Introduction

Marine Resources are those resources that can be found in water such as
coral, pearl, shells, lobster, fish , crab ,and sponges. Coral polyps are tiny,
soft-bodied organisms related to sea anemones and jellyfish. At their base is
a hard, protective limestone skeleton called a calicle, which forms the
structure of coral reefs. Corals live in tropical waters throughout the world,
generally close to the surface where the sun's rays can reach the algae.
While corals get most of their nutrients from the byproducts of the algae's
photosynthesis, they also have barbed, venomous tentacles they can stick
out, usually at night, to grab zooplankton and even small fish. A pearl is a
hard object produced within the soft tissue (specifically the mantle) of a
living shelled mollusk. Just like the shell of a mollusk, a pearl is made up
of calcium carbonate in minute crystalline form, which has been deposited in
concentric layers. The ideal pearl is perfectly round and smooth, but many
other shapes of pearls (baroque pearls) occur. The finest quality natural
pearls have been highly valued as gemstones and objects of beauty for many
centuries, and because of this, the word pearl has become a metaphor for
something very rare, fine, admirable, and valuable. A seashell, also known as
a sea shell, or simply as a shell, is the common name for a hard, protective
outer layer, a shell, or in some cases a "test", that was created by a sea
creature, a marine organism. The shell is part of the body of a marine animal.
In most cases a shell is an exoskeleton, usually that of an animal without a
backbone, aninvertebrate. Seashells are most often found on beaches.The
word seashell is most often used to mean the shells of marine mollusks,
i.e. mollusk shells. It can however also be used to mean the shells of a wide
variety of other marine animals from various different marine invertebrates.

Corals
Corals are marine organisms in class Anthozoa of phylum Cnidaria typically
living in compact colonies of many identical individual "polyps". The group
includes the important reef builders that inhabit tropical oceans, which
secrete calcium carbonate to form a hard skeleton.

A coral "head," which appears to be a single organism, is a colony of

myriad genetically identical polyps. Each polyp is typically only a
few millimeters in diameter. Over many generations the colony secretes a
skeleton that is characteristic of the species. Individual heads grow
by asexual reproduction of individual polyps. Corals also breed sexually by
spawning. Polyps of the same species release gametes simultaneously over a
period of one to several nights around a full moon.

Although corals can catch small fish and animals such

as plankton using stinging cells on their tentacles, most corals obtain most of
their energy and nutrients
from photosynthetic unicellular algae called zooxanthellae. Such corals
require sunlight and grow in clear, shallow water, typically at depths
shallower than 60 meters (200 ft). Corals can be major contributors to the
physical structure of the coral reefs that develop in tropical and subtropical
waters, such as the enormous Great Barrier Reef off the coast
of Queensland, Australia. Other corals do not have associated algae and can
live in much deeper water, with the cold-water genus Lophelia surviving as
deep as 3,000 meters (9,800 ft). Examples live on the Darwin Mounds located
north-west of Cape Wrath, Scotland. Corals have also been found off the
coast of Washington State and the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. Corals
coordinate behavior by communicating with each other.

Coral Reefs
Coral reefs are underwater structures made from calcium
carbonate secreted by corals. Corals are colonies of tiny living animals found
in marine waters containing few nutrients. Most coral reefs are built
from stony corals, and are formed by polyps that live together in groups. The
polyps secrete a hard carbonate exoskeleton which provides support and
protection for the body of each polyp. Reefs grow best in warm, shallow,
clear, sunny and agitated waters.

Often called “rainforests of the sea”, coral reefs form some of the most
diverse ecosystems on earth. They occupy less than one tenth of one percent
of the world ocean surface, about half the area of France, yet they provide a
home for twenty-five percent of all marine species, including fish, molluscs,
echinoderms and sponges.

Paradoxically, coral reefs flourish even though they are surrounded by ocean
waters that provide few nutrients. They are most commonly found at shallow
depths in tropical waters, particularly in the Pacific Ocean, but deep water
and cold water corals also exist on smaller scales.

Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism, fisheries and shoreline

protection. The annual global economic value of coral reefs has been
estimated at $30 billion. However, coral reefs are fragile ecosystems, partly
because they are very sensitive to water temperature. They are under threat
from climate change, ocean acidification, blast fishing, cyanide
fishing for aquarium fish, overuse of reef resources, and harmful land-use
practices. High nutrient levels such as those found in runoff from agricultural
areas can harm reefs by encouraging excess algae growth.

Importance to humans
Local economies near major coral reefs benefit from an abundance of fish
and other marine creatures as a food source. Reefs also provide
recreational scuba diving and snorkeling tourism. Unfortunately these
activities can have deleterious effects, such as accidental destruction of
coral. Coral is also useful as a protection against hurricanes and
other extreme weather.

Coral reefs provide many medical benefits for humans. Chemical compounds
taken from corals are used in pharmaceutical medicines to fight Cancer,
AIDS, severe pain and much more. Corals are also used commonly for bone
grafting in humans. Corals have been used for thousands of years as
medicine and there is still much to learn. The cure to some of the most
prevalent and dangerous diseases today could very well be waiting for us in
the world's coral reefs.

Live coral is highly sought after for aquaria. Given the proper ecosystem, live
coral makes a stunning addition to any salt water aquarium. Soft corals are
easier to maintain in captivity than hard corals.

Isididae may be usable as living bone implants and in aquatic cultivation,

because of their potential to mimic valuable biological properties.

In jewelry

Coral's many colors give it appeal for necklaces and other jewelry. Intensely
red coral is prized as a gemstone. It is sometimes called fire coral, but is not
the same as fire coral. Red coral is very rare because of overharvesting due
to the great demand for perfect specimens.

In construction

Ancient coral reefs on land provide lime or use as building blocks ("coral
rag"). Coral rag is an important local building material in places such as the
East African coast.

In climate research

The annual growth bands in bamboo corals and others allow geologists to
construct year-by-year chronologies, a form of incremental dating, which
underlie high-resolution records of past climatic and environmental changes
using geochemical techniques.
Certain species form communities called microatolls, which are colonies
whose top is dead and mostly above the water line, but whose perimeter is
mostly submerged and alive. Average tide level limits their height. By
analyzing the various growth morphologies, microatolls offer a low resolution
record of sea level change. Fossilized microatolls can also be dated
using radioactive carbon dating. Such methods can help to
reconstruct Holocene sea levels.

Deep sea bamboo corals (Isididae) may be among the first organisms to
display the effects of ocean acidification. They produce growth rings similar
to those of tree and can provide a view of changes in the condition in the
deep sea over time

Pearl
A pearl is a hard object produced within the soft tissue (specifically
the mantle) of a living shelled mollusk. Just like the shell of a mollusk, a pearl
is made up of calcium carbonate in minute crystalline form, which has been
deposited in concentric layers. The ideal pearl is perfectly round and smooth,
but many other shapes of pearls (baroque pearls) occur. The finest quality
natural pearls have been highly valued as gemstones and objects
of beauty for many centuries, and because of this, the word pearl has
become a metaphor for something very rare, fine, admirable, and valuable.

The most valuable pearls occur spontaneously in the wild, but they are
extremely rare. Cultured or farmed pearls from pearl oysters make up the
majority of those that are currently sold. Pearls from the sea are valued more
highly than freshwater pearls. Imitation or fake pearls are also widely sold in
inexpensive jewelry, but the quality of their iridescence is usually very poor,
and generally speaking, artificial pearls are easily distinguished from genuine
pearls. Pearls have been harvested and cultivated primarily for use in jewelry,
but in the past they were also stitched onto lavish clothing. Pearls have also
been crushed and used in cosmetics, medicines, and in paint formulations.

Pearls that are considered to be of gemstone quality are almost

always nacreous and iridescent, wild or cultured, like the interior of the shell
that produces them. However, almost all species of shelled mollusks are
capable of producing pearls (formerly referred to as "calcareous concretions"
by some sources) of lesser shine or less spherical shape. Although these may
also be legitimately referred to as "pearls" by gemological labs and also
under U.S. Federal Trade Commission rules, and are formed in the same way,
most of them have no value, except as curios.

Physical Properties

The unique luster of pearls depends upon the reflection, refraction,

and diffraction of light from the translucent layers. The thinner and more
numerous the layers in the pearl, the finer the luster. The iridescence that
pearls display is caused by the overlapping of successive layers, which
breaks up light falling on the surface. In addition, pearls (especially cultured
freshwater pearls) can be dyed yellow, green, blue, brown, pink, purple, or
black.

Value of a natural pearl

Quality natural pearls are very rare jewels. The actual value of a natural pearl
is determined in the same way as it would be for other "precious" gems. The
valuation factors include size, shape, quality of surface, orient and luster.
Single natural pearls are often sold as a collector's item, or set as
centerpieces in unique jewelry. Very few matched strands of natural pearls
exist, and those that do often sell for hundreds of thousands of dollars.

Pearls in jewelry

The value of the pearls in jewelry is determined by a combination of the

luster, color, size, lack of surface flaw and symmetry that are appropriate for
the type of pearl under consideration. Among those attributes, luster is the
most important differentiator of pearl quality according to jewelers.

All factors being equal, however, the larger the pearl the more valuable it is.
Large, perfectly round pearls are rare and highly valued. Teardrop-shaped
pearls are often used in pendants.

Seashell
A seashell, also known as a sea shell, or simply as a shell, is the common
name for a hard, protective outer layer, a shell, or in some cases a "test",
that was created by a sea creature, a marine organism. The shell is part of
the body of a marine animal. In most cases a shell is an exoskeleton, usually
that of an animal without a backbone, an invertebrate. Seashells are most
often found on beaches.
The word seashell is most often used to mean the shells of marine mollusks,
i.e. mollusk shells. It can however also be used to mean the shells of a wide
variety of other marine animals from various different marine invertebrates.

As well as marine mollusks, many other kinds of sea

animals have exoskeletons or even internal shells which sometimes, after
death, wash up on the beach and may be picked up by beachcombers. These
shells include remains from species in other invertebrate phyla, such as the
moulted shells or exuviae of crabs and lobsters, the shells of
barnacles, horseshoe crab shells, the tests (endoskeletons) of sea
urchins, sand dollars and seastars, brachiopod shells, and the shells of
marine annelid worms in the familySerpulidae, which create calcareous tubes
cemented onto other surfaces.

Seashells have been admired, studied and used by humans for many
different purposes throughout history and pre-history.

Significance of seashells in human culture

Seashells have been used as a medium of exchange in various places,

including many Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean islands, also in North
America, Africa and the Caribbean.

 The most common species of shells to be used as currency have

been Cypraea moneta, the “money cowry”, and certain tusk
shells or dentalium, such as those used in North Western North America
for many centuries.
 It is of historic interest that the Dutch East India Company, a major
force in the colonization of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, amassed a large
portion of its vast fortune via trading shell money of the species Cypraea
moneta and Cypraea annulus, in exchange for commodities such
as spices, exotic animals, and gemstones, all of which were considered
valuable in Europe at the time.
As tools

Seashells have often been used as tools, because of their strength and the
variety of their shapes.

 Giant clams (Family Tridacnidae) have been used as bowls, and when
big enough, even as bathtubs and baptismal fonts.
 Melo melo, the "bailer volute", is so named because Native Australians
used it to bail out their canoes.
 Many different species of bivalves have been used as scrapers, blades,
clasps, and other such tools, due to their shape.
 Some marine gastropods have been used for oil lamps, the oil being
poured in the aperture of the shell, and the siphonal canal serving as a
holder for the wick.

In horticulture

Because shells are sometimes a readily available bulk source of calcium

carbonate, shells such as oyster shells are sometimes used as soil
conditioners in horticulture. The shells are broken or ground into small pieces
in order to have the desired effect of raising the pH and increasing
the calcium content in the soil.

In religion and spirituality

Seashells have played a part in religion and spirituality, sometimes even as

ritual objects.

 In Christianity, the scallop shell is considered to be the symbol of Saint

James the Great, see Pecten jacobaeus.
  In Hinduism left-handed shells of Turbinella pyrum (the
sacred shankha) are considered to be sacred to the god Vishnu. The
person who finds a left-handed chank shell (one that coils to the left) is
sacred to Vishnu, as well. The chank shell also plays an important role
in Buddhism.

As musical instruments

Seashells have been used as musical instruments, wind instruments for many
hundreds if not thousands of years. Most often the shells of large sea snails
are used, as trumpets, by cutting a hole in the spire of the shell, or cutting off
the tip of the spire altogether. Various different kinds of large marine
gastropod shells can be turned into "blowing shells".

In personal adornment
Whole seashells or parts of sea shells have been used as jewelry or in other
forms of adornment since prehistoric times

 Shell necklaces have been found in Stone Age graves as far inland as
the Dordogne Valley in France.

 Seashells are often used whole and drilled, so that they can be
threaded like beads, or cut into pieces of various shapes. Sometimes
shells can be found that are already "drilled" by predatory snails of the
family Naticidae.

 Shells historically have been and still are made into, or incorporated
into, necklances, pendants, beads, earrings, buttons, brooches, rings, hair
combs, belt buckles and other uses.

In architectural decoration
Small pieces of colored and iridescent shell have been used to
create mosaics and inlays, which have been used to decorate walls, furniture
and boxes.

Large numbers of whole seashells, arranged to form patterns, have been

used to decorate mirror frames, furniture and man-made grottos.

Marine Resource Management

Marine Conservation

Marine conservation, also known as marine resources conservation, is

the protection and preservation of ecosystems in oceans and seas. Marine
conservation focuses on limiting human-caused damage to marine
ecosystems, and on restoring damaged marine ecosystems. Marine
conservation also focuses on preserving vulnerable marine species. Marine
conservation is the study of conserving physical and biological marine
resources and ecosystem functions. This is a relatively new discipline. Marine
conservationists rely on a combination of scientific principles derived
from marine biology, oceanography, and fisheries science, as well as on
human factors such as demand for marine resources and marine law,
economics and policy in order to determine how to best protect and conserve
marine species and ecosystems.

Techniques

Strategies and techniques for marine conservation tend to combine

theoretical disciplines, such as population biology, with practical conservation
strategies, such as setting up protected areas, as with Marine Protected
Areas (MPAs) or Voluntary Marine Conservation Areas. Other techniques
include developing sustainable fisheries and restoring the populations of
endangered species through artificial means.

Another focus of conservationists is on curtailing human activities that are

detrimental to either marine ecosystems or species through policy,
techniques such as fishing quotas, like those set up by the Northwest Atlantic
Fisheries Organization, or laws such as those listed below. Recognizing the
economics involved in human use of marine ecosystems is key, as is
education of the public about conservation issues.

Laws and treaties

International laws and treaties related to marine conservation include the

1966 Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High
Seas. United States laws related to marine conservation include the
1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act, as well as the 1972 Marine Protection,
Research and Sanctuaries Act which established the National Marine
Sanctuaries program.

In 2010, the Scottish Parliament enacted new legislation for the protection of
marine life with the Marine (Scotland) Act 2010. The provisions in the Act
include: Marine planning, Marine licensing, marine
conservation, seal conservation, and enforcement.

Organizations and education

There are marine conservation organizations throughout the world that focus
on funding conservation efforts, educating the public and stakeholders, and
lobbying for conservation law and policy. Examples of these organizations
are Oceana (non-profit group), the Marine Conservation Biology Institute
(United States), Blue Frontier Campaign (United States), Frontier (the Society
for Environmental Exploration) (United Kingdom), Marine Conservation
Society (United Kingdom)and [Australian Marine Conservation Society].

On a regional level, PERSGA- the Regional Organization for the Conservation

of the Environment of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, is a regional entity
serves as the secretariat for the Jeddah Convention-1982, one of the first
regional marine agreements. PERSGA Member States are: Djibouti, Egypt,
Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan and Yemen.
Sustainable management of marine resources
Oceans cover 70 per cent of the earth’s surface, and more than half of the
world's population lives within 60 kilometres from the sea. Coastal
communities are often entirely dependent on marine resources. At the same
time, an increasing number of marine ecosystems are endangered or under
great pressure from human activities. Local Agenda 21 emphasises the need
to protect marine environments, including oceans, high seas and adjacent
coastal areas, in order to achieve sustainable use of marine resources.
Marine fisheries all over the world are under heavy use (Charles 2000) and
around 70 per cent of the global, known fish species are exploited to their
maximum biological limits, and in many instances over fished. Around 10 per
cent of fish stocks are drastically depleted (FAO 2000a), and most fisheries
are in urgent need of good management (Charles 2001). At the second UN
conference on environment and development in Johannesburg in 2002, an
implementation plan was developed (UNCED 2002). Article 30 of this
declaration says that in order to achieve sustainable fisheries the following
action is required: Maintain or restore stocks to levels that can produce the
maximum sustainable yield with the aim of achieving these goals for
depleted stocks on an urgent basis and where possible no later than 2015.
The Declaration of the Conference on Aquaculture in the Third Millennium,
Bangkok 2000 says: The aquaculture sector should continue to be developed
towards its full potential, making a net contribution to global food availability.
The European Commission presented its strategy for a sustainable
development of European aquaculture in September 2002. The strategy
reads: This resource (fish oil and fishmeal, red.) being limited, it is extremely
important to continue the research effort to find substitute protein sources in
the fish feed formulation.

Sustainable development was defined by the United Nations Conference on

Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1992 as: “Progress that meets
the needs of present generations without sacrificing the ability of future
generations to meet theirs”.
During that conference, Agenda 21 was adopted which is a comprehensive
plan of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally in every area in
which humans impact on the environment, for achieving sustainable
development in the 21stcentury.

In 1991, the UN expressed concerns regarding the clear signs of over-

exploitation of important fish stocks and The Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) developed a Code of Conduct to
promote sustainable fisheries. The code was finished in October 1995, and
has been adopted by most coastal states. The code also gives guidelines for
sustainable aquaculture development.

Corals

Pearls
Seashells

Conclusion
The marine resources are important for maintaining healthy and balanced
marine and terrestrial ecosystems. A diversity of marine species also
provides important societal benefits, some yet to be discovered. So these
should be managed to protect and enhance the abundance and diversity of
native species. Human needs, such as for food, energy, recreation, and
commerce, require marine resource management policies that balance
competing interests. For the benefit of present and future generations,
human uses of the marine and coastal environments should be ecologically
sustainable. Marine resources management policies should be flexible
enough to allow adjustment for evolving human needs and values, emerging
technologies, and changing environmental conditions. Effective marine
resources management requires the education, support and involvement of
citizens, stakeholders and public officials. Education and outreach should
encourage an ethic of marine resources stewardship. The public should have
the opportunity to be engaged in the process that creates marine resources
management policy. Management policies should ensure that citizens and
stakeholders have access to clear, objective, and relevant information on
which to base their judgments and positions.

Reference
1) http://en.wikipedia.org
2) http://scidiv.bellevuecollege.edu