Fiber Sensors, Applications, Analysis and
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Boston 1997.
23. V. Kapila, L. Kjerengtroen, W. M. Cross et. al. , “Strain Monitoring by Evanescent Wave
Spectroscopy”, National Science Foundation under Grant #CMS-9453467, South Dakota
School of Mines and Technology. 2000
9-2
References
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25. Omni Technology, Inc., University of New Orleans, GCRMTC Concept. For Ship Board
Monitoring.
Chapter 6
26. R. Besancon, “The Encyclopedia of Physics”, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1974
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Michigan 48108, 2003
29. M. Shahinpoor, Y. Bar-Cohen, J.O. Simpson and J. Smith, “Ionic Polymer-Metal

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Chapter 7
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Technology Transfer Office, Code 1004, 4555 Overlook Avenue, SW • Washington, DC
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9-3
A
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
A.1 Companies, Contacts, Sources and Manufacturers
A.1.1 Companies / Manufacturers
Airak, Inc.
9058 Euclid Ave.
Manassas Virginia, 20110
Astro Technology, Inc

Ellington Field,
Houston, TX.
Boeing
100 N. Riverside
Chicago, IL. 60606
Extrema-USA,
2500 North Loop Dr
Zes, IA 50010
Fibercore Limited
University Parkway, Chilworth Science Park
Southhampton, Hampshire, 50167QQ
United Kingdom
Future Fiber Technologies, Inc.

1311 Londontown Blvd, Suite121, Unit 110
Eldersburg, MD 21784
and
10 Harnett Close
Mulgrave, Victoria, 3170
Australia
Fysel / Norwegian University of Science and Technology

Trondheim, Norway
A-1
Background Information
Intelligent Fiber-Optic Sensor Systems, Inc

Division of Perimax GmbH
Lothar Guttstein
Am Hang 8
24238 Selent
Mide, Corporation
200 Boston Ave,
Suite 1000 Medford,
MA 02155 U.S.A
NXT Phase, Inc

3040 East Broadway
Vancouver BC V5M 1Z4
and
2075 W. Pinnacle Peak Road, Suite 100
Phoenix, AZ 85027-1215
Northropt-Grumman
Woodland Hills
California
Opteos, Inc
1340 Eisenhower Place
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48108
Optisense
Private Road 1400
Bridgeport, TX 76426
Opto-Electronics Magazine – SPIE, The International Society for Optical Engineering

17 Old Nashua Rd., Suite 25
Amherst, NH 03031
Optosci Ltd.
141 St. James Road
Glasgow G4 0LT
Scotland
Optrand
Plymouth, Michigan 48170, USA
Sabeus Sensor Systems

20630 Nordhoff St
Chatsworth, CA 91311 USA
A-2
Safibra
Polických v z 1233
251 01 í any
Sensa Organization
Gamma House, Chilworth Science Park,
Southampton, Hampshire,
SO 16 7NS
and
7030 Ardmore Street
Houston
Texas 77054
Sensors Magazine
1 Phoenix Mill Lane
Peterborough, NH 03458
Siltec, LTD.
Russia
SPA
Systems Planning and Analysis, Inc.
2000 North Beauregard St., Suite 400
Alexandria, Virginia 22311
SRICO, Inc
2724 Sawbury Blvd
Columbus, Ohio, 43235
Technology Enhancement Corporation

399 Pearl Street
Woodbridge, New Jersey 07095
Wikipedia Organization – An Internet Encyclopedia
A.1.2 University / Government Sources
Azom, Institute of Materials
California State University at San Jose

San Jose, Ca
A-3
CIRL; Canadian Instrumentation Research Ltd

E8-1155 Appleby Line,Burlington,
Ontario Canada L7L 5H9
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)

Joint Program Steering Group, Arlington, Virginia
Drexel University
3141 Chestnut Street
Philadelphia, PA 19104
EAEEIE: Electrical and Information EngineeRing in Europe, Slovak University of Technology

in Bratislava, Slovakia
Federal Highway Administration
Jet Propulsion Laboratory

Pasadena. CA
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

Livermore, CA
Lehigh University
27 Memorial Drive West
Bethlehem, Pa. 18015
Massachusetts Institute Of Technology

77 Massachusetts Avenue
Cambridge, MA 02139-4307
National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Langley Research Center
Langley, Virginia
Naval Research Laboratory

4555 Overlook Avenue, S.W
Washington DC 20375-5326
Sandia National Laboratory

Albuquerque, NM
South Dakota School of Mines and Technology

501 East Saint Joseph Street
Rapid City, SD 57701
A-4
U.S. Government Office of Science and Technology

Office of Science and Technology Policy
Executive Office of the President
Washington, DC 20502
United States Navy

Naval Command, Control and Ocean Surveillance Center,
In ServiceEngineering -East (NISE East)
P.O. Box 190022
North Charleston, South Carolina 29419-902
University of New Orleans

2000 Lakeshore Drive
New Orleans, LA 70148
University of Technology, Bratislava, Slovakia

Vazovova 5 812 43
Bratislava 1
Slovakia
University of Toronto
Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5S 1A1
Virginia Tech
Fiber & Electro-Optics Research Center, Virginia Tech
106 Plantation Road MC 0356
Virginia Tech Blacksburg VA 24061
A.1.3 Other Information Sources
Electric Power Research Institute
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers-Lasers & Electro-optics Society
Association of State Dam Safety Officials
Fiber Optics Handbook, McGraw-Hill, NY
Journal of Applied Physics / Applied Physics Letters
Optical Fiber Sensors, Vol. 4, Artech House, Boston
Handbook of Physical Calculations, McGraw-Hill, NY
Solid State Physics, W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia

A-5
Chemical and Biochemical Sensing With Optical Fibers and Waveguides, Artech House, Boston
Photonics Technology Letters, Lasers & Electro-optics Society 2000, 2002, 2002 Databases.
A-6
B
GLOSSARY OF OPTICS TERMS
Absorption: That portion of optical attenuation in optical fiber resulting from the conversion of
optical power to heat, and is caused by impurities in the fiber such as hydroxyl ions.
Acceptance Angle: The half-angle of the cone within which incident light is totally internally
reflected by the fiber core. It is equal to sin-1(NA).
AM: See amplitude modulation.
Amplifier: A device that boosts the strength of an electronic signal. In a cable system, amplifiers
are spaced at regular intervals throughout the system to keep signals picture-perfect no matter
where you live.
Amplitude Modulation (AM): A transmission technique in which the amplitude of the carrier is
varied in accordance with the signal.
Angstrom (Å): A unit of length in optical measurements where:

1Å =10-10 meters, =10-4 micrometers, =10-1 nanometers.
The angstrom has been used historically in the field of optics, but it is not an SI (International
System) unit. Rarely used in fiber optics; nanometers is preferred.
Angular Misalignment: Loss at a connector due to fiber end face angles being misaligned.
Anti-Stokes Band: See Stokes Band
APC: Angle polished connector. An 5°-15° angle on the connector tip for the minimum possible
backreflection.
AR Coating: Antireflection coating. A thin, dielectric or metallic film applied to an optical

surface to reduce its reflectance and thereby increase its transmittance.
Asynchronous: Data that is transmitted without an associated clock signal.
B-1
Glossary of Optics Terms
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM): A digital transmission switching format, with cells
containing 5 bytes of header information followed by 48 data bytes. Part of the B-ISDN
standard.
Attenuation: The decrease in signal strength along a fiber optic waveguide caused by absorption
and scattering. Attenuation is usually expressed in dB/km.
Attenuation Constant: For a particular propagation mode in an optical fiber, the real part of the
axial propagation constant.
Attenuation-Limited Operation: The condition in a fiber optic link when operation is limited
by the power of the received signal (rather than by bandwidth or distortion).
Attenuator: 1) In electrical systems, a usually passive network for reducing the amplitude of a
signal without appreciably distorting the waveform. 2) In optical systems, a passive device for
reducing the amplitude of a signal without appreciably distorting the waveform.
Avalanche Photodiode (APD): A photodiode that exhibits internal amplification of

photocurrent through avalanche multiplication of carriers in the junction region.
Average Power: The average level of power in a signal that varies with time.
Axial Propagation Constant: For an optical fiber, the propagation constant evaluated along the
axis of a fiber in the direction of transmission.
Axis: The center of an optical fiber.
Backscattering: The return of a portion of scattered light to the input end of a fiber; the
scattering of light in the direction opposite to its original propagation.
Bandwidth: The range of frequencies within which a fiber optic waveguide or terminal device
can transmit data or information.
Bandwidth-Limited Operation: The condition in a fiber optic link when bandwidth, rather than
received optical power, limits performance. This condition is reached when the signal becomes
distorted, principally by dispersion, beyond specified limits.
Baseband: A method of communication in which a signal is transmitted at its original frequency

without being impressed on a carrier.
Baud: A unit of signaling speed equal to the number of signal symbols per second, which may or
may not be equal to the data rate in bits per second.
B-2
Beamsplitter: An optical device, such as a partially reflecting mirror, that splits a beam of light
into two or more beams. Used in fiber optics for directional couplers.
Bel (B): The logarithm to the base 10 of a power ratio, expressed as B = log10(P1/P2), where P1
and P2 are distinct powers. The decibel, equal to one-tenth bel, is a more commonly used unit.
Bending Loss: Attenuation caused by high-order modes radiating from the outside of a fiber
optic waveguide which occur when the fiber is bent around a small radius. See also
macrobending, microbending.
Bend Radius: The smallest radius an optical fiber or fiber cable can bend before increased
attenuation or breakage occurs.
Bidirectional: Operating in both directions. Bidirectional couplers operate the same way
regardless of the direction light passes through them. Bidirectional transmission sends signals in
both directions, sometimes through the same fiber.
Birefringent: Having a refractive index that differs for light of different polarizations.
Bit: The smallest unit of information upon which digital communications are based; also an
electrical or optical pulse that carries this information.
Bit Error Rate (BER): The fraction of bits transmitted that are received incorrectly.
BNC: Popular coax bayonet style connector. Often used for baseband video.
Broadband: A method of communication where the signal is transmitted by being impressed on

a high-frequency carrier.
Buffer: 1) In optical fiber, a protective coating applied directly to the fiber. 2) A routine or
storage used to compensate for a difference in rate of flow of data, or time of occurrence of
events, when transferring data from one device to another.
Butt Splice: A joining of two fibers without optical connectors arranged end-to-end by means of
a coupling. Fusion splicing is an example.
BW: See bandwidth.
Byte: A unit of eight bits.
Cable: One or more optical fibers enclosed within protective covering(s) and strength members.
Cable Assembly: A cable that is connector terminated and ready for installation.
B-3
Carrier-to-Noise Ratio: The ratio, in decibels, of the level of the carrier to that of the noise in a
receiver's IF bandwidth before any nonlinear process such as amplitude limiting and detection
takes place.
Center Wavelength: In a laser, the nominal value central operating wavelength. It is the
wavelength defined by a peak mode measurement where the effective optical power resides. In
an LED, the average of the two wavelengths measured at the half amplitude points of the power
spectrum.
Chirp: In laser diodes, the shift of the laser's central wavelength during single pulse durations
due to laser instability.
Chromatic Dispersion: All fiber has the property that the speed an optical pulse travels depends
on its wavelength. This is caused by several factors including material dispersion, waveguide
dispersion and profile dispersion. The net effect is that if an optical pulse contains multiple
wavelengths (colors), then the different colors will travel at different speeds and arrive at
different times, smearing the received optical signal.
Cladding: Material that surrounds the core of an optical fiber. Its lower index of refraction,
compared to that of the core, causes the transmitted light to travel down the core.
Cladding Mode: A mode confined to the cladding; a light ray that propagates in the cladding.
Cleave: The process of separating an optical fiber by a controlled fracture of the glass, for the
purpose of obtaining a fiber end, which is flat, smooth, and perpendicular to the fiber axis.
CMOS: Complementary metal oxide semiconductor. A family of IC's. Particularly useful for
low-speed or low-power applications.
CNR: See carrier-to-noise ratio.
Coating: The material surrounding the cladding of a fiber. Generally a soft plastic material that
protects the fiber from damage.
Coherent Communications: In fiber optics, a communication system where the output of a

local laser oscillator is mixed optically with a received signal, and the difference frequency is
detected and amplified.
Concatenation: The process of connecting pieces of fiber together.
Concentrator: A multiport repeater.
Concentricity: The measurement of how well-centered the core is within the cladding.
B-4
Connector: A mechanical or optical device that provides a demountable connection between

two fibers or a fiber and a source or detector.
Connector Plug: A device used to terminate an optical conductor cable.
Connector Receptacle: The fixed or stationary half of a connection that is mounted on a

panel/bulkhead. Receptacles mate with plugs.
Connector Variation: The maximum value in dB of the difference in insertion loss between
mating optical connectors (e.g., with remating, temperature cycling, etc.). Also called optical
connector variation.
Core: The light-conducting central portion of an optical fiber, composed of material with a
higher index of refraction than the cladding. The portion of the fiber that transmits light.
Counter-Rotating: An arrangement whereby two signal paths, one in each direction, exist in a
ring topology.
Coupler: An optical device that combines or splits power from optical fibers.
Coupling Ratio/Loss (CR,CL): The ratio/loss of optical power from one output port to the total
output power, expressed as a percent. For a 1 x 2 WDM or coupler with output powers O1 and
O2, and Oi representing both output powers:
CR(%) = (Oi/(O1 + O2)) x 100% and CR(%) = -10•log10 (Oi/(O1 + O2)).
Critical Angle: In geometric optics, at a refractive boundary, the smallest angle of incidence at
which total internal reflection occurs.
Cutback Method: A technique of measuring optical fiber attenuation by measuring the optical
power at two points at different distances from the test source.
Cutoff Wavelength: In single-mode fiber, the wavelength below which the fiber ceases to be
single-mode.
CW: Abbreviation for continuous wave. Usually refers to the constant optical output from an
optical source when it is biased (i.e., turned on) but not modulated with a signal.
dB: Decibel.
dBc: Decibel relative to a carrier level.
dBµ: Decibels relative to microwatt.
B-5
dBm: Decibels relative to milliwatt.
Decibel (dB): A unit of measurement indicating relative optic power on a logarithmic scale.
Often expressed in reference to a fixed value, such as dBm (1 milliwatt) or dBµ (1 microwatt).
dB = 10•log10 (P1/P2)
Demultiplexer: A module that separates two or more signals previously combined by

compatible multiplexing equipment.
Detector: An opto-electric transducer used in fiber optics to convert optical power to electrical
current. Usually referred to as a photodiode.
DFB: See distributed feedback laser.
DG: See differential gain.
Diameter-Mismatch Loss: The loss of power at a joint that occurs when the transmitting fiber
has a diameter greater than the diameter of the receiving fiber. The loss occurs when coupling
light from a source to fiber, from fiber to fiber, or from fiber to detector.
Dichroic Filter: An optical filter that transmits light according to wavelength. Dichroic filters
reflect light that they do not transmit.
Dielectric: Any substance in which an electric field may be maintained with zero or near-zero
power dissipation. This term usually refers to non-metallic materials.
Differential Gain: A type of distortion in a video signal that causes the brightness information
to be distorted.
Differential Phase: A type of distortion in a video signal that causes the color information to be
distorted.
Diffraction Grating: An array of fine, parallel, equally spaced reflecting or transmitting lines
that mutually enhance the effects of diffraction to concentrate the diffracted light in a few
directions determined by the spacing of the lines and by the wavelength of the light.
Diode: An electronic device that lets current flow in only one direction. Semiconductor diodes
used in fiber optics contain a junction between regions of different doping. They include light
emitters (LED's and laser diodes) and detectors (photodiodes).
Diode Laser: Synonymous with injection laser diode.
DIP: Dual in-line package.
Diplexer: A device that combines two or more types of signals into a single output.
B-6
Directional Coupler: A coupling device for separately sampling (through a known coupling
loss) either the forward (incident) or the backward (reflected) wave in a transmission line.
Directivity: See near-end crosstalk.
Dispersion: The temporal spreading of a light signal in an optical waveguide caused by light
signals traveling at different speeds through a fiber either due to modal or chromatic effects.
Dispersion-Shifted Fiber: Standard single-mode fibers exhibit optimum attenuation

performance at 1550 nm and optimum bandwidth at 1300 nm. Dispersion-shifted fibers are made
so that both attenuation and bandwidth are optimum at 1550 nm.
Distortion: Nonlinearities in a unit that cause harmonics and beat products to be generated.
Distortion-Limited Operation: Generally synonymous with bandwidth-limited operation.
Distributed Feedback Laser (DFB): An injection laser diode which has a Bragg reflection
grating in the active region in order to suppress multiple longitudinal modes and enhance a single
(clean) longitudinal mode.
Dominant Mode: The mode in an optical device spectrum with the most power.
Double-Window Fiber: This term is used two ways. For multimode fibers, the term means that
the fiber is optimized for 850 nm and 1300 nm operation. For single-mode fibers, the term means
that the fiber is optimized for 1300 nm and 1550 nm operation.
DP: See differential phase.
Duplex Cable: A two-fiber cable suitable for duplex transmission.
Duplex Transmission: Transmission in both directions, either one direction at a time (half-
duplex) or both directions simultaneously (full-duplex).
EDFA: See Erbium-doped fiber amplifier.
Edge-Emitting Diode: An LED that emits light from its edge, producing more directional output
than surface-emitting LED's that emit from their top surface.
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): Any electrical or electromagnetic interference that

causes undesirable response, degradation, or failure in electronic equipment. Optical fibers
neither emit nor receive EMI.
B-7
Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR): Radiation made up of oscillating electric and magnetic

fields and propagated with the speed of light. Includes gamma radiation, X-rays, ultraviolet,
visible, and infrared radiation, and radar and radio waves.
Electromagnetic Spectrum: The range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation from zero to

infinity.
ELED: See edge-emitting diode.
Ellipticity: Describes the fact that the core or cladding may be elliptical rather than circular.
EMD: See equilibrium mode distribution.
EMI: Electromagnetic interference.
EMP: Electromagnetic pulse.
EMR: Electromagnetic radiation.
E/O: Abbreviation for electrical-to-optical converter.
EOM: Electro-Optic Modulator
Equilibrium Mode Distribution (EMD): The steady modal state of a multimode fiber in which
the relative power distribution among modes is independent of fiber length.
Erbium-Doped Fiber (EDF) Amplifier: Optical fibers doped with the rare earth element
erbium, which can amplify light in the 1550 nm region when pumped by an external light source.
Evanescent Wave: Light guided in the inner part of an optical fiber's cladding rather than in the
core.
Excess Loss: In a fiber optic coupler, the optical loss from that portion of light that does not
emerge from the nominal operation ports of the device.
External Modulation: Modulation of a light source by an external device that acts like an
electronic shutter.
Extinction Ratio: The ratio of the low, or OFF optical power level (PL) to the high, or ON
optical power level (PH).
Extinction Ration (%) = (PL/PH) x 100
Extrinsic Loss: In a fiber interconnection, that portion of loss not intrinsic to the fiber but
related to imperfect joining of a connector or splice.
B-8
Fall Time: Also called turn-off time. The time required for the trailing edge of a pulse to fall
from 90% to 10% of its amplitude; the time required for a component to produce such a result.
Typically measured between the 80% and 20% points or alternately the 90% and 10% points.
Faraday Effect: A phenomenon that causes some materials to rotate the polarization of light in
the presence of a magnetic field parallel to the direction of propagation. Also called magneto-
optic effect.
Far-End Crosstalk: See wavelength isolation.
FC: A threaded optical connector that originated in Japan. Good for single-mode or multimode
fiber and applications requiring low backreflection.
FC/PC: See FC. A special curved polish on the connector for very low backreflection.
FDM: See frequency-division multiplexing.
Ferrule: A rigid tube that confines or holds a fiber as part of a connector assembly.
FET: Field-effect transistor.
Fiber Grating: An optical fiber in which the refractive index of the core varies periodically
along its length, scattering light in a way similar to a diffraction grating, and transmitting or
reflecting certain wavelengths selectively.
Fiber Optic Attenuator: A component installed in a fiber optic transmission system that
reduces the power in the optical signal. It is often used to limit the optical power received by the
photodetector to within the limits of the optical receiver.
Fiber Optic Cable: A cable containing one or more optical fibers.
Fiber Optic Gyroscope: A coil of optical fiber that can detect rotation about its axis.
Fiber Optic Link: A transmitter, receiver, and cable assembly that can transmit information
between two points.
Fiber Optic Span: An optical fiber/cable terminated at both ends which may include devices
that add, subtract, or attenuate optical signals.
Fiber Optic Subsystem: A functional entity with defined bounds and interfaces which is part of
a system. It contains solid state and/or other components and is specified as a subsystem for the
purpose of trade and commerce.
B-9
Filter: A device which transmits only part of the incident energy and may thereby change the
spectral distribution of energy.
FIT Rate: Number of device failures in one billion device hours.
Fluoride Glasses: Materials that have the amorphous structure of glass but are made of fluoride
compounds (e.g., zirconium fluoride) rather than oxide compounds (e.g., silica). Suitable for
very long wavelength transmission.
FM: See frequency modulation.
FOG-M: Fiber optic guided missile.
FOTP: See fiber optic test procedure.
FP: Fabry-Perot. Generally refers to a type of laser.
Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM): A method of deriving two or more simultaneous,

continuous channels from a transmission medium by assigning separate portions of the available
frequency spectrum to each of the individual channels. In optical communications, one also
encounters wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) involving the use of several distinct
optical sources (lasers), each having a distinct center wavelength.
Frequency Modulation (FM): A method of transmission in which the carrier frequency varies
in accordance with the signal.
Fresnel Reflection Loss: Reflection losses at the ends of fibers caused by differences in the
refractive index between glass and air. The maximum reflection caused by a perpendicular air-
glass interface is about 4% or about -14 dB.
FSK: Frequency shift keying. A method of encoding data by means of two or more tones.
Full-Duplex: Simultaneous bidirectional transfer of data.
Fused Coupler: A method of making a multimode or single-mode coupler by wrapping fibers

together, heating them, and pulling them to form a central unified mass so that light on any input
fiber is coupled to all output fibers.
Fused Fiber: A bundle of fibers fused together so they maintain a fixed alignment with respect
to each other in a rigid rod.
Fusion Splicer: An instrument that permanently bonds two fibers together by heating and fusing
them.
B-10
FWHM: Full width half maximum. Used to describe the width of a spectral emission at the 50%
amplitude points.
FWHP: Full width half power. Also known as FWHM.
GaAlAs: Gallium aluminum arsenide. Generally used for short wavelength light emitters.
GaAs: Gallium arsenide. Used in light emitters.
GaInAsP: Gallium indium arsenide phosphide. Generally used for long wavelength light
emitters.
Gap Loss: Loss resulting from the end separation of two axially aligned fibers.
Gate: 1) A device having one output channel and one or more input channels, such that the
output channel state is completely determined by the input channel states, except during
switching transients. 2) One of the many types of combinational logic elements having at least
two inputs.
Gaussian Beam: A beam pattern used to approximate the distribution of energy in a fiber core.
It can also be used to describe emission patterns from surface-emitting LED's. Most people
would recognize it as the bell curve.
GBaud: One billion bits of data per second or 109 bits.
Gb/s: See GBaud.
Ge: Germanium. Generally used in detectors. Good for most wavelengths (e.g., 800-1600 nm).
GHz: Gigahertz. One billion Hertz (cycles per second) or 109 Hertz.
Graded-Index Fiber: Optical fiber in which the refractive index of the core is in the form of a
parabolic curve, decreasing toward the cladding.
GRIN: Gradient index. Generally refers to the SELFOC lens often used in fiber optics.
Ground Loop Noise: Noise that results when equipment is grounded at points having different
potentials thereby creating an unintended current path. The dielectric properties of optical fiber
provide electrical isolation that eliminates ground loops.
Group Index: Also called group refractive index. In fiber optics, for a given mode propagating
in a medium of refractive index (n), the group index (N), is the velocity of light in a vacuum (c),
divided by the group velocity of the mode.
B-11
Group Velocity: 1) The velocity of propagation of an envelope produced when an

electromagnetic wave is modulated by, or mixed with, other waves of different frequencies. 2)
For a particular mode, the reciprocal of the rate of change of the phase constant with respect to
angular frequency. 3) The velocity of the modulated optical power.
Half-Duplex: A bidirectional link that is limited to one-way transfer of data, i.e., data can't be
sent both ways at the same time.
Hard-Clad Silica Fiber: An optical fiber having a silica core and a hard polymeric plastic
cladding intimately bounded to the core.
Hertz: One cycle per second.
Heterodyne Detection: To take one frequency or wavelength and use it to mix with a second to
produce one of two outcomes; a constructive interference mode and / or a destructive
interference mode.
HIPPI: High performance parallel interface as defined by ANSI X3T9.3 document.
Hydrogen Losses: Increases in fiber attenuation that occur when hydrogen diffuses into the
glass matrix and absorbs some light.
Hz: See Hertz.
IDP: See integrated detector/preamplifier.
Index-Matching Fluid: A fluid whose index of refraction nearly equals that of the fiber's core.
Used to reduce Fresnel reflection at fiber ends. See also index-matching gel.
Index-Matching Gel: A gel whose index of refraction nearly equals that of the fiber's core.
Used to reduce Fresnel reflection at fiber ends. See also index-matching fluid.
Index of Refraction: Also refractive index. The ratio of the velocity of light in free space to the
velocity of light in a fiber material. Symbolized by n. Always greater than or equal to one.
Infrared (IR): The region of the electromagnetic spectrum bounded by the long-wavelength
extreme of the visible spectrum (about 0.7 mm) and the shortest microwaves (about 0.1 mm).
Infrared Fiber: Colloquially, optical fibers with best transmission at wavelengths of 2 mm or

longer, made of materials other than silica glass. See also fluoride glasses.
B-12
InGaAs: Indium gallium arsenide. Generally used to make high-performance long-wavelength

detectors.
InGaAsP: Indium gallium arsenide phosphide. Generally used for long-wavelength light
emitters.
Injection Laser Diode (ILD): A laser employing a forward-biased semiconductor junction as

the active medium. Stimulated emission of coherent light occurs at a pn junction where electrons
and holes are driven into the junction.
Insertion Loss: The loss of power that results from inserting a component, such as a connector
or splice, into a previously continuous path.
Integrated Detector/Preamplifier (IDP): A detector package containing a PIN photodiode and

transimpedance amplifier.
Intensity: The square of the electric field strength of an electromagnetic wave. Intensity is
proportional to irradiance and may get used in place of the term "irradiance" when only relative
values are important.
Interchannel Isolation: The ability to prevent undesired optical energy from appearing in one
signal path as a result of coupling from another signal path. Also called crosstalk.
Interferometric Sensors: Fiber optic sensors that rely on interferometric detection.
Interferometer Detection: see Heterdyne Detection using lines of maxima and minima.
Intrinsic Losses: Splice losses arising from differences in the fibers being spliced.
IR: See infrared.
Irradiance: Power per unit area.
Isolation: See near-end crosstalk.
Jacket: The outer, protective covering of the cable.
Jitter: Small and rapid variations in the timing of a waveform due to noise, changes in
component characteristics, supply voltages, imperfect synchronizing circuits, etc.
Jitter, Data Dependent (DDJ): Also called data dependent distortion. Jitter related to the
transmitted symbol sequence. DDJ is caused by the limited bandwidth characteristics, non-ideal
individual pulse responses, and imperfections in the optical channel components.
B-13
Jitter, Duty Cycle Distortion (DCD): Distortion usually caused by propagation delay
differences between low-to-high and high-to-low transitions. DCD is manifested as a pulse width
distortion of the nominal baud time.
Jitter, Random (RJ): Random jitter is due to thermal noise and may be modeled as a Gaussian
process. The peak-to-peak value of RJ is of a probabilistic nature, and thus any specific value
requires an associated probability.
Jumper: A short fiber optic cable with connectors on both ends.
KL: Kelvin. Measure of temperature where water freezes at 273° and boils at 373°.
kBaud: One thousand bits of data per second.
kb/s: See kBaud.
Kevlar®: A very strong, very light, synthetic compound developed by DuPont which is used to
strengthen optical cables.
kHz: One thousand cycles per second.
Lambertian Emitter: An emitter that radiates according to Lambert's cosine law. This law
states that the radiance of certain idealized surfaces is dependent upon the angle from which the
surface is viewed. The radiant intensity of such a surface is maximum normal to the surface and
decreases in proportion to the cosine of the angle from the normal. Given by:
N = N0cosA
Where:
N= The radiant intensity
N0= The radiance normal (perpendicular) to an emitting surface.
A= The angle between the viewing direction and the normal to the surface.
Large Core Fiber: Usually, a fiber with a core of 200 µm or more.
Laser: Acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation A light source that
produces, through stimulated emission, coherent, near monochromatic light. Lasers in fiber
optics are usually solid-state semiconductor types.
Laser Diode: A semiconductor that emits coherent light when forward biased.
B-14
Lateral Displacement Loss: The loss of power that results from lateral displacement of
optimum alignment between two fibers or between a fiber and an active device.
Launch Fiber: An optical fiber used to couple and condition light from an optical source into an
optical fiber. Often the launch fiber is used to create an equilibrium mode distribution in
multimode fiber. Also called launching fiber.
LD: See laser diode.
LED (Light-Emitting Diode): A semiconductor that emits incoherent light when forward
biased.
L-I Curve: The plot of optical output (L) as a function of current (I) which characterizes an
electrical to optical converter.
Light: In a strict sense, the region of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be perceived by
human vision, designated the visible spectrum and nominally covering the wavelength range of
0.4 µm to 0.7 µm. In the laser and optical communication fields, custom and practice have
extended usage of the term to include the much broader portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
that can be handled by the basic optical techniques used for the visible spectrum. This region has
not been clearly defined, but, as employed by most workers in the field, may be considered to
extend from the near-ultraviolet region of approximately 0.3 µm, through the visible region, and
into the mid-infrared region to 30 µm.
Light Piping: Use of optical fibers to illuminate.
Lightguide: Synonym for optical fiber.
Lightwave: The path of a point on a wavefront. The direction of the lightwave is generally
normal to the wavefront.
Longitudinal Mode: An optical waveguide mode with boundary condition determined along the
length of the optical cavity.
Loose-Tube: A type of fiber optic cable construction where the fiber is contained within a loose
tube in the cable jacket.
Loss: The amount of a signal's power, expressed in dB, that is lost in connectors, splices, or fiber
defects.
Loss Budget: An accounting of overall attenuation in a system.
M
-3
mA: Milliampere. One thousandth of an Amp or 10 Amps.
B-15
Macrobending: In a fiber, all macroscopic deviations of the fiber's axis from a straight line.
Magnetostriction: is a property of ferromagnetic materials to undergo a change of their physical

dimensions when subjected to a magnetic field. This effect was first identified in 1842 by James
Joule when observing a sample of nickel.
This property, which allow magnetostrictive materials to convert magnetic energy into
mechanical energy and conversely, is used for the building of both actuation and sensing devices.
It is often quantified by the magnetostrictive coefficient, L, which is the fractional change in
length as the magnetization of the material increases from zero to the saturation value.
The reciprocal effect, the change of the magnetization of a material when subjected to a
mechanical stress, is called the Villari effect. Two other effects are related to magnetostriction:
the Matteuci effect is the creation of a helical magnetic field by a magnetostrictive material
when subjected to a torque and the Wiedemann effect is the twisting of these materials when an
helical magnetic filed is applied to them.
Margin: Allowance for attenuation in addition to that explicitly accounted for in system design.
Mass Splicing: Simultaneous splicing of many fibers in a cable.
Material Dispersion: Dispersion resulting from the different velocities of each wavelength in a
material.
MBaud: One million bits of information per second. Also referred to as Mbps or Mb/s.
Mb/s: See MBaud.
Mean Launched Power: The average power for a continuous valid symbol sequence coupled
into a fiber.
Mechanical Splice: An optical fiber splice accomplished by fixtures or materials, rather than by
thermal fusion.
MFD: See mode field diameter.
MHz: MegaHertz. One million Hertz (cycles per second).
Microbending: Mechanical stress on a fiber may introduce local discontinuities called

microbending. This results in light leaking from the core to the cladding by a process called
mode coupling.
-6
Micrometer: One millionth of a meter or 10 meters. Abbreviated mm.
Microsecond: One millionth of a second or 10-6 seconds. Abbreviated µs.
B-16
Microwatt: One millionth of a Watt or 10-6 Watts. Abbreviated µW.
MIL-SPEC: Military specification.
MIL-STD: Military standard.
Misalignment Loss: The loss of power resulting from angular misalignment, lateral
displacement, and end separation.
-3
mm: Millimeter. One thousandth of a meter or 10 meters.
MM: Abbreviation for multimode.
Modal Dispersion: See multimode dispersion.
Modal Noise: Modal noise occurs whenever the optical power propagates through mode-
selective devices. It is usually only a factor with laser light sources.
Mode: A single electromagnetic wave traveling in a fiber.
Mode Coupling: The transfer of energy between modes. In a fiber, mode coupling occurs until
equilibrium mode distribution (EMD) is reached.
Mode Evolution: The dynamic process a multilongitudinal laser undergoes whereby the
changing distribution of power among the modes creates a continuously changing envelope of
the laser's spectrum.
Mode Field Diameter (MFD): A measure of distribution of optical power intensity across the
end face of a single-mode fiber.
Mode Filter: A device that removes higher-order modes to simulate equilibrium mode
distribution.
Mode Scrambler: A device that mixes modes to uniform power distribution.
Mode Stripper: A device that removes cladding modes.
Modulation: The process by which the characteristic of one wave (the carrier) is modified by
another wave (the signal). Examples include amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation
(FM), and pulse-coded modulation (PCM).
Modulation Index: In an intensity-based system, the modulation index is a measure of how

much the modulation signal affects the light output. It is defined as follows:
m = (highlevel - lowlevel) / (highlevel + lowlevel)
B-17
ms: Milliseconds. One thousandth of a second or 10-3 seconds.
Multilongitudinal Mode Laser (MLM): An injection laser diode which has a number of
longitudinal modes.
Multimode Dispersion: Dispersion resulting from the different transit lengths of different
propagating modes in a multimode optical fiber. Also called modal dispersion.
Multimode Fiber: An optical fiber that has a core large enough to propagate more than one
mode of light The typical diameter is 62.5 micrometers.
Multimode Laser Diode (MMLD): Synonym for Multilongitudinal mode laser.
Multiple Reflection Noise (MRN): The fiber optic receiver noise resulting from the interference
of delayed signals from two or more reflection points in a fiber optic span. Also known as
multipath interference.
Multiplexer: A device that combines two or more signals into a single output.
Multiplexing: The process by which two or more signals are transmitted over a single
communications channel. Examples include time-division multiplexing and wavelength-division
multiplexing.
MUSE: Multiple sub-nyquist encoder. A high-definition standard developed in Europe that

delivers 1125 lines at 60 frames per second.
mV: Millivolt. One thousandth of a Volt or 10-3 Volts.
mW: Milliwatt. One thousandth of a Watt or 10-3 Watts.
N: Newtons. Measure of force generally used to specify fiber optic cable strength.
nA: Nanoamp. One billionth of an Amp or 10-9 Amps.
NA: See numerical aperture.
NA Mismatch Loss: The loss of power at a joint that occurs when the transmitting half has a
numerical aperture greater than the NA of the receiving half. The loss occurs when coupling light
from a source to fiber, from fiber to fiber, or from fiber to detector.
Near-End Crosstalk (NEXT, RN): The optical power reflected from one or more input ports,
back to another input port. Also known as isolation directivity.
B-18
Near Infrared: The part of the infrared near the visible spectrum, typically 700 nm to 1500 nm
or 2000 nm; it is not rigidly defined.
NEP: See noise equivalent power.

-9
nm: Nanometer. One billionth of a meter or 10 meters.
Noise Equivalent Power (NEP): The noise of optical receivers, or of an entire transmission
system, is often expressed in terms of noise equivalent optical power.
NRZ: Nonreturn to zero. A common means of encoding data that has two states termed "zero"
and "one" and no neutral or rest position.
-9
ns: Nanosecond. One billionth of a second or 10 seconds.
Numerical Aperture (NA): The light-gathering ability of a fiber; the maximum angle to the
fiber axis at which light will be accepted and propagated through the fiber. The measure of the
light-acceptance angle of an optical fiber. NA = sin a, where a is the acceptance angle. NA is
also used to describe the angular spread of light from a central axis, as in exiting a fiber, emitting
from a source, or entering a detector.
nW: Nanowatt. One billionth of a Watt or 10-9 Watts.
O/E: Optical-to-electrical converter.
OEIC: Opto-electronic integrated circuit.
1U: One "U". "U" = 1.75 inches.
Optical Amplifier: A device that amplifies an input optical signal without converting it into
electrical form. The best developed are optical fibers doped with the rare earth element, erbium.
Optical Bandpass: The range of optical wavelengths which can be transmitted through a
component.
Optical Channel: An optical wavelength band for WDM optical communications.
Optical Channel Spacing: The wavelength separation between adjacent WDM channels.
Optical Channel Width: The optical wavelength range of a channel.
Optical Continuous Wave Reflectometer (OCWR): An instrument used to characterize a fiber

optic link wherein an unmodulated signal is transmitted through the link, and the resulting light
B-19
scattered and reflected back to the input is measured. Useful in estimating component reflectance
and link optical return loss.
Optical Directional Coupler (ODC): A component used to combine and separate optical
power.
Optical Fall Time: The time interval for the falling edge of an optical pulse to transition from
90% to 10% of the pulse amplitude. Alternatively, values of 80% and 20% may be used.
Optical Fiber: A glass or plastic fiber that has the ability to guide light along its axis.
Optical Isolator: A component used to block out reflected and unwanted light. Used in laser
modules, for example. Also called an isolator.
Optical Link Loss Budget: The range of optical loss over which a fiber optic link will operate
and meet all specifications. The loss is relative to the transmitter output power.
Optical Loss Test Set (OLTS): A source and power meter combined to measure attenuation.
Optical Path Power Penalty: The additional loss budget required to account for degradations
due to reflections, and the combined effects of dispersion resulting from intersymbol
interference, mode-partition noise, and laser chirp.
Optical Power Meter: An instrument that measures the amount of optical power present at the
end of a fiber or cable.
Optical Return Loss (ORL): The ratio (expressed in units of dB) of optical power reflected by
a component or an assembly to the optical power incident on a component port when that
component or assembly is introduced into a link or system.
Optical Rise Time: The time interval for the rising edge of an optical pulse to transition from
10% to 90% of the pulse amplitude. Alternatively, values of 20% and 80% may be used.
Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR): An instrument that locates faults in optical
fibers or infers attenuation by backscattered light measurements.
Optical Waveguide: Another name for optical fiber.
OTDR: Optical time domain reflectometer.
pA: Picoamp. One trillionth of an Amp or 10-12 Amps.
B-20
Passive Branching Device: A device which divides an optical input into two or more optical
outputs.
PC: Physical contact. Refers to an optical connector that allows the fiber ends to physically
touch. Used to minimize backreflection and insertion loss.
PCM: See pulse-code modulation.
PCS Fiber: See plastic clad silica.
Peak Power Output: The output power averaged over that cycle of an electromagnetic wave
having the maximum peak value that can occur under any combination of signals transmitted.
PFM: Pulse-frequency modulation. Also referred to as square wave FM.
Phase Constant: The imaginary part of the axial propagation constant for a particular mode,
usually expressed in radians per unit length. See also attenuation.
Phase Noise: Rapid, short-term, random fluctuations in the phase of a wave caused by time-
domain instabilities in an oscillator.
Photoconductive: Losing an electrical charge on exposure to light.
Photodetector: An optoelectronic transducer such as a PIN photodiode or avalanche photodiode.
Photodiode: A semiconductor device that converts light to electrical current.
Photon: A quantum of electromagnetic energy. A particle of light.
Photonic: A term coined for devices that work using photons, analogous to "electronic" for
devices working with electrons.
Photovoltaic: Providing an electric current under the influence of light or similar radiation.
Pigtail: A short optical fiber length that is permanently attached to a source, detector, or other
fiber optic device usually by some sort of connector.
PINFET: PIN detector plus a FET amplifier. Offers superior performance over a PIN alone.
PIN Photodiode: See photodiode.
Planer Waveguide: A waveguide fabricated in a flat material such as thin film.
Plastic Clad Silica (PCS): Also called hard clad silica (HCS). A step-index fiber with a glass
core and plastic or polymer cladding instead of glass.
B-21
Plastic Fiber: An optical fiber having a plastic core and plastic cladding.
Polarization: The direction of the electric field in the lightwave.
Polarization Maintaining Fiber: Fiber that maintains the polarization of light that enters it.
Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD): Polarization mode dispersion is an inherent property of

all optical media. It is caused by the difference in the propagation velocities of light in the
orthogonal principal polarization states of the transmission medium. The net effect is that if an
optical pulse contains both polarization components, then the different polarization components
will travel at different speeds and arrive at different times, smearing the received optical signal.
Port: Hardware entity at each end of the link.
p-p: Peak-to-peak. A peak-to-peak value is the algebraic difference between extreme values of a
varying quantity.
PPM: Pulse-position modulation. A method of encoding data.
Preform: The glass rod from which optical fiber is drawn.
Profile Dispersion: Dispersion attributed to the variation of refractive index contrast with
wavelength.
ps: Picosecond. One trillionth of a second or 10-12 seconds.
Pulse: A current or voltage which changes abruptly from one value to another and back to the
original value in a finite length of time. Used to describe one particular variation in a series of
wave motions.
Pulse Dispersion: The spreading out of pulses as they travel along an optical fiber.
Pulse Spreading: The dispersion of an optical signal as it propagates through an optical fiber.
-12
pW: Picowatt. One trillionth of a Watt or 10 Watts.
PZT: Lead Zirconate Titanate: a crystal that exhibits a broad response to the piezo-electric
effect, used in microphones and hydrophones as well as many other applications.
Quantum Efficiency: In a photodiode, the ratio of primary carriers (electron-hole pairs) created
to incident photons. A quantum efficiency of 70% means seven out of ten incident photons create
a carrier.
B-22
Quaternary Signal: A digital signal having four significant conditions.
Radiation-Hardened Fiber: An optical fiber made with core and cladding materials that are
designed to recover their intrinsic value of attenuation coefficient, within an acceptable time
period, after exposure to a radiation pulse.
Radiometer: An instrument, distinct from a photometer, to measure power (Watts) of

electromagnetic radiation.
Radiometry: The science of radiation measurement.
Rayleigh Scattering: The scattering of light that results from small inhomogeneities of material
density or composition.
Rays: Lines that represent the path taken by light.
Receiver: A terminal device that includes a detector and signal processing electronics. It
functions as an optical-to-electrical converter.
Receiver Overload: The maximum acceptable value of average received power for an
acceptable BER or performance.
Receiver Sensitivity: The minimum acceptable value of received power needed to achieve an
acceptable BER or performance. It takes into account power penalties caused by use of a
transmitter with worst-case values of extinction ratio, jitter, pulse rise and fall times, optical
return loss, receiver connector degradations, and measurement tolerances. The receiver
sensitivity does not include power penalties associated with dispersion, jitter, or reflections from
the optical path; these effects are specified separately in the allocation of maximum optical path
penalty. Sensitivity usually takes into account worst-case operating and end-of-life (EOL)
conditions.
Recombination: Combination of an electron and a hole in a semiconductor that releases energy,

sometimes leading to light emission.
Refraction: The changing of direction of a wavefront in passing through a boundary between

two dissimilar media, or in a graded-index medium where refractive index is a continuous
function of position.
Refractive Index: A property of optical materials that relates to the speed of light in the
material.
Refractive Index Gradient: The change in refractive index with distance from the axis of an
optical fiber.
B-23
Refractive Index Profile: The description of the value of the refractive index as a function of
distance from the optical axis along an optical fiber diameter.
Residual Loss: The loss of the attenuator at the minimum setting of the attenuator.
Responsivity: The ratio of a photodetector's electrical output to its optical input in

Amperes/Watt (A/W).
Return Loss: See optical return loss.
RFI: Radio frequency interference. Synonym of electromagnetic interference.
Ribbon Cables: Cables in which many fibers are embedded in a plastic material in parallel,
forming a flat ribbon-like structure.
RIN: Relative intensity noise. Often used to quantify the noise characteristics of a laser.
Rise Time: The time taken to make a transition from one state to another, usually measured
between the 10% and 90% completion points of the transition. Alternatively the rise time may be
specified at the 20% and 80% amplitudes. Shorter or faster rise times require more bandwidth in
a transmission channel.
Scattering: The change of direction of light rays or photons after striking small particles. It may
also be regarded as the diffusion of a light beam caused by the inhomogeneity of the transmitting
material.
Selfoc Lens: A trade name used by the Nippon Sheet Glass Company for a graded-index fiber
lens; a segment of graded-index fiber made to serve as a lens.
Sensitivity: See receiver sensitivity.
Sheath: An outer protective layer of a fiber optic cable.
Shot Noise: Noise caused by current fluctuations arising from the discrete nature of electrons.
Si: Silicon. Generally used in detectors. Good for short wavelengths only (e.g., < 1000 nm).
Sideband: Frequencies distributed above and below the carrier that contain energy resulting
from amplitude modulation. The frequencies above the carrier are called upper sidebands, and
the frequencies below the carrier are called lower sidebands.
Silica Glass: Glass made mostly of silicon dioxide, SiO2, used in conventional optical fibers.
B-24
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR): The ratio of the total signal to the total noise which shows how
much higher the signal level is than the level of the noise. A measure of signal quality.
Simplex: Single element (e.g., a simplex connector is a single-fiber connector).
Simplex Cable: A term sometimes used for a single-fiber cable.
Simplex Transmission: Transmission in one direction only.
Single-Line Laser: Synonym for single-longitudinal mode laser.
Single-Longitudinal Mode Laser (SLM): An injection laser diode which has a single dominant
longitudinal mode. A single-mode laser with a side mode suppression ratio (SMSR)< 25 dB.
Single-mode (SM) Fiber: A small-core optical fiber through which only one mode will
propagate. The typical diameter is 8-9 microns.
Single-mode Laser Diode (SMLD): Synonym for single-longitudinal mode laser.
Single-mode Optical Loss Test Set (SMOLTS): An optical loss test set for use with single-
mode fiber.
SLED: See surface-emitting diode.
SM: Abbreviation for single-mode.
SMA: A threaded type of optical connector. One of the earliest optical connectors to be widely
used. Offers poor repeatability and performance.
Smart Structures: Also smart skins. Materials containing sensors (fiber optic or other types) to
measure their properties during fabrication and use.
SMD: Surface-mount device.
SMT: Surface-mount technology.
S/N: See signal-to-noise ratio.
SNR: See signal-to-noise ratio.
Soliton Pulse: An optical pulse having a shape, spectral content, and power level designed to
take advantage of nonlinear effects in an optical fiber waveguide, for the purpose of essentially
negating dispersion over long distances.
B-25
Source: In fiber optics, a transmitting LED or laser diode, or an instrument that injects test
signals into fibers.
Spectral Width: A measure of the extent of a spectrum. For a source, the width of wavelengths
contained in the output at one half of the wavelength of peak power. Typical spectral widths are
50 to 160 nm for an LED and 0.1-5 nm for a laser diode.
Spectral Width, Full Width, Half Maximum (FWHM): The absolute difference between the
wavelengths at which the spectral radiant intensity is 50 percent of the maximum power.
Splice: A permanent connection of two optical fibers through fusion or mechanical means.
Splitting Ratio: The ratio of power emerging from two output ports of a coupler.
ST: Straight tip connector. Popular fiber optic connector originally developed by AT&T.
Stabilized Light Source: An LED or laser diode that emits light with a controlled and constant
spectral width, central wavelength, and peak power with respect to time and temperature.
Star Coupler: A coupler in which power at any input port is distributed to all output ports.
Star Network: A network in which all terminals are connected through a single point, such as a
star coupler or concentrator.
Step-Index Fiber: Fiber that has a uniform index of refraction throughout the core.
Stokes Band: When a transparent medium is irradiated with an intense source of monochromatic
light, such as a laser, and the scattered light is examined with a spectrometer, not only is the
incident light, ν~ , observed in the scattering, i.e. same frequency- Rayleigh scattering, but also
some weaker “bands” of a shifted frequency from the incident light are detected. The shifted
bands are of lower frequency ν~ - ∆ν, and some are at higher frequency, ν + ∆ν. These bands
above and below the center frequency are known as the anti-Stokes and Stokes bands
respectively.
Strength Member: The part of a fiber optic cable composed of aramid yarn, steel strands, or
fiberglass filaments that increase the tensile strength of the cable.
Submarine Cable: A cable designed to be laid underwater.
Surface-Emitting Diode: An LED that emits light from its flat surface rather than its side.
Simple and inexpensive, with emission spread over a wide angle.
Synchronous: A data signal that is sent along with a clock signal.
B-26
Tap Loss: In a fiber optic coupler, the ratio of power at the tap port to the power at the input
port.
Tap Port: In a coupler where the splitting ratio between output ports is not equal, the output port
containing the lesser power.
TAXI: Transparent asynchronous transmitter-receiver interface. A chip used to transmit parallel

data over a serial interface.
TDM: See time-division multiplexing.
TEC: Abbreviation for thermoelectric cooler.
Tee Coupler: A three-port optical coupler.
Ternary: A semiconductor compound made of three elements (e.g., GaAlAs).
Thermal Noise: Noise resulting from thermally induced random fluctuation in current in the
receiver's load resistance.
Throughput Loss: In a fiber optic coupler, the ratio of power at the throughput port to the power
at the input port.
Throughput Port: In a coupler where the splitting ratio between output ports is not equal, the
output port containing the greater power.
Tight-Buffer: A material tightly surrounding a fiber in a cable, holding it rigidly in place.
Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM): A transmission technique whereby several low-speed

channels are multiplexed into a high-speed channel for transmission. Each low-speed channel is
allocated a specific position based on time.
Total Internal Reflection: The reflection that occurs when light strikes an interface at an angle
of incidence (with respect to the normal) greater than the critical angle.
Transceiver: A device that performs, within one chassis, both telecommunication transmitting
and receiving functions.
Transducer: A device for converting energy from one form to another, such as optical energy to
electrical energy.
Transmitter: A device that includes a source and driving electronics. It functions as an

electrical-to-optical converter.
B-27
Unidirectional: Operating in one direction only.
UV: Ultraviolet.
V: Volt.
VAC: Volts, AC.
VDC: Volts, DC.
Vestigial-Sideband (VSB) Transmission: A modified double-sideband transmission in which

one sideband, the carrier, and only a portion of the other sideband are transmitted. See also
sideband.
Visible Light: Electromagnetic radiation visible to the human eye; wavelengths of 400-700 nm.
W: See Watt.
Watt: Linear measurement of optical power, usually expressed in milliwatts, microwatts, and
nanowatts.
Waveguide: A material medium that confines and guides a propagating electromagnetic wave.
In the microwave regime, a waveguide normally consists of a hollow metallic conductor,
generally rectangular, elliptical, or circular in cross-section. This type of waveguide may, under
certain conditions, contain a solid or gaseous dielectric material. In the optical regime, a
waveguide used as a long transmission line consists of a solid dielectric filament (optical fiber),
usually circular in cross-section. In integrated optical circuits an optical waveguide may consist
of a thin dielectric film. In the RF regime, ionized layers of the stratosphere and the refractive
surfaces of the troposphere may also serve as a waveguide.
Waveguide Couplers: A coupler in which light is transferred between planar waveguides.
Waveguide Dispersion: The part of chromatic dispersion arising from the different speeds light
travels in the core and cladding of a single-mode fiber (i.e., from the fiber's waveguide structure).
Wavelength: The distance between points of corresponding phase of two consecutive cycles of a
wave. The wavelength, is related to the propagation velocity, and the frequency, by:
Wavelength = Propogation Velocity / Frequency
B-28
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM): Sending several signals through one fiber with
different wavelengths of light.
Wavelength Isolation: A WDM's isolation of a light signal in the desired optical channel from
the unwanted optical channels. Also called far-end crosstalk.
WDM: See wavelength-division multiplexing.
Wideband: Possessing large bandwidth.
XT: Abbreviation for crosstalk.
Y Coupler: A variation on the tee coupler in which input light is split between two channels
(typically planar waveguide) that branch out like a Y from the input.
Zero-Dispersion Wavelength (λ0): In a single-mode optical fiber, the wavelength at which

material dispersion and waveguide dispersion cancel one another. The wavelength of maximum
bandwidth in the fiber.
B-29
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Novel Applications of Fiber Optic Sensor

Technology for Diagnostics of Underground Cables

Final Report, October 2004

EPRI Project Managers

(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I)

(B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER

ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT

Power Delivery Consultants, Inc.

This report was prepared by

Power Delivery Consultants, Inc.

This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.

2 SENSOR SYSTEMS BACKGROUND...................................................................... 2-1

3 TEMPERATURE MEASURING SYSTEMS .............................................................. 3-1

4 PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS ............................................................................... 4-1

5 CHEMICAL MEASUREMENT WITH FIBER-OPTIC SENSORS .............................. 5-1

6 ELECTRIC FIELD MEASUREMENT ........................................................................ 6-1

7 MEASURING MAGNETIC FIELDS WITH FIBER-OPTICS ...................................... 7-1

8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS......................................................... 8-1

A BACKGROUND INFORMATION ............................................................................ A-1

B GLOSSARY OF OPTICS TERMS........................................................................... B-1

Table 3-1 Comparison of Point and Distributed Temperature Sensors.................................... 3-1

• They can be configured to function as a distributed sensor, a point sensor, or both

A more complete listing of possible measured parameters is presented below:

2.0 Types of Sensors

implies heterodyne detection/coherent detection where the backscatter is of a differing

2.1 Distributed Measuring on Fibers

Temperature and Strain

Raman backscatter in silica or glass fiber is responsive (a small component) to variations in

2.2 How Point or Extrinsic Sensors Function

pattern). A standard interferometer can be adjusted providing a variety of interference patterns

2.3 Use of Gratings on Fibers for Making Measurements

3.0 Types of Temperature Measurement Systems

Parameter Point Sensing Distributed Sensing

Range (°C) -50°C to 1,100°C -10°C to 500°C

Accuracy (°C) +/-1°C +/-1°C

Resolution (°C) +/- 0.1°C +/-0.1°C

Length Resolution (meters) n.a. 1-5m

3.1 Distributed Raman Systems

3.1.1 Typical Setup

Above is a schematic of a typical distributed temperature measuring instrument based on the

3.1.2 Mode of operation

3.1.3 System Specifications

3.1.4 Current Applications

3.2 Distributed Brillouin Systems

3.2.1 Typical Setup

3.2.2 Mode of Operation

3.2.3 System Specifications

3.2.4 Current Application

3.3 Point Sensor Systems

3.3.1 Typical Setup

3.3.2 Modes of Operation

3.4 Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBGs)

3.4.2 Modes of Operation

4.1 Intrinsic Sensors

4.2 Extrinsic Sensors

Functional ranges 0-18,000psi

Resolution < 0.05 psi

Stability < 5 psi / year

Range 12,000 meters

4.3 Fiber Bragg Sensors

4.4 Application of Pressure Sensors

Measurement of chemicals and or component species of chemicals is usually done in a