SDH Alcatel

HANDOUT
 1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY
Edition : 03
770 00438 1030–VHBE i BELL EDUCATION CENTRE

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BELL EDUCATION CENTRE ii 770 00438 1030–VHBE

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1. EVOLUTION TOWARDS SDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.1 COMPLEXITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 THE PROBLEM IN PDH – Back–to–back multiplexing . . . . . . . 6
1.1.2 THE SOLUTION IN SDH – Add/Drop multiplexer . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2 TRANSMISSION HIERARCHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.1 THE PROBLEM IN PDH – Different hierarchies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.2 THE SOLUTION IN SDH – One higher order hierarchy . . . . . . 11
1.3 MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.1 THE PROBLEM IN PDH – Limited possibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.2 THE SOLUTION IN SDH – Powerful management . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 ADVANTAGES OF SDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2. DESCRIPTION OF SDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1 SDH FRAMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 SDH TERMINOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4 MULTIPLEXING STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5 SECTION LAYER OVERHEADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5.1 REGENERATOR SECTION OVERHEAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5.2 MULTIPLEXER SECTION OVERHEAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.6 POINTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.6.1 THE POINTER MECHANISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.6.2 ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT POINTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.6.3 TRIBUTARY UNIT POINTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.7 PATH LAYER OVERHEADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.7.1 HIGHER ORDER POH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.7.2 LOWER ORDER POH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
770 00438 1030–VHBE iii BELL EDUCATION CENTRE

2.8 A GUIDE THROUGH SDH MULTIPLEXING –
SUMMARY OF THE VC, TU, TUG, AND AUG STRUCTURES . . . . 56
2.8.1 LOWER ORDER VIRTUAL CONTAINERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.8.2 STRUCTURE OF THE TUG–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.8.3 VIRTUAL CONTAINER – 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.8.4 STRUCTURE OF THE TUG–3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.8.5 VIRTUAL CONTAINER – 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.8.6 STRUCTURE OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT GROUP . . . . 61
2.8.7 MULTIPLEXING OF ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT GROUPS
INTO STM–N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.9 SDH AND ATM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.10 SDH AND SONET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3. THE SDH NETWORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

3.1 SDH NETWORK CONFIGURATION AND NETWORK ELEMENTS 69
3.1.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

3.1.2 NETWORK ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.1.3 EXAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.2 NETWORK PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.2.1 NETWORK PROTECTION METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.2.2 PROTECTION IN RING NETWORKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.2.3 PROTECTION IN MESHED NETWORKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.3 TIMING ASPECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.3.1 TIMING SIGNALS IN SDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.3.2 JITTER, WANDER, AND PHASE VARIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3.3 SDH SYNCHRONISATION NETWORKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.4 PHYSICAL INTERFACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.4.1 OPTICAL INTERFACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.4.2 RADIO INTERFACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.4.3 ELECTRICAL INTERFACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
ANNEX A : ALCATEL PRODUCTS FOR SDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

ANNEX B : RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
ANNEX C : ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
BELL EDUCATION CENTRE iv 770 00438 1030–VHBE

PREFACE
PREFACE
This handout is an introduction to the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) transmission

system.
It supplies the reader with information about:

– the position of the SDH in the transmission world;
– the SDH terminology;
– the SDH transmission structure;
– the network aspects of an SDH based network;
– the Alcatel products for the SDH.
It has three appendixes:

– a list of Alcatel products for SDH;
– a list of the most important recommendations for the SDH;
– a list of the most common abbreviations in the SDH.
770 00438 1030–VHBE 1 BELL EDUCATION CENTRE

PREFACE
BELL EDUCATION CENTRE 2 770 00438 1030–VHBE

EVOLUTION TOWARDS SDH
1. EVOLUTION TOWARDS SDH
Telecom operators introduced digital transmission into the telephone network from the
1970s. Initially they used first order multiplexing, when only a relatively small number of
speech channels ( for example 30 speech channels) are multiplexed. The need for more
capacity in the telephone network resulted in the definition of higher order digital
transmission rates, multiplexing even more speech channels ( for example 120 or 480
speech channels). The set of standards that explains this transmission system is referred to
as the Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH).
As we will see in this chapter, transmission systems based on PDH have a number of weak
points.
The telecom operators as well as the business users needed a better system. Thus it
became necessary to develop a new, high capacity, flexible transmission system.
Research started in the mid 1980s in the USA, and resulted in the Bellcore – ANSI standard
referred to as the Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). This transmission system was
specifically designed for the North American market. CCITT accepted the concept of this
transmission system, but it had to make certain changes to define a worldwide system. The
participants in CCITT reached an agreement in 1988, and the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
(SDH) transmission system was born.
Next, we explain the weak points of the existing PDH system that led to the development of
SDH.
At the same time we give the requirements for the SDH system.
1.1 COMPLEXITY
Let us first take a look at the transmission network itself, and examine the impact of the
introduction of optical technology in the long distance transmission network.
Traditionally, before optical fibres were available, coaxial cables were used to construct long
distance transmission networks.
The price of the coaxial cable is heavily related to its bandwidth. ( Figure1)

Figure 1 : Relative cable cost – coaxial cable
Cost
Higher quality
coax
High quality
coax
Thick coax
Thin coax
Mbit/s
2 8 34 140
Because the coaxial cable costs are much higher for a higher order system than the costs
for a lower order system, the networks were carefully dimensioned, according to the capacity
needed on each link.
Figure 2 shows the typical structure of a small network.
Figure 2 : A traditional network
Network
node
1 x 8 Mbit/s
2 x 2 Mbit/s
Network 2 x 8 Mbit/s Network

node node
1 x 2 Mbit/s 2 x 2 Mbit/s
Network
node

Optical fibres can carry any bitrate, for example from 2 Mbit/s to 140 Mbit/s and even higher.
Consequently, the cost of the optical fibre is independent of the bitrate it carries.
Furthermore, because of the constant technical improvements in the field of fibre technology,
optical transmitters and receivers, and the widespread use of optical systems, the price of
optical transmission systems was reduced drastically over the past years. ( Figure 3)
Figure 3 : Evolution of transmission cost – optical systems
Transmission Cost per Mbit/s.km

(relative)
45 Mbit/s
1000
90 Mbit/s
100 400 Mbit/s
10 1.2 Gbit/s
1 2.5 Gbit/s
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Consequently, a network, which uses optical fibre transmission links, will possibly have a
different structure. The point–to–point connections in the traditional network can be replaced
by a ring network.
Such a ring network operates at a high speed, for example at 140 Mbit/s and it passes
through all the network nodes. ( Figure 4 )

Figure 4 : Optical fibre based ring network
Network
node
140 Mbit/s
ring network
Network Network
node node
Network
node
It carries information for several network nodes on the same optical cable. Lower order
signals (for example 2 Mbit/s) that carry information destined for a certain network node are
removed from the high order signal (140 Mbit/s) in that network node. Similarly, lower order
signals can also be inserted into the higher order signal in that network node.
Let us see what happens in a network node, when we have to remove and/or insert a lower
order signal from/to the higher order signal carried by the backbone network.
1.1.1 THE PROBLEM IN PDH – Back–to–back multiplexing
Figure 5 illustrates back–to–back multiplexing.

In a PDH system the procedure to remove a tributary signal is as follows:
– first the incoming 140 Mbit/s signal has to be demultiplexed.
This results in four signals of each 34 Mbit/s.
– then a 34 Mbit/s signal has to be demultiplexed.
– then an 8 Mbit/s signal has to be demultiplexed.
When we want to insert a tributary signal into the higher order signal the inverse procedure
is done. Starting from a 2 Mbit/s signal, three multiplexing steps are needed to come to the
140 Mbit/s signal.

Figure 5 : Back–to–back multiplexing
140 Mbit/s
140 Mbit/s
2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s
140 34 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s
34
2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s
2
34 34 . .
. 34 140
.
2
2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s
2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s
34 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s
34 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s
34 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s
64 x 2 Mbit/s
We need a lot of equipment for this procedure, a cascade of multiplexers/demultiplexers

have to be installed in the network node. This solution has a number of disadvantages:
– expensive and not flexible, because :
tailor–made installation is required in each network node.
If we reconfigure the network we have to reconfigure and/or change
the equipment.
– lots of processing increases the probability of faults and failures.

Back–to–back multiplexing is not an optimal solution. The reason lies in the PDH
multiplexing structures .
The most fundamental parameters of digital telecommunications are the sampling rate
of 8 kHz and the allocation of 8 bits per PCM coded sample. This results in a basic frame
rate for digital transmission of 125µs which, at 8 bits per channel (slot), is equivalent to a
basic channel (slot) rate of 64 kbit/s.
The first order signals (2 Mbit/s) in the PDH system are formed by the synchronous
interleaving of 8–bit basic channel octets. This is possible because the basic channel
sampling rate (64kbit/s) and the primary aggregate rate (2Mbit/s) are both derived from the
same, local clock source.
The octet structure is thus maintained in the aggregate signal. ( Figure 6 )
Figure 6 : Byte interleaving in the first order signal (PDH)

channel nr.
0 1 2 3 29 30 31 0 1 2 3 29 30 31 0 1 2 3 29 30 31
ËË ÉÉ Ë ÉÉ ËË ÉÉ
ËË ÉÉ Ë ÉÉ ËË ÉÉ
ËË channel 8 bits
ÉÉ Ë ÉÉ ËË ÉÉ
Frame 125µs
time
ËËË ÉÉÉ
ËËË = 8 bits
example: conversation 1 in channel 1 ÉÉÉ = 8 bits
example: conversation 3 in channel 30
= 8 bits

To reduce the cost of transmission, it was necessary to multiplex a number of these first
order signals into a higher order signal for transmission as a single entity. It was not possible
to use the simple process of byte interleaving because it required the universal
synchronisation of all first order sources, at the time not available. Consequently, higher
order PDH transmission systems are based on bit interleaving. Each bit in a given byte of
the higher order frame is part of a different conversation. ( Figure 7 )
Figure 7 : Bit interleaving in a higher order signal (PDH)
Within the frame

bit nr.
ËËË ÉÉÉ ËËË ÉÉÉ

d e f p q r

time
ËËË ÉÉÉ
ËËË = 1 bit
example: conversation 1
= 1 bit
example: conversation 2ÉÉÉ = 1 bit
So the bits that make up a single conversation (64 kbit/s) are distributed throughout the
transmission frame. Predicting their exact location is difficult because of the extra timing bit,
used for bit stuffing.
Each higher order frame contains per tributary one bit position, that can be stuffed.
Whether this bit contains tributary signal information or it is stuffed depends on the difference
of the real bitrate and the nominal bitrate of the incoming tributary signal. The problem is that
the content of this bit (tributary data or stuffing) is not known before demultiplexing. This is
the reason why it is impossible to remove a 2 Mbit/s signal from a 140 Mbit/s signal directly.
We have to go through the different demultiplexing levels, as shown on Figure 5. Because of
the same reasons we can not insert directly a 2 Mbit/s signal into a 140 Mbit/s signal either.

1.1.2 THE SOLUTION IN SDH – Add/Drop multiplexer
In the SDH transmission network the network resources are synchronised to a master
clock. (More about synchronisation in chapter 3.3)
In such a network it is possible to assemble higher order frames by byte interleaving, instead
of bit interleaving as it happens in PDH networks.
This permits a more appropriate way to remove and add lower order signals from and into a
higher order signal. We can now directly drop/add lower order signals, without having to
demultiplex/multiplex through the whole hierarchy. ( Figure 8 )
Figure 8 : Add/drop multiplexing
140 Mbit/s signal 140 Mbit/s signal

ADD/DROP multiplexer
Drop lower order Add

signal

1.2 TRANSMISSION HIERARCHY
1.2.1 THE PROBLEM IN PDH – Different hierarchies
Because of historical reasons different PDHs were defined in the North American, European
and Japanese transmission networks. A fourth hierarchy was defined as a hybrid of the
European and North American PDHs when it became necessary to connect digital
transmission links between the continents. Figure 9 shows all four hierarchies.
Figure 9 : International plesiochronous digital hierarchies (kbit/s)
Hierarchical North Europe Japan Trans–Atlantic

level America
0 64 64 64 64
1 1544 2048 1544 2048
2 6312 8448 6312 6312
3 44736 34368 32064 44736
4 139264 139264 97728 139264
1.2.2 THE SOLUTION IN SDH – One higher order hierarchy
For the SDH one common hierarchy will be defined.
The existing PDHs only define bit rates up to 140 Mbit/s. Modern optical systems can offer
higher bit rates. So, in the SDH new levels of multiplexing hierarchies will be defined for
these high bit rates.

1.3 MANAGEMENT
Operators need a standardised way to manage their equipment and their network. In this
way transmission equipment from different vendors can also be managed centrally.
1.3.1 THE PROBLEM IN PDH – Limited possibilities
Traditional PDH equipment was not foreseen to be part of a powerful management system.
However, when higher order systems were designed, management had to be considered
too.
Problems still remained :
– limited functionality;
– proprietary management systems;
– no multi–vendor network management.
1.3.2 THE SOLUTION IN SDH – Powerful management
Because of the importance of efficient management the definition of the SDH transmission
system foresees a framework for this purpose.
The defined management strategy is also in line with the principles of the
Telecommunications Management Network (TMN) philosophy.
1.4 ADVANTAGES OF SDH
In summary, the characteristics of the new transmission system are :
– network resources are synchronised to a master clock.

Hence the names Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
and Synchronous Optical Network.
– it uses one worldwide hierarchy and defines very high bitrates;
Thus it also supports broadband services.
– it permits to do add/drop multiplexing;
This results in less equipment, and more flexibility.
– it includes the possibility of powerful management;
This results in flexibility and high reliability.
– it is based on optical fibre transmission links.
Hence the name Synchronous Optical Network.
Remark : however, radio links may also be used.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
2. DESCRIPTION OF SDH
2.1 SDH FRAMES
The name of the SDH transmission frame is Synchronous Transport Module, and it is
referred to as STM–N, where N indicates the SDH hierarchy level.
Figure 10 shows the basic, first level SDH frame structure, the
SYNCHRONOUS TRANSPORT MODULE 1 (STM–1).
Figure 10 : STM–1 (SDH)

270 bytes
1 9 10 270
1
Overhead PAYLOAD 9 rows
125 µsec
The characteristics of the STM–1 frame are :

– content : 9 x 270 bytes = 2430 bytes;
– period : 125 µsec;
– bitrate : 155,520 Mbit/s (2430 x 8 bits in every 125 µsec);
– payload capacity : 150,336 Mbit/s (2349 x 8 bits in every 125 µsec).
The transmission of the frame is done row by row, from the top left corner
(row number 1 on Figure 10).

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
SDH also defines higher order frames.

Generally, an STM–N frame contains :
overhead : 9 rows x 9 bytes x N
payload : 9 rows x 261 bytes x N
Consequently, its bitrate is N x bitrate of the STM–1 frame.
Standardised frames are: STM–4 : bitrate 622, 080 Mbit/s

STM–16 : bitrate 2 488, 320 Mbit/s
STM–64 : bitrate 9 953, 280 Mbit/s
It is also possible, that in the future higher rates corresponding to higher values of N will be
defined if network operators need them and when technology permits.
All STM frames have a period of 125 µsec .

In the SONET transmission system the basic, first level transmission frame is the
SYNCHRONOUS TRANSPORT SIGNAL 1 (STS–1). Its bitrate is 51,840 Mbit/s. (Figure 11)
Figure 11 : STS–1 (SONET)
90 bytes
1 3 4 90
1
Over PAYLOAD 9 rows

head
125 µsec
The SDH frames STM–1, STM–4, and STM–16 correspond respectively to STS–3, STS–12,
and STS–48 in the SONET standards.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
2.2 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
An SDH transmission network is handled as a layered structure. ( Figure 12 )

The three layers are :
– Path Layer;
– Multiplex Section Layer;
– Regenerator Section Layer.
Figure 12 : SDH network structure
Transmission path
Multiplex section
Regenerator
section
The STM–N frame contains different types of overhead information. The overhead
information is used for operation, administration, maintenance and provisioning (OAM&P).
The concept of layers permits to structure the overhead information into different blocks
inside of the STM–N frame. So each type of equipment has direct access to the information
it needs, and each type of equipment interprets only that information, which is meaningful
for it.
The Path layer overhead carries information related to a specific signal and its path through
the network.
The Multiplex Section Layer overhead carries information for the communication between
multiplexers.
The Regenerator Section Layer overhead carries information for the communication
between regenerators.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
2.3 SDH TERMINOLOGY
Chapter 1 referred to the fact that a PDH network is based on a synchronous frame
of 125 µsec, derived from the sampling rate used for the PCM of voice signals. It also
showed, that the PDH first order signals use byte interleaved frame structures, derived from
this same basic 125 µsec frame.
The SDH extends this principle to higher order multiplexing. Multiplexing is always done by
byte interleaving of 125 µsec frame synchronous signals.
STM–1 is the internationally standardised first order SDH frame, with a bitrate
of 155,52 Mbit/s. This frame can carry:
– a single, higher order signal of approximately 140 Mbit/s
or
– several lower order plesiochronous signals, which are multiplexed into a higher
order signal of approximately 140 Mbit/s . These lower order signals can be of
any type defined in the PDH hierarchy.
Figure 13 shows the principles of synchronous multiplexing.
An STM–N frame contains on the section layer level:

– SECTION OVERHEADs (SOH)
Carry information for the management of the regenerator and multiplexer
section layer. See chapter 2.5.
– ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT POINTER (AU PTR)
Indicator, used for the adaptation of the path layers. See chapter 2.6.
– The payload.
The payload part contains

– higher order Virtual Containers (VC).
A higher order Virtual Container contains :
– lower order Virtual Containers.
All Virtual Containers contain on the path layer level:

– PATH OVERHEAD (POH). See chapter 2.7.
– payload.
Virtual Containers are referred to as ”virtual” because they are
logical entities that only exist in an STM, and ”containers”,
because they contain the information (a particular signal).

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
Figure 13 : Synchronous multiplexing
lower order
VIRTUAL CONTAINERs
CONTAINER
lower order
PATH OVERHEAD
higher order
PATH OVERHEAD
higher order
VIRTUAL CONTAINERs
AU PTR Payload
SECTION
OVERHEAD Synchronous Transport Module

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
Figure 14 shows an example how multiplexing is done in SDH. It also introduces some new
terms (abbreviations), which we want to explain in this chapter.
Figure 14 : Multiplexing : from C–1 to STM–N
C–1 C–1
POH C–1 VC–1
TU–1 PTR VC–1 TU–1

TU–1 PTR TU–1 PTR VC–1 VC–1 TUG–2
byte interleaved
TUG–2 TUG–2 TUG–3
byte interleaved
VC–4 POH TUG–3 TUG–3 VC–4
AU–4 PTR VC–4 AU–4
AU–4 PTR VC–4 AUG
SOH AUG AUG STM–N
byte interleaved

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
CONTAINER (C)
A signal, which has to be transported in the SDH transmission network, is first ”put” in a
container.
To fit the different plesiochronous signals, different container sizes are defined. Figure 15
shows these containers.
Figure 15 : Containers in SDH
Name Bitrate (Mbit/s)
C–11 1,544
C–12 2,048
C–2 6,312
C–3 34,368
44,736
C–4 139,264
VIRTUAL CONTAINER (VC)

Each container has its associated Path Overhead (POH). The POH is generated at the
plesiochronous–synchronous interface, and it is terminated at the
synchronous–plesiochronous interface.
Thus a Virtual Container = Container + Path Overhead. ( Figure 16 )
Figure 16 : Virtual Container
POH Container

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
Different types of virtual containers exist. They are : VC–11, VC–12, VC–2, VC–3, and
VC–4. They correspond to their respective containers and their associated POH.
The different virtual containers are also divided in two types:

Lower order virtual containers: VC–11, VC–12, VC–2.
Higher order virtual containers: VC–3, VC–4
or an assembly of tributary unit groups (TUG–2s or TUG–3s)
TRIBUTARY UNIT (TU)

A Tributary Unit consists of a lower order VC and a TU Pointer. ( Figure17 )
The TU Pointer shows the offset of the lower order VC frame start relative to the higher
order VC frame start. This information is needed to align the phases of the two VCs.
Types of Tributary Units : TU–1, TU–2, TU–3. They correspond to their respective virtual
containers and their associated TU pointer.
Figure 17 : Tributary Unit
TU PTR
lower order
Virtual Container

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
TRIBUTARY UNIT GROUP (TUG)

One or more TUs in fixed, defined positions in a higher order VC payload form a Tributary
Unit Group. ( Figure 18 )
TUGs are defined in a flexible way. A TUG can be formed by different types of TUs, but in a
particular TUG structure only TUs of the same type are permitted.
Types of Tributary Unit Groups : TUG–2 and TUG–3.

A TUG–2 consists of a homogenous, byte interleaved assembly of identical TU–1s
or a TU–2.
A TUG–3 consists of a homogenous, byte interleaved assembly of TUG–2s or a TU–3.
Figure 18 : Tributary Unit Group (example TUG–2)

TU–1 TU–1
PTR PTR VC–1 VC–1

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT (AU)

An Administrative Unit consists of a higher order VC and an AU Pointer. ( Figure 19 )
The AU Pointer shows the offset of the higher order VC frame start relative to the multiplex
section frame (STM–N) start. This information is needed for phase alignment, which is to
adapt the higher order path layer to the multiplex section layer.
The location of the AU Pointer is fixed inside of the STM–N frame.
Types of Administrative Units : AU–3, AU–4. They correspond to their respective virtual
containers and their associated AU pointer.
The names AU–3 and AU–4 correspond respectively to

STS–1 Synchronous Payload Envelope (SPE), and STS–3c SPE in the SONET system.
Figure 19 : Administrative Unit (example AU–4)

AU PTR higher order

Virtual Container
ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT GROUP (AUG)

One or more AUs in fixed, defined positions in an STM–N payload form an Administrative
Unit Group. ( Figure 20)
An Administrative Unit Group consists of a homogenous, byte interleaved assembly of

AU–3s or an AU–4.
Figure 20 : Administrative Unit Group
AU–3 AU–3

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
2.4 MULTIPLEXING STRUCTURES
Before we discuss the section overhead, the pointer, and the path overhead informations in
more detail, it is useful to see which are the possible multiplexing paths that lead to an
STM–N frame.
Figure 21 shows the multiplexing structure, as CCITT defined it. This structure provides
useful reference information to situate the different types of VCs, TUs, TUGs, AUs, and
AUGs.
Some basic definitions:
SDH mapping : A procedure, where tributary signals are adapted into Virtual Containers at
the edge of an SDH network.
Both asynchronous and synchronous tributary signals can be adapted. Consequently, we

define different types of mapping :
– asynchronous mapping;
The incoming signals have the characteristic bitrate:
1,544 Mbit/s ± 50 ppm, 2,048 Mbit/s ± 50 ppm,
6,312 Mbit/s ± 30 ppm,
34,368 Mbit/s ± 20 ppm, 44,736 Mbit/s ± 20 ppm,
139,264 Mbit/s ± 15 ppm.
– bit synchronous mapping;
– byte synchronous mapping.
At the TU–1 and TU–2 levels we define two more types of mapping, the floating mode and
the locked mode mapping.
The asynchronous mapping uses the floating mode, the synchronous mapping can use
either the floating mode or the locked mode.
Floating mode : TUs are organised in a 500 µsec multiframe structure
(see chapter 2.6.3.b.). Pointer processing is needed.
Locked mode : fixed mapping of the signal inside of the TUG. Because of this
fixed position, no TU Pointers needed. No multiframe structure used either.
Floating mode is used more often than locked mode.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
SDH aligning : A procedure, where the frame offset value is combined with the
Tributary Unit or with the Administrative Unit.
Pointer processing : See description in chapter 2.6.
SDH multiplexing : A procedure, where

– several lower order path layer signals are adapted into a higher order
path layer signal;
or – several higher order path layer signals are adapted into a multiplex
section.
Concatenation : A procedure, where several Virtual Containers are associated with

each other, and their combined capacity is used as a single container.
About concatenation in chapter 2.6.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
Figure 21 : CCITT multiplexing structure
xN x1
STM–N AUG AU–4 VC–4 C–4
139,264 Mbit/s
x3
x1
TUG–3 TU–3 VC–3
x3
x7
AU–3 VC–3 C–3

x7 44,736 Mbit/s
34,368 Mbit/s
x1
TUG–2 TU–2 VC–2 C–2
6,312 Mbit/s
x3
mapping
aligning TU–12 VC–12 C–12
pointer processing 2,048 Mbit/s

x4
multiplexing
TU–11 VC–11 C–11
1,544 Mbit/s
This figure shows the signals that are associated with the SDH Containers. However, other
type of information, for example ATM cells, can also be mapped into the containers.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
ETSI defined a subset of possible multiplexing versions. Versions related to the SONET
standard are not supported. ( Figure 22 )
Figure 22 : ETSI multiplexing structure
xN x1
139,264 Mbit/s
x3
x1
x7
C–3
44,736 Mbit/s
34,368 Mbit/s
x1
x3
mapping
multiplexing
VC–11 C–11
1,544 Mbit/s
This figure shows the signals that are associated with the SDH Containers. However, other
type of information, for example ATM cells, can also be mapped into the containers.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
2.5 SECTION LAYER OVERHEADS
Figure 23 shows the Section Overhead (SOH) of the STM–1 frame.

The Section Overhead has two parts:
– Regenerator Section Overhead (RSOH), which is analysed by the
regenerators;
– Multiplexer Section Overhead (MSOH), which is analysed at the
multiplex section termination.
Figure 24 shows the contents of the SOH.
Figure 23 : Section Overhead STM–1
1 9 10 270 bytes
1
3
STM–1
5
1 9 bytes
2 REGENERATOR
SECTION OVERHEAD
3
6
MULTIPLEXER
7
SECTION OVERHEAD
8

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
Figure 24 : Contents of the SOH (STM–1)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 bytes
1 A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0 X X
RSOH 2 B1 E1 F1 X X
3 D1 D2 D3
5 B2 B2 B2 K1 K2
6 D4 D5 D6
MSOH
7 D7 D8 D9
8 D10 D11 D12
9 S1 Z1 Z1 Z2 Z2 M1 E2 X X
Unmarked bytes
These bytes are RESERVED for future international standardisation (for media dependent,
additional national use and other purpose).

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
2.5.1 REGENERATOR SECTION OVERHEAD
A1 and A2 bytes
The name of these bytes is FRAMING bytes, so they are used for frame alignment.
Their values are: – A1 : 11110110;
– A2 : 00101000.
J0 byte
This byte is the REGENERATOR SECTION TRACE byte.
Its content is for further study.
Note: in earlier versions of the recommendation, this byte was marked as C1. Its purpose
was to identify the interleaved STM–1 frames in an STM–N frame.
Scrambling
The complete STM–N frame, except of the first row of the SOH, is scrambled. The
scrambling is done to maintain acceptable transition density and DC balance.
Control of these two parameters is necessary for transmission on many media, also on
optical fibre (transitions).
The framing information must not be scrambled, because the scrambler receives its frame
synchronisation from the STM–N frame itself. Only when the STM–N frame is recovered can
the rest of the STM–N frame be descrambled.
The standards recommend a 7–stage frame synchronous scrambler of generating
polynomial 1+x6+x7 and sequence length 127.
B1 byte
This byte permits the ERROR MONITORING of the regenerator section.
The error monitoring function uses the Bit Interleaved Parity 8 (BIP–8) code, and even parity.
The general format of the polynomial is xn+x0, here n=8.
When information is sent : the BIP–8 is calculated over all bits of the previous STM–N frame
after scrambling, and it is put in the B1 byte of the actual STM–N frame before scrambling.
When information is received : the BIP–8 is recalculated, and if the calculated value differs
from the received value it is a sign of an error block.
E1 byte
The name of this byte is ENGINEERING ORDER WIRE channel, and it is used for voice
communication. (1 byte in an STM–N frame corresponds to a bitrate of 64 kbit/s).
It permits to make a telephone call between maintenance people. The standards do not give
information about how to use this byte.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
F1 byte
The name of this byte is USER CHANNEL. Similar to the E1 byte it is also used for voice (or
data) communication.
It permits to make a telephone call between operators for example if a physical alarm
condition occurs. The standards do not give information about how to use this byte.
D1, D2 and D3 bytes

The name of these bytes is DATA COMMUNICATION CHANNEL. These bytes, with a total
bitrate of 192 kbit/s, carry data messages for management purposes.
Bytes noted with X

These bytes are RESERVED for NATIONAL USAGE, which means that the telecom
operator can decide how to use them.
2.5.2 MULTIPLEXER SECTION OVERHEAD
B2 bytes
These bytes permit the ERROR MONITORING of the multiplex section.
The error monitoring function uses the Bit Interleaved Parity N x 24 (BIP–N x 24) code, and
even parity. N shows the STM–N order frame. Thus BIP–24 for STM–1, BIP–96 for STM–4,
and BIP–384 for STM–16. The general format of the polynomial is xn+x0, here n=24.
When information is sent : the BIP–Nx24 is calculated over all bits of the previous STM–N
frame except of the first three rows of the SOH (this is the RSOH), and it is put in the B2
bytes of the actual STM–N frame before scrambling.
When information is received : the BIP–Nx24 is recalculated, and if the calculated value
differs from the received value it is a sign of an error block (cfr. usage of M1 byte).
K1 and K2 bytes
These are bytes for AUTOMATIC PROTECTION SWITCHING. They control the automatic
protection switching across a set of multiplex sections organised as a protection group.
Bits 6,7, and 8 of the K2 byte carry the Remote Defect Indicator (RDI) signal.
This signal is sent to the transmit end (upstream) to indicate that the receiving end detected
(downstream) an incoming section failure or received an Alarm Indication Signal (AIS).
The RDI signal has the value 110 in the respective bits. (Figure 25)

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
Figure 25 : AIS and RDI
AIS
MUX MUX
transmit end RDI receive end
The purpose of protection switching is to protect the protection group against cable cuts, but
it also protects against failure of the optical interface and some of the multiplex section
terminating circuitry. Generally, N working multiplex sections are associated with one
protection multiplex section, to form a 1: N multiplex section protection group.
SDH networks mostly use 1+1 protection mechanism. A possible configuration is, when two
identical rings (fibers) form the network. One fibre is the Active ring, the other fibre is the
Protection ring. They work in opposite directions. Each source transmits the information
(STM–N frame) on both fibres. The receivers monitor the signals on both fibres, and they
select the better signal of the two.
This automatic protection switching ability of the SDH networks largely increase their
reliability and it is considered as a very important characteristic of them. It is also referred to
as SELF HEALING .
Figure 26 shows the principles of protection switching for a typical ring network.
More about network protection in chapter 3.2

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
Figure 26 : Protection switching (example)
Active fibre
Protection fibre
Transmitter
Transmitter
Receiver
Receiver
Multiplexer A
Multiplexer B
Transmitter
Receiver Multiplexer C
An example:
On a full duplex path between multiplexer A and multiplexer C, information flows from A to
C clockwise from A through B to C over the Active fibre. Information from C to A also flows
over the same Active fibre clockwise, directly from C to A. If a fibre break–down occurs
between A and C, the information does not arrive to A over the Active fibre any longer.
A detects the loss of information from C, and it switches over automatically to the Protection
fibre to receive the information from the opposite direction.
A response time better than 50 msec is required to avoid the loss of telephone calls during
protection switching.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
D4 – D12 bytes
The name of these bytes is embedded DATA COMMUNICATION CHANNEL. These bytes,
with a total bitrate of 576 kbit/s, carry data messages between multiplex sections for
management purposes. Telecommunications Management Network (TMN) management
entities can communicate through this channel. So it has a similar purpose to that of the
DCC of the RSOH.
S1 byte
The bits 5 to 8 of this byte are used to carry the SYNCHRONISATION STATUS MESSAGE.
Four synchronisation levels that are defined by recommendations are indicated by defined
bit patterns. These are: 0010 for G.811 , 0100 for G.812transit , 1000 for G.812local , and
1011 for Synchronous Equipment Timing Source (SETS).
Two additional bit patterns are assigned, 0000 to indicate that the quality of the
synchronisation is unknown, and 1111 to indicate that the section can not be used for
synchronisation.
Other bit patterns are operator defined (reserved).
M1 byte
This byte is (provisionally) allocated to carry the multiplex section Remote Error Indication
(REI). It contains the number of errored blocks that were detected by the B2 bytes
calculation. ( Figure 27 )
Figure 27 : B2 and REI
STM–N (with B2)
MUX MUX
transmit end STM–N (with M1) receive end
E2 byte
The name of this byte is ENGINEERING ORDER WIRE channel, and it is used for voice
communication.
So it has a similar purpose to that of the E1 byte of the RSOH. It permits to make a
telephone call between maintenance people located at the multiplex section termination. The
standards do not give information about how to use this byte.
Z1 and Z2 bytes
Their function is not defined yet.
Bytes noted with X
These bytes are RESERVED for NATIONAL USAGE, which means that the telecom
operator can decide how to use them.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
2.6 POINTERS
2.6.1 THE POINTER MECHANISM
SDH assigns a basic number of bytes for a tributary or administrative signal, in the 125µsec
time period. For example, 32 bytes are assigned for a 2048 kbit/s signal.
This number of bytes are nominally correct, however, in the real network the phase of an
incoming 2048 kbit/s signal is marginally more or marginally less than that of the SDH
equipment (add/drop multiplexer, cross–connect).
To solve the problem of this phase variation, SDH includes a mechanism that permits from
time to time to add or to remove a number of bytes in the 125µsec time period . This
mechanism is the FREQUENCY JUSTIFICATION with POINTER ADJUSTMENT or the
POINTER MECHANISM.
All types of signals, thus the virtual containers, both in the AUs and in the TUs can be
located and accessed directly through the pointers. It is this pointer mechanism, together
with the synchronous multiplexing structure, that permits us to do add/drop multiplexing.
Thus it is a very important characteristic of SDH.
Two types of pointers are used: AU Pointers and TU Pointers.
2.6.2 ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT POINTERS
Administrative Unit Pointers are : AU–4 Pointer and AU–3 Pointer.
The AU Pointer permits to locate the VC –4 or VC–3 inside of the AU frame through a
flexible and dynamic procedure. This is necessary, because the VC may ”float” inside of the
AU frame (payload of STM–N). ( Figure 29)
The ”floating” is caused by the variation of the frame phase between the incoming higher
order VC and the locally generated frame phase of the multiplexing section. The locally
generated frame phase is the reference of the outgoing STM–N frame. ( Figure 28 )

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
Figure 28 : Clock phase variations
incoming SDH equipment outgoing

STM–N STM–N
processing and
(incoming clock) temporary buffering (outgoing clock)
outgoing reference clock
Figure 29 : Possible positions of a VC–4 in an STM–1 (examples)
STM–1 STM–1
1 270 1 270
1 1
RSOH RSOH
4 AU PTR 4 AU PTR
MSOH MSOH
9 9
VC–4
VC–4
a. AU Pointer location and value
The AU Pointer fills the space of the 4th row of the overhead in the STM–N frame.
Three types of bytes (H1, H2, and H3) contain the AU Pointer. ( Figure 31)
One AU–4 Pointer is assigned in the available position.

Because three VC–3s fit into an AUG, each of them has its associated AU–3 pointer.
Consequently, three AU–3 Pointers are assigned, one for each VC–3. Each AU–3 Pointer
operates autonomously.
Remark : The case, when three VC–3s form an AUG is typical for SONET networks.
SONET and ETSI SDH form the internal structure of the AUG differently. More about this in
chapter 2.10.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
Bytes H1 and H2 contain the AU Pointer value.

The H3 bytes, and the three bytes after them are used for the justification. Three bytes for a
VC–4, and one byte for a VC–3.
The two bytes , H1 and H2, of the pointer operate as one 16–bit word, as Figure 30 shows
it. The last 10 bits (bits 7–16) of this word carry the pointer value, which is a binary number
with a range of 0–782. It represents the offset between the AU Pointer position and the first
byte of the higher order VC. See Figure 29 and Figure 31 for this.
The offset is measured in 3–byte increments for the AU–4 Pointer, and in 1–byte increments
for the AU–3 Pointer. The AU Pointer bytes are not part of the offset value. For example, in
an AU–4, the AU Pointer value of 0 shows, that the VC–4 starts in the byte location that
immediately follows the last H3 byte. An AU–4 Pointer value of 87 shows, that the VC–4
starts three bytes after the K2 byte.
Figure 30 : AU Pointer format

I ––––––––––––> H1 <––––––––––– I ––––––––––––> H2 <––––––––––– I

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
N N N N S S I D I D I D I D I D
I –––––––> 10 bit pointer value : 0 to 782 <––––– I
N bits : New Data Flag I bits : Increment bits (used at positive justification)
enabled: 1001 D bits : Decrement bit (used at negative justification)
disabled : 0110
Note : The complete pointer value (H1 and H2) is set to all 1s, when an AIS occurs.
AU Pointer example:
0 1 1 0 1 0 PO IN TE R VA LU E
S bits : show AU type, value 10
Concatenation Indicator:
1 0 0 1 S S 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
S bits : not specified.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
Figure 31 : AU Pointer offset numbering
AU–4 Pointer offset numbering
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 270
1 negative justification positive justification
opportunity (3 bytes) opportunity (3 bytes)
4 H1 Y Y H2 1 1 H3 H3H3 0 – 1 – – 86 – –
– –
87 – 88
–
9 521 – –
1 522 –
125 µsec
782 – –
4 H1 Y Y H2 1 1 H3 H3H3 0 – – 1 – – 86 – –
9
250 µsec
Y byte : 1001SS11 (S bits are not specified) 1 byte : 11111111
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 270
opportunity( 3x1 byte) opportunity ( 3x1 byte)
4 H1 H1 H2 H2H2 H3 H3H3 0 0 1 1 1 85 86 86 86
H1 0
87 87 87 88
9 521 521
1 522 522
125 µsec
782782 782
4 H1 H1H1 H2 H2H2 H3 H3H3 0 0 0 1 1 1 85 86 86 86
9
250 µsec

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
b. Justification procedure
During the alignment process between the higher order path layer and the multiplex section
layer, the higher order VCs, which have to be multiplexed, are put in a buffer. ( Figure 28 )
Positive justification ( Figure 32 )
When the buffer reaches its ”low fill” threshold, which corresponds to the fact, that the
incoming higher order VC arrives temporary slower than the rate of the outgoing STM–N
frame, then :
1. the phase of the outgoing higher order VC must be put back in time by one unit
relative to the STM–N frame. This means:
Transmission from the buffer is stopped during the unit time, which is equivalent
to the transmission of dummy information in the three positive justification bytes
of the AUG for VC–4, or in one of the three positive justification bytes of the AUG
for a VC–3 .
This bytes are marked ”0” on Figure 31.
2. the AU Pointer has to be incremented by one unit. This means:

The bits 7, 9, 11, 13, and 15, marked the ”I” bits, of the AU Pointer are inverted.
This five bits permit majority voting at the receiver.
The next frame will carry the new pointer value, which is equal to the old pointer
value + the incremented unit.
Pointer adjustments must be separated by at least three STM–N frame times.
This means, that the receiver only accepts the new pointer value, if it remains
the same during at least three frame times.
Adjusting one unit is equal to three bytes for AU–4, and one byte for AU–3 as seen
in 2.6.2.a.
Remark: Majority voting means, that that information is accepted, which occurs in the majority of the
bits.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
Figure 32 : Positive justification in the AU–4
VC–4
pointer value = A
H1 Y Y H2 X X H3 H3 H3
VC–4
three positive
pointer value : I bits inverted justification bytes
VC–4
pointer value = A+ 1
VC–4
pointer value = A+1
VC–4

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
Negative justification ( Figure 33 )
When the buffer reaches its ”high fill” threshold, which corresponds to the fact, that the
incoming higher order VC arrives temporary faster than the rate of the outgoing STM–N
frame, then :
1. the phase of the outgoing higher order VC must be put forward in time by one
unit relative to the STM–N frame. This means:
VC payload information is transmitted in the three negative justification bytes of
the AUG for VC–4, or in one of the three negative justification bytes of the AUG
for a VC–3. This bytes are marked ”H3” on Figure 31.
2. the AU Pointer has to be decremented by one unit. This means:

The bits 8, 10, 12, 14, and 16, marked the ”D” bits, of the AU Pointer are
inverted. This five bits permit majority voting at the receiver.
The next frame will carry the new pointer value, which is equal to the old
pointer value – the decremented unit.
Pointer adjustments must be separated by at least three STM–N frame times.

This means, that the receiver only accepts the new pointer value, if it remains
the same during at least three frame times.
Adjusting one unit is equal to three bytes for AU–4, and one byte for AU–3 as seen in
2.6.2.a.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
Figure 33 : Negative justification in the AU–4
VC–4
pointer value = A
VC–4
pointer value: three negative

D bits inverted justification bytes
H1 Y Y H2 X X
VC–4
pointer value = A – 1
VC–4
VC–4

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
New Data Flag
When it is necessary to make a specific, non–unit change of the pointer value the New Data
Flag (NDF) indicator is used. This indicator fills the first 4 bits, marked ”N” of the AU Pointer,
as Figure 30 shows it.
Normally the value of NDF is 0110, which means that the indicator is disabled. When the
non–unit change of the pointer has to be signalled, the value of NDF is set to 1001. This
means, that the indicator is enabled. The other bits of the AU Pointer show the new pointer
value.
The new pointer value is immediately accepted, if al least three out of the four N–bits are
correct (majority voting).
In the next STM–N frame, the NDF is reset to 0110.
Also applies here, that pointer adjustments must be separated by at least three STM–N
frame times.
Remark : If a receiver detects a new pointer value without previous positive or negative
justification, or the NDF indication, it rejects it. However if the next three STM–N frames
contain the same new pointer value, it will accept it.
AU–4 Concatenation
Concatenation of AU–4s permits to transport payloads larger than the capacity of one VC–4.
In this case, the payload is put into a number of AU–4s, which directly follow each other. The
concatenation indicator ( Figure 30 ) shows, that this multi C–4 payload must be held
together.
X concatenated AU–4s form an AU–4–Xc. Only the first AU–4 contains the AU–4 Pointer, all
other AU–4s of the AU–4–Xc have the Concatenation Indicator set in their pointer position.
However, to maintain bit sequence integrity over the whole payload, the same pointer
actions are applied for each of the AU–4s as for the first one.
The pointer offset unit for an AU–4–Xc is X times 3 bytes.
The number of AU–4s that are concatenated is only limited by the maximum payload
quantity of the SDH structure.
A particular case is AU–4–4c, when 4 AU–4s are concatenated. It is recommended for the
transport of B–ISDN payloads. See chapter 2.9. on this.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
2.6.3 TRIBUTARY UNIT POINTERS
The transport mechanism of lower order VCs inside of the higher order VC is the Tributary
Unit. The TU can ”float” inside of the higher order VC, similar to the AU that can float inside
of the STM–N frame. Consequently, the TU Pointer mechanism is basically the same as the
AU Pointer mechanism (positive and negative justification, New Data Flag).
Tributary Unit Pointers are : TU–3 Pointer, TU–2 Pointer, and TU–1 Pointers.
a. TU–3 Pointer
Three TUG–3s fit into the payload of the VC–4, as shown on Figure 21.
The TU–3 Pointer permits to locate the VC – 3 inside of the TU–3 frame through a flexible
and dynamic procedure.
Because three VC–3s fit in a VC–4, three separate TU–3 Pointers are assigned in an AU–4.
The three pointers operate autonomously.
Three types of bytes (H1, H2, and H3) contain the TU–3 Pointer. ( Figure 35)
They have exactly the same function and mode of operation as those of the AU–3 and AU–4
Pointers.
Bytes H1 and H2 contain the TU–3 Pointer value.

The H3 byte, and the byte after it are used for the justification.
The two bytes , H1 and H2, of the pointer operate as one 16–bit word, as Figure 34 shows it.
The last 10 bits (bits 7–16) of this word carry the pointer value, which is a binary number
with a range of 0–764. It represents the offset between the pointer and the first byte of the
VC–3.
The offset is measured in 1–byte increments. Figure 35 shows the TU–3 Pointer offset
numbering.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
Figure 34 : TU–3 Pointer format
I ––––––––––> H1 <––––––––––––––I –––––––––––> H2 <–––––––––––– I

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
I –––––––> 10 bit pointer value : 0 to 764 <––––– I
disabled : 0110
Note : The complete pointer value (H1 and H2) is set to all 1s, when an AIS occurs.
TU–3 Pointer example:
S bits : show TU type, value 10
Null Pointer Indicator
1 0 0 1 S S 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
S bits: not specified.
Remark: Figure 21 shows that a TUG–3 can contain :

– one TU–3 (VC–3)
or
– an assembly of seven TUG–2s.
If the TUG–3 carries an assembly of TUG–2s the TU–3 Pointer is set to Null Pointer
Indicator, which means that the TU–3 Pointer is not used.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
Figure 35 : TU–3 Pointer offset numbering
VC–4
ÉÉÉ
1 261
ÉÉÉ
1 P H1 H1 H1 positive justification
a opportunity ( 3x1 byte )
t
ÉÉÉ H2 H2 H2
ÉÉÉ
H3 H3 H3 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 83 83 83 84 84 84
h
ÉÉÉ
O 85 85 85 86 86 86 87
ÉÉÉ
v Fixed
negative justification
e stuff
ÉÉÉ
opportunity ( 3x1 byte)
r-
h
ÉÉÉ
ÉÉÉ
e
ÉÉÉ
a
9 d 593 594 594 594
125 µsec
1
ÉÉÉ H1 H1 H1 595 595 595
596
P
ÉÉÉ H2 H2 H2 763 764 764 764
ÉÉÉ
O H3 H3 H3 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 83 83 83 84 84 84
ÉÉÉ
H Fixed 85 85 85 86 86 86 87
ÉÉÉ
stuff
ÉÉÉ
b. TU–2, TU–12 and TU–11 Pointer
Four TU–2s, (TUG–2s) or TU–1s transmitted after each other form a multiframe.
Consequently, the multiframe time period is 500µsec. ( Figure 37 )
The TU–2 Pointer permits to locate the VC – 2 inside of TU–2 multiframes through a flexible
and dynamic procedure.
The TU–1 Pointer permits to locate the VC –1 inside of TU–1 multiframes through a flexible
and dynamic procedure. The TU–1 pointer is only used with floating mapping.
The ” Vx” bytes carry the TU Pointer ( Figure 37 ), where x is equal to the position of the
particular TU frame inside of the multiframe, thus 1, 2, 3 or 4. For the position of the TU
Pointers and Vx bytes, see also Figure 45 and Figure 46.
Bytes V1 and V2 contain the TU Pointer value.

The V3 byte, and the byte after it are used for the justification.
Byte V4 is not defined yet.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
The V1 and V2 bytes operate as one 16–bit word, as Figure 36 shows it. The last 10 bits
(bits 7–16) of this word carry the pointer value, which has a different range for each type of
TU. It represents the offset between the V2 byte and the first byte of the VC
(V5 byte – see chapter 2.7.2 ). The TU Pointer bytes are not calculated in the offset value.
The offset is measured in 1–byte increments.
Figure 36 : TU–2 and TU–1 Pointer format
I –––––––––––> V1 <–––––––––––– I ––––––––––––> V2 <––––––––––––I

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

disabled : 0110
S bits : show TU type, value 00 I –––––––> 10 bit pointer value : 0 to 427 <–––––– I
1 0 0 1 S S 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
Figure 37 shows the TU Pointer offset numbering.
Figure 37 : TU–2 and TU–1 Pointer offset numbering
TU multiframe TU–2 TU–12 TU–11

o f f s e t v a l u e s
TU nr.1 V1
321 105 78
125 µsec 427 139 103

TU nr.2 V2
0 0 0
106 34 25
250 µsec neg. just.
TU nr.3 V3 (1 byte)
pos. just.
(1 byte )
107 35 26
375 µsec 213 69 51

TU nr.4 V4
214 70 52
500 µsec 320 104 77
TU–2 concatenation
TU–2 concatenation is defined, because in the future, transmission systems will also have to
carry new services at bit rates different than those of PDH. Such typical services are
high–speed data and intermediate video rates.
The TU Concatenation Indicator is used as it is explained for the AU concatenation.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
2.7 PATH LAYER OVERHEADS
The Path Overhead (POH) ( Figure 38) permits to check the quality of the path layer at the
path termination. Two types of Path Overheads (POH) are defined, the Higher order POH
and the Lower order POH.
Figure 38 : Path Overhead
POH payload
Virtual Container
2.7.1 HIGHER ORDER POH
Higher order POH is associated with the VC–4 in the SDH system, and with the VC–3 in the
SONET system.
The internal structure of the POH is the same for both cases, as Figure 39 shows it.
Figure 39 : POHs for VC–4 and VC–3
1 261 bytes 1 85
J1 J1
B3 B3
C2 C2
G1 G1
F2 F2
H4 H4
Z3 Z3
K3 K3
Z5 Z5
VC–4 VC–3

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
J1 byte
This byte offers the PATH TRACE function.
The source, at the beginning of the path, repetitively inserts in this byte a string, the high
order Path Access Point Identifier (PAPI). The receiver at the path termination compares the
received string with the expected value, so it can be sure that it is connected to the intended
source.
The standards recommend a 64–byte free format string or a 16–byte E.164 format string.
B3 byte
The B3 byte permits the ERROR MONITORING of the path.
The error monitoring function uses the Bit Interleaved Parity 8 (BIP–8) code, and even parity.
When information is sent: the BIP–8 is calculated over all bits of the previous
VC (VC–4 or VC–3) before scrambling, and it is put in the B3 byte of the actual VC before
scrambling. When information is received: BIP–8 is recalculated.
C2 byte
The C2 byte is the path SIGNAL LABEL, and it identifies the VC payload type.
The byte mapping code is defined as (hexadecimal values):

– 0: VC path is not equipped. This value is used, when the section is complete,but
there is no path originating equipment. For example, a cross–connect equipment
can fill in this 0 value, if no cross–connection is done.
Note : any value other than 0 of the C2 byte shows an equipped condition.
– 1: VC path is equipped, non–specific payload. This value is used for all payloads
that do not need to be detailed.
– 2: TUG payload structure
– 3: locked TU mode
– 4: asynchronous 34Mbit/s or 45Mbit/s signal in VC–3
–12: asynchronous 140Mbit/s signal in VC–4
–13: ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) cells payload
–14: MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) frames payload
–15: FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) frames payload
The 247 other possible values of the C2 byte remain for future usage.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
G1 byte
The G1 byte is the PATH STATUS byte. It carries information back to the VC path source
about the condition and performance of the path termination.
Figure 40 shows the contents of the G1 byte.
Figure 40 : G1 byte format
REI RDI ––
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Bits 1–4: contain the Remote Error Indication (REI), which shows the number of errors
received in the BIP–8 code (B3 byte).

The permitted range of this bits show 0–8 errors.
The values in range 9–15 are considered as no error in the BIP–8 code.
Bit 5: contains the Remote Defect Indicator (RDI) signal.

This bit is set to 1, to indicate path RDI, otherwise it is set to 0.
Bits 6–8: are not used.
F2 and Z3 bytes
This USER CHANNEL byte permits user communication between path elements.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
H4 byte
The H4 byte is a general POSITION INDICATOR. It can be payload specific, then it can
show the position of the VC–1 or VC–2 multiframes. (Figure 41)
Figure 41 : H4 byte position indicator
POH Payload
1 TU PTR (V4)
VC–3 / VC–4
6 H4: 00
9
1 TU PTR (V1)
VC–3 / VC–4
H4: 01
6
9
1 TU PTR (V2)
VC–3 / VC–4
H4: 10
6
9
1 TU PTR (V3)
VC–3 / VC–4
H4: 11
6
9
1 TU PTR (V4)
VC–3 / VC–4
K3 byte
Bits 1 to 4 are used for AUTOMATIC PROTECTION SWITCHING (APS), to protect the
higher order path level.
The allocation of the other bits of this byte is for further study.
Z5 byte
The Z5 byte is a NETWORK OPERATOR byte, used for specific management purposes.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
2.7.2 LOWER ORDER POH
The lower order virtual containers (VC–11, VC–12, VC–2) carry a one byte POH. This POH
is the V5 byte. It is the first byte of the multiframe structure, so it occurs only in every
500µsec. ( A multiframe structure is an assembly of four VCs, as explained for the TU–1 and
TU–2 Pointers in chapter 2.6.3.b.)
But because each VC carries a one byte overhead, there are three other overhead bytes
that occur during the 500µsec multiframe time. They are, respectively, the J2, Z6, and K4
bytes. These POH bytes are only used in floating mode.
Figure 42 gives a general view about the lower order POH and TU Pointers.
Figure 42 : VC mapping in multiframe and lower order POH

TU nr.1 V1
TU nr.2 V2
TU nr.3 V3
V5
TU nr.4 V4
125 µsec
J2
250 µsec
Z6
375 µsec
K4
500 µsec

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
V5 byte
The V5 byte supplies the function of ERROR MONITORING, SIGNAL LABEL, and
PATH STATUS. ( Figure 43 )
Figure 43 : VC–1, VC–2 POH V5 byte format
BIP–2 REI RFI SIGNAL LABEL RDI

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Bits 1–2: error monitoring by BIP–2 code, with even parity.

BIP–2 is calculated over the complete previous VC, except the V1, V2, and V3
bytes (unless V3 contains data information, thus when negative justification

occurred). Bit 1 is set for the odd number bits (1,3,5, and 7),
bit 2 is set for the even number bits (2,4,6, and 8).
Bit 3: contains the Remote Error Indication (REI) signal, which shows if errors are
received in the BIP–2 code .
It is set to 1 if one or more errors occurred. It is set to 0 if no error occurred.
Bit 4: the path trace bit, or REMOTE FAILURE INDICATOR (RFI).

Indicator of path failure, if bit is set to 1.
Bit 5–7: these bits are the path SIGNAL LABEL. Possible values:
– 000: VC path is not equipped.
Note : any value other than 0 of these bits shows an equipped condition.
– 001: VC path is equipped, non–specific payload.
– 010: asynchronous, optional usage
– 011: bit synchronous, optional usage
– 100: byte synchronous, optional usage
– other values are reserved for future usage
Bit 8: contains the Remote Defect Indication (RDI) signal.

This bit is set to 1, if:
– an Alarm Indication Signal (AIS) was detected ;
or – signal failure condition is received;
Else the bit is set to 0.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
J2 byte
This byte offers the PATH TRACE function, similar to that of the J1 byte of the higher order
POH.
The source, at the beginning of the path, repetitively inserts in this byte a string, the low
order Path Access Point Identifier (PAPI). The receiver at the path termination compares the
received string with the expected value, so it can be sure that it is connected to the intended
source.
The standards recommend a 16–byte E.164 format string.
Z6 byte
This byte has a similar function as the Z5 byte in the higher order POH.
K4 byte
This byte has a similar function as the K3 byte in the higher order POH.
Bits 1 to 4 are used for AUTOMATIC PROTECTION SWITCHING (APS), to protect the
lower order path level.
The allocation of the other bits of this byte is for further study.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
2.8 A GUIDE THROUGH SDH MULTIPLEXING –

SUMMARY OF THE VC, TU, TUG, AND AUG STRUCTURES
The figures in this chapter together with Figure 21 and Figure 22 will help to make a final
summary of the possible structures we can find in SDH.
The figures in this chapter also follow the multiplexing hierarchy.
2.8.1 LOWER ORDER VIRTUAL CONTAINERS
Figure 44 : Lower order VCs

POH POH POH

(V5) (V5) (V5)
9
r
o
w
s
3 bytes 4 bytes 12 bytes
VC–11 VC–12 VC–2

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
2.8.2 STRUCTURE OF THE TUG–2
The TUG–2 with its 9 rows and 12 columns (bytes) was chosen because it can be arranged
as 4 groups of 3 columns or 3 groups of 4 columns, which correspond respectively to 4
groups of TU–11s and 3 groups of TU–12s. Figure 45 shows how the 12 columns are
assigned to 4 TU–11s, to 3 TU–12s, or a single TU–2. The TU–1s are multiplexed by
one–byte interleaving.
Figure 45 : Possible structures of a TUG–2
4 TU–11s in TUG–2 3 TU–12s in TUG–2 1 TU–2 in TUG–2
ÅÅ
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Ê
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ÇÇ
ÉÅÅ
ÂÂÇÅÅ
ÉÉ
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É
ÂÂ ÅÅ
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ÉÉÇÅÅ
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w
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÅÅ
ÂÂÇÅÅ
ÉÉ
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É
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ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÇÇ
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ÊÊ
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ÊÊ
Ê
s
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÅÅ
ÂÂÇÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
É
ÂÂ
12 bytes
ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
12 bytes
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
Ê
12 bytes
ÅÅ Ç
TU Pointer byte
ÉÉ ÂÂ
ÅÅ TU nr. 1 Ç TU nr. 2 ÉÉ TU nr. 3 ÂÂ TU nr. 4

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
Figure 46 shows one possible TUG–2 multiframe structure.
Figure 46 : TUG–2 multiframe contains 3 TU–12s
12 bytes
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÇÇÇ
ÉÉÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
V1
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÇÇÇ
ÉÉÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ Å
TU Pointer byte
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÇÇÇ
ÉÉÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ ÅÇ
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÇÇÇ
ÉÉÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
9
TU nr. 1
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÇÇÇ
ÉÉÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
r
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÇÇÇ
ÉÉÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ ÇÉ
o
w TU nr. 2
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ÉÉ
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ÉÉÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ s
É
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
Ç
ÇÅÅ
Ç
ÉÉ
ÇÇÇ
ÅÅÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÇÇ
ÇÇ
ÅÉÉ
125 µsec TU nr. 3

V2
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÉÉ ÉÉ ÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÇÇ
ÉÉ ÉÉÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
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ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÇÇ
ÉÉ ÉÉÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
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ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÇÇ
ÉÉ ÉÉÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
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ÉÉ ÉÉÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÇÇ
ÉÉ ÉÉÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
V3
ÅÅ
Ç
ÉÉ
ÅÅÅÅ
ÉÉ
Ç Ç
ÉÉ
ÇÅÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÉÉÅÇÇ
ÇÇ
ÅÉÉ
ÉÉ
250 µsec
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÇÇÇ
ÉÉ ÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÇÇÇ
ÉÉ ÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÇÇÇ
ÉÉ ÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
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ÉÉ
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ÉÉ ÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
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ÉÉ
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ÇÇÇ
ÉÉ ÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
Ç
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÅ ÅÉÉ
ÉÉ ÅÇÇ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
V4 ÅÅ
ÅÅ Ç
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÇÇ
ÉÉ Å
ÇÇ
ÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
375 µsec
ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÇÇ
ÉÉ ÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÇÇ
ÉÉ ÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÇÇ
ÉÉ ÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÇÇ
ÉÉ ÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÇÇ
ÉÉ ÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÇÇ
ÉÉ ÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ 500 µsec

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
2.8.3 VIRTUAL CONTAINER – 3
A VC–3 is a 9–row by 85–column structure. We can assemble a VC–3 by either multiplexing

7 TUG–2s or by mapping a C3 signal. ( Figure 47 )
If the VC–3 is assembled by 7 TUG–2s:

– each TUG–2 has a fixed position inside of the VC–3;
– each TUG–2 can have any type of structure;
– the TUG–2s are multiplexed by one–byte interleaving.
Figure 47 : Possible structures of a VC–3
7 TUG–2s in VC–3 C3 container

P P
9
r C–3
O O
o
w H H
s
85 bytes 85 bytes

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
2.8.4 STRUCTURE OF THE TUG–3
The TUG–3 is a 9–row by 86–column structure. We can assemble a TUG–3 by either

multiplexing 7 TUG–2s or by 1 TU–3. ( Figure 48 )
If the TUG–3 is assembled by 7 TUG–2s:

– the Null Pointer Indicator (NPI) is set for the TU–3 Pointer value;
– each of the TUG–2s can have any type of structure;
7 TUG–2s in TUG–3 1 TU–3 in TUG–3
N H1
P H2
9 I H3 P
r C–3
O
o
w H
s
86 bytes 86 bytes
fixed stuff

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
2.8.5 VIRTUAL CONTAINER – 4
A VC–4 is a 9–row by 261–column structure. We can assemble a VC–4 by either

multiplexing 3 TUG–3s or by mapping a C4 signal. ( Figure 49 )
If the VC–4 is assembled by 3 TUG–3s:

– each TUG–3 has a fixed position inside of the VC–4;
3 TUG–3s in VC–4 C–4 container

P P
9
r C–4
O O
o
w H H
s
261 bytes 261 bytes
fixed stuff
2.8.6 STRUCTURE OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT GROUP
The Administrative Units AU–3 and AU–4 transport the higher order virtual containers VC–3
and VC–4 respectively, together with their respective frame offsets coded in the AU Pointer.
( Figure 50 )
Remark : the content of the AU–3 is equal to the VC–3 plus two columns of fixed stuff.
We can assemble an AUG by either multiplexing 3 AU–3s or by 1 AU–4. ( Figure 51 )
If the AUG is assembled by 3 AU–3s:

– the AU–3s are multiplexed by one–byte interleaving.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
Figure 50 : Structure of the AU–3 and AU–4
AU–3 (VC–3 plus 2 columns of fixed staff) AU–4
P
9 O
AU–Pointer H
r AU–Pointer VC–4
o
w
s
1 30 59 87
87 bytes 261 bytes
fixed stuff
Figure 51 : Possible structures of an AUG
3 AU–3s in AUG AU–4 in AUG
9
r AU–Pointers AU–Pointer
o
w
s
261 bytes 261 bytes

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
2.8.7 MULTIPLEXING OF ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT GROUPS INTO STM–N
The STM–N contains the Section Overhead (SOH=RSOH+MSOH), Nx9 bytes of the AU
Pointer(s) and a structure of 9 rows by Nx261 columns.
The N AUGs are one–byte interleaved, and they have a fixed position inside of the STM–N
frame. ( Figure 52 )
Remark: STM–N frames are not assembled by multiplexing STM–1 frames.

STM–1, STM–4, STM–16, and STM–64 frames are disassembled at the network termination
(section termination, path termination) to recover their overheads and the VCs they contain.
Outgoing STM–N frames are reassembled with new overheads, with new pointers
(if necessary) and with new multiplexed VC assemblies.
Figure 52 : Multiplexing of N AUGs into STM–N

AUG nr. 1 AUG nr. N
AU–Pointer AU–Pointer
261 bytes 261 bytes
1 11..122..233...344..4
RSOH
AU–Pointers
H1H1..H1H2H2..H2 H3H3 H3
MSOH
260260...260261261..261
9
N x 9 bytes N x 261 bytes

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
Figure 53 shows the structure of the STM–N frame Section Overhead. We can note, that
certain bytes are present for all the N of the STM–1 frames, others are present only for the
first STM–1 frame.
Figure 53 : STM–N SOH
1 Nx9
*1 ... N 1 ... N 1 ... N 1 ... N

J0
A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 A2 A2 A2 (n–1)x Z0
X X X X
R
S
B1 E1 F1 X X X X O
H
D1 D2 D3
AU Pointers
B2 B2 B2 B2 B2 B2 K1 K2
D4 D5 D6 M
S
O
D7 D8 D9 H
D10 D11 D12

S1 Z2 M1
(n–1)x Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1 (n–2)x Z2 Z2 Z2 Z2 Z2 E2 X X X X
* : nth frame information

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
AU–4 concatenation ( Figure 54 )

The end of chapter 2.6.2. explained about the VC–4 concatenation. The capacity of the
VC–4–Xc, multi Container–4, is exactly X times the capacity of the C–4. For example:
X=4 : capacity is 599,040 Mbit/s;
X=16 : capacity is 2 396,160 Mbit/s.
Figure 54 : VC–4–Xc structure
P
9
r O
C–4–Xc fixed stuff
o
w
s H
X–1 X x 260
X x 261 bytes

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
2.9 SDH AND ATM
ATM, the Asynchronous Transfer Mode, was chosen by CCITT in 1990 for the transfer mode
of the Broadband ISDN network.
ATM defines, that all type of information (voice, data, video) has to be carried in the network
in form of cells. An ATM cell is 53 bytes long, it consists of a 5 bytes header and of a 48
bytes payload part. ( Figure 55 )
Figure 55 : ATM cell
Header Payload
1 56 53 bytes
An adaptation function maps the ATM cells into the SDH transmission system.
It inserts zero cells if the offered rate is not sufficient to fully load the SDH capacity, and
restricts the ATM source if its rate is too high. Thus, the actual transmitted cellstream has a
rate that is synchronous with the SDH Container in which it is transported, although the
information rate is defined by the ATM source.
To prevent the ATM cell payload to accidentally contain the SDH frame alignment or ATM
cell delineation information stream, the payload part of the ATM cell is scrambled. This also
protects the SDH network and the users against malicious users. The standards recommend
a self–synchronising scrambler of generating polynomial x43+1.

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
Mapping of ATM cells are done mainly into VC–4 and VC–4–4c Containers. This second
type, concatenated Container is a special case of VC–4–Xc, where X=4.
(see end of chapters 2.8.7. and 2.6.2.)
Note: In principle ATM cells can be mapped into any type of Virtual Container.
Figure 56 shows an example of the ATM cell mapping.

The ATM cell is mapped into a container with its byte boundaries aligned with the container’s
byte boundaries. However, because the container’s capacity is not an integer multiple of the
cell size, a cell can go across a container’s boundary.
To find the ATM cell boundary (cell delineation) the Header Error Control (HEC) parameter is
used, which is part of the contents of the ATM cell header.
Figure 56 : ATM cells mapped into VC–4–Xc
fixed
POH stuff
J1
B3 ...
C2
G1 ATM cell
F2
H4
Z3
K3
Z5 ...
X–1 X x 260
X x 261 bytes

DESCRIPTION OF SDH
2.10 SDH AND SONET
In this chapter 2 we referred already several times to the differences between

SONET and SDH.
To make a summary :
1. their definition of the basic frame.

STM–1 with 155,520 Mbit/s, STS–1 with 51,840 Mbit/s
2. the type of AU they use.

The SONET network uses AU–3 for telephonic traffic, and it will use
AU–4 for broadband traffic.
SDH uses the AU–4 for both cases, and as Figure 22 shows ETSI SDH does not
use any AU–3 at all.

THE SDH NETWORK
3. THE SDH NETWORK
This chapter briefly describes the most important characteristics of an SDH network,
which means network configuration, network protection, timing aspects, and physical
interfaces .
3.1 SDH NETWORK CONFIGURATION AND NETWORK ELEMENTS
3.1.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Figure 57 shows a typical SDH network configuration for a national network.

The first level represents the backbone network which is implemented as a mesh network
to provide flexible traffic routing and network protection. It operates typically with STM–16
equipment.
The second level represents the regional network. It operates typically with STM–4
equipment.
The third level represents the local network, which interfaces with the access network. It
operates typically with STM–1 equipment.
Here is an example to show what happens with the information that user A sends to user B.
Follow the way of the information on Figure 57. (Remark : this figure is limited to the
transmission equipment, so it doesn’t show the digital exchanges.)
The originating user, A transmits its information to user B, who is situated several hundreds
of kilometres away. The signal of user A, together with other users’ plesiochronous signals
(2 Mbit/s, 34 Mbit/s), arrives to the SDH network.
In the local network the STM–1 frame that contains user A’s signal travels toward the
gateway to the regional network. Meanwhile this signal passes through a number of
Add/Drop multiplexers, where other plesiochronous signals are dropped and added.
When the STM–1 frame that contains user A’s signal arrives to the regional network, it is
added into the STM–4 frame format of that regional network. This STM–4 frame then travels
toward the gateway to the backbone network. At this gateway this, and other STM–4 frames
are multiplexed into an STM–16 frame. At this point in the regional network, and in the
backbone network Cross–connect equipment is used.
In the backbone network, the STM–16 frame that contains user A’s signal is forwarded to
the cross–connect equipment, which forms the gateway toward that regional network, which
is connected to user B’s local network.
Further the same actions, naturally in a reverse order, take place as explained above.

THE SDH NETWORK
Figure 57 : Typical SDH network configuration
Cross
STM–16 Cross
Connect
Connect
Meshed Network Backbone
network
Cross Cross
Connect Connect
Cross
Regional
Connect
Cross
Add Connect network
gateway Drop
Mux gateway Add
Drop Add
Mux Drop
STM–4 Mux
Add Add
Drop Drop
Add
Ring Network
Mux Mux
Drop
Add
Mux Drop
Mux
gateway
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ Add
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
Local
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
Drop Add gateway
Mux Drop Add network
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
Add Add
Mux Drop
Drop Drop
Mux
Mux Mux
Add
Add- Drop STM–1
Drop
Mux Ring Network
Mux
Add-
Drop
Mux
Mux
Mux
user B Access
user A Mux
Mux Mux

THE SDH NETWORK
3.1.2 NETWORK ELEMENTS
In an SDH network three types of transmission equipment can be used:

– Add/Drop multiplexer;
– Digital Cross–Connect;
– Line equipment.
a. Add/Drop multiplexer (ADM)
As it was explained in chapter 2, this equipment permits to add and to drop tributary signals
to and from a passing STM frame. ( Figure 58 )
Figure 58 : Add/Drop multiplexer function (example)

STM–1 STM–1
. . .
2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s STM–1
Remark: The minimum granularity that the SDH network can handle is the bitrate of
2 Mbit/s (1.5 Mbit/s). Consequently, information can not arrive with a smaller
bitrate to the access multiplexer. For example, this is the case of a telephone
call, whose bitrate is 64 kbit/s. Therefore telephone signals or other signals less
than 2 Mbit/s have to be multiplexed into a signal, which is equal to one of the
defined hierarchy levels, thus 2 Mbit/s or more, before they arrive to the SDH
network.

THE SDH NETWORK
b. Digital Cross–Connect (DXC)
DXC equipment is usually used in the backbone network, or at the gateway between the
regional and backbone network. This equipment has a very similar functionality to that of the
add/drop multiplexer ( Figure 59 ).
However, it is bigger, and it has more ports than an ADM. For example it can have up to 192
STM–1 equivalent ports, which means up to 12000 2 Mbit/s ports or a corresponding mixture
of ports with different bit rates. Another difference compared to the ADM is the internal
connection possibilities.
Figure 59 : Digital Cross–connect function (example)
. .
STM–1 . .
. . STM–1
...
c. Line Equipment
This multiplexer is basically a higher order multiplexer, which grooms STM–1 frames into
STM–4 frames ( Figure 60 ), or STM–4 frames into STM–16 frames.
Figure 60 : Higher order multiplexer function (example)
STM–1
STM–1
.
. . STM–4
. .
.
STM–1

THE SDH NETWORK
Figure 61 gives an overview about the different types of SDH network elements. Note, that
the biggest difference among these network elements is in their size and in their flexibility
concerning the connection function.
Figure 61 : SDH network element types
Cross–Connect
Add/Drop mux
Line equipment
Relative complexity
Consequently, an important remark:

So, if we compare the functionality of these equipments, explained on the previous pages,
we can notice, that they are quite similar. All of them treat STM–N frames, virtual
containers, and other elements of the SDH system. Therefore, we can state, that in a real
network the decision about which type of equipment we have to use depends on the
network configuration, on the required equipment functionality, and on the required network
protection procedure. (About network protection in chapter 3.2.)

THE SDH NETWORK
3.1.3 EXAMPLES
Rings of ADMs play an important role in the SDH network architecture. Therefore, when we
design complex networks, it becomes very important how we interconnect these rings.
Figure 62 until Figure 64 show some possible ring architectures, and their interconnections.
Figure 62 : Ring interconnection with STM–N tributaries
ADM ADM
ADM STM–4 ring ADM ADM STM–1 ring ADM
STM–1 tributaries
interconnection
ADM ADM

THE SDH NETWORK
Figure 63 : Ring interconnection with STM–N tributaries (dual node)
ADM ADM
ADM ADM
ADM STM–4 ring STM–1 ring ADM

ADM ADM
STM–1 tributaries
interconnection
ADM ADM
Figure 64 : Single node ring interconnection with DXC
ADM ADM
ADM STM–4 ring DXC STM–1 ring ADM
ADM ADM

THE SDH NETWORK
3.2 NETWORK PROTECTION
3.2.1 NETWORK PROTECTION METHODS
Network availability and efficient treatment of network failures are very important aspects of
the SDH network. Therefore, different strategies exist to solve the possible problems. These
strategies depend on the type of failure that can occur and on the level of network
availability required.
Consequently, three levels of network protection are defined :

– unit protection;
– multiplex section (link) protection;
– path protection.
Figure 66 gives an overview of the different types of failures and protections.

Some explanations about the used notations:
N + 1 Protection : 1 protection board,link, etc. foreseen respectively for N active

board, link,etc.
N : 1 Protection: the protection board, link,etc. can be used for low priority traffic.
( Figure 65 )
Figure 65 : N : 1 protection (example)
Before failure After failure
1 1
J J
K .. K ..
. .
N N
N tributaries operational N –1 tributaries operational

J low priority traffic J high priority traffic , taken over from K
K high priority traffic low priority traffic is stopped
EPS (Equipment Protection Switching) : this protection is done at unit level. It occurs after an
internal failure, like card missing, card mismatch, no
response from card, etc., or after other specifically
defined failure condition.
APS (Automatic Protection Switching) : It occurs after a multiplex section failure.
PPS (Path Protection Switching) : This protection is done at path level, and mainly used in
ring networks. It occurs after a path failure.

THE SDH NETWORK
Figure 66 : Possible failures
Protection
Failure
Example Type Redundancy
Component Equipment protection switching Board

EPS N+1
o EPS 1+1
o
o
Automatic protection switching
APS N+1 Board

and
o APS 1 +1 Cable
o o APS N:1
o o
o APS 1:1
Link Cable protection with 2 different routes

APS 1 +1 Route
route 1 APS 1 : 1
with 2 routes
Cause: types :
– excavator route 2 – ring
– sabotage – mesh
Node Node protection

types : Node
– ring
– mesh
Cause:
– fire
– energy
break–down

THE SDH NETWORK
We can make a summary of the usage of the different protection types:
Equipment Protection Switching :

For non–strategic networks that carry light traffic, EPS is an adequate protection type. Circuit
board duplication supports this EPS 1+1 or EPS N + 1 function. ( Figure 66 )
Sometimes the cables are also duplicated; then APS 1+1 or APS N + 1 can be done. This
means, that in case of a circuit board failure, there is not only a change–over to the
protection board, but also to the protection link.
Automatic Protection Switching, link protection :

For networks that carry heavy traffic or that are of strategic importance, a more powerful
protection procedure is needed. The network also needs protection against link failure.
Duplication of the link on two different routes (APS 1+1) provides such a protection.
( Figure 66 )
Another possibility is to set up a ring, or a meshed, or a ring/meshed network. If one of the
internode links fails, the traffic is routed through another node. See link restoration on
Figure 67.
Automatic Protection Switching, path protection:

Besides link protection, the protection of strategic nodes are also needed. Important network
nodes are then duplicated. ( Figure 66 )
It is also possible, to set up a ring, or a meshed, or a ring/meshed network. If one of the
internode links fails, the traffic is routed through other nodes. See path restoration on
Figure 67.
Figure 67 : Link and path protection in self–healing networks (example)
Link restoration Path restoration
possible paths original path restored path

THE SDH NETWORK
Path restoration and link restoration are the two main procedures to support network
restoration.
Path restoration is based on the principle that failures identify the paths where the failure
occurred, and so the failed network connections. These network connections are then
restored by alternative paths.
Path restoration is relatively resource efficient but requires information of a broad scope. For
example: it requires the actions of the network management system, which controls the
routing map in each of the involved DXC equipment, to do the rerouting.
Link restoration is based on the principle that failures are related to links, where they occur.
These links are then replaced by other links.
Link restoration is therefore a simpler procedure than path restoration, but it is generally less
efficient.

THE SDH NETWORK
3.2.2 PROTECTION IN RING NETWORKS
Because of the importance of ring networks in the SDH, this chapter gives some information
about this special type of network configuration.
Two types of ring networks can be constructed:

– unidirectional ring networks that contain an active and a protection fibre;
– bidirectional ring networks that contain a transmission and a reception fibre.
Figure 68 shows the unidirectional ring network, where the transmitted traffic and the traffic
to be received travel in the same direction over the active fibre.
The protection fibre can carry either the same information, or empty STM–N frames, or
low–priority traffic.
Figure 26 also shows an example of a unidirectional ring, with protection switching.
Figure 68 : Unidirectional, self–healing ring

Active fibre
ADM
Protection fibre
ADM ADM
ADM
Figure 69 shows a two–fiber bidirectional ring, where the transmitted traffic and the traffic to
be received travel in opposite directions, respectively over the transmission fibre and over
the reception fibre. Because both fibres carry active traffic, half of the bandwidth have to be
reserved for protection, to permit to reroute the traffic in case of failure in one part of the ring.
Four–fiber bidirectional rings can also be built. In such a ring one pair of fibres
is reserved for protection.
Figure 69 : Two–fiber bidirectional self–healing ring
Transmission fibre
ADM
Reception fibre
ADM ADM
ADM

THE SDH NETWORK
We can also consider link protection and path protection in ring networks.
Link protection means, that the failure is detected on both sides of the link (multiplex
section), and the STM–N signal is rerouted to the protection fiber. ( Figure 70 )
Figure 70 : Link protection in a ring network
ADM
ADM ADM
ADM
Path protection is done the way explained earlier. Traffic is sent simultaneously on both,
active and protection, fibers. The receiver selects that fiber, which provides the better quality
signal. Thus, path protection is only done in unidirectional ring networks.
Bidirectional rings are mainly used for balanced traffic between each node, for example in
regional networks.
Unidirectional rings with path protection are more applicable for local networks, where traffic
is often directed to a specific node.

THE SDH NETWORK
3.2.3 PROTECTION IN MESHED NETWORKS
It is likely, that high speed, backbone SDH networks have a meshed structure.
Two protection types are used:
– traffic division;
– traffic duplication (path protection).
Figure 71 shows the traffic division procedure.

The drawing on the top of the figure shows the simplest case, when half of the traffic is sent
over one link, and the other half of the traffic is sent over an other possible link. If one of the
links breaks down, 50% of the total traffic is lost. Consequently, this protection procedure
only protects one half of the traffic.
An improved version of this protection type, when redundant links are installed. This permits
1+1 APS or 1:1 APS (link protection). The bottom part of the same figure shows this case.
Figure 71 : Traffic division
50% DXC
traffic ADM
ADM Traffic division
50% ADM
traffic DXC
50% DXC
traffic ADM
50%
ADM traffic
50% Traffic division with 1+1 APS
traffic
50% ADM
traffic DXC

THE SDH NETWORK
Figure 72 shows the principles of traffic duplication.

The drawing on the top of the figure shows that traffic is sent simultaneously over two paths.
At the receiver, the signal with the better quality is selected, just as it was explained earlier.
This type of protection protects 100% of the traffic.
If we install redundant links, 1+1 APS or 1:1 APS also becomes possible. The bottom part of
the same figure shows this case.
Figure 72 : Traffic duplication
ADM
100% DXC
traffic 0
ADM Traffic duplication

100% 0
traffic DXC
ADM
100% DXC
traffic ADM
100%
ADM traffic
100% Traffic duplication with 1+1 APS
traffic
100% ADM
traffic DXC

THE SDH NETWORK
3.3 TIMING ASPECTS
The name of the transmission network, Synchronous DH, already indicates that
synchronisation is handled with particular care in this network.
So, this chapter briefly tells about the problems of timing and synchronisation in the SDH
network.
3.3.1 TIMING SIGNALS IN SDH
A digital signal can be considered as binary data where each bit occurs at a discrete point in
time. The two characteristics of this digital signal are the data value itself and the point in
time, the discrete instance when it occurs.

The timing signal that determines the discrete instances when the data is defined is also
referred to as the clock.
The SDH network uses two types of clock :
– regular clock;
– gapped clock.
Regular clock
The regular clock has all its expected discrete instances evenly spaced in time. ( Figure 73 )
Such a clock is defined by its phase parameter p(n), which is in proportion with the basic
clock period:
p(n) = 2 πnt0
where p: phase, n: the nth clock pulse, t0: clock period
All STM–N signals are produced from such regular clocks.
Gapped clock
A gapped clock is generally derived from a regular clock. They both have the same clock
period, but the gapped clock has a lower average frequency. This lower average frequency
is a result of the gaps left in the clock signals of the regular clock. This also explains the
name – gapped clock. ( Figure 73 )
Gapped clocks are very important in the SDH network. Payloads within the SDH frame are
timed by gapped clocks.
For example, the VC–4 uses a gapped clock derived from the STM–N regular clock. The
VC–12 uses a gapped clock derived from the VC–4 gapped clock.
Frame phase
An additional clock, derived from the regular clock, to mark the start of each frame.

THE SDH NETWORK
Figure 73 : Regular clock and Gapped clock
ËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËË
ËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËË STM–1 regular clock
t0
72 missing STM–1 regular clock pulses : gap for RSOH and MSOH
ËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËË t0
VC–4 gapped clock
3.3.2 JITTER, WANDER, AND PHASE VARIATION
Jitter is the short–term variation of the significant instants of a digital signal from their ideal
positions in time.
Wander is the long–term variation of the significant instants of a digital signal from their ideal
positions in time.
Jitter and wander are the two main parameters which describe the variations that can occur
on an ideal clock signal. Traditionally, they were separated on basis of their origin. Jitter is
produced by regenerators and multiplexer justification schemes, wander is produced by
temperature cycling effects in cables.
SDH can produce clock signal variations that are not easy to classify as either jitter or
wander according to this distinction. Therefore, we use the general concept of
phase variation, which covers both jitter and wander.
Remark: however, the terms jitter and wander are still used in the SDH, but the distinction
between them is not based anymore on their origin, but on how the network handles them.
Figure 74 shows the clock signal phase variation.

THE SDH NETWORK
If phase variations occur, the actual times p’(n) when the clock pulses of the transported
signal occur are described as:
p’(n) = p(n) + e(n)
where p’: actual phase, p: expected phase, e(n): error, n: the nth clock pulse,
It is the error e(n) that defines the quality of a clock signal. E(n) is the measure of the phase
variation, so if e(n) is equal to 0, no phase variation occurs.
Figure 74 : Clock signal with phase variation
ideal clock signal

p(0) p(1) p(2) p(3) p(4) p(5) p(6) p(7) p(8) time
clock signal
p(0)+ e(0) p(2)+e(2) p(4)+e(4) p(6)+e(6) p(8)+e(8) time with phase variation
p(1)+e(1) p(3)+e(3) p(5)+e(5) p(7)+e(7)
Phase variations in the SDH network are handled by the pointer adjustment mechanism, as
chapter 2.6 described it.
The main reason of the pointer adjustments is the clock noise of the exchange clock. At a
bitrate of 150 Mbit/s, it can cause pointer adjustments in every few seconds.
Figure 75 illustrates the situation.
Therefore, it is very important for the synchronisation of the SDH network to limit the clock
noise.
Figure 75 : Clocks and pointer processing
VC data Pointer processor buffer + control VC data
Buffer write Buffer read

VC incoming VC outgoing
gapped clock Outgoing pointer gapped clock
+
adjustment gaps or pulses
VC outgoing reference gapped clock

THE SDH NETWORK
Generally, the phase variation e(n) is represented in a graphic form, which shows the e(n)
variation in function of the time. ( Figure 76 )
Figure 76 : Phase variation from clock noise
e(n)
Time
When standardisation organisations have to specify the clocks, which are suitable for the
synchronisation of SDH equipment, they also have to specify the clock noise parameter(s).
The proposed parameter is the Time Variance (TVAR) parameter, which is also known as
Allan Variance. The TVAR is the square of the second differences between samples of the
clock noise. It tries to give statistical estimates of e(n) over units of time (t). t is normally in
nanoseconds (ns). ( Figure 77 )
Figure 77 : Measurement of TVAR
reference Time
A1 A2 A3
t t
Tvar(t) = (A1 – 2A2 + A3 ) 2

THE SDH NETWORK
3.3.3 SDH SYNCHRONISATION NETWORKS
In the SDH network all equipment is synchronised to a master clock. Consequently, all SDH
equipment must contain a slave clock to synchronise all the outgoing STM–N line signals
and the pointer processors.
In the SDH network two types of SDH slave clock are used :
– in the regenerators, as described in G.958;
– in the cross–connects and add/drop multiplexers, as described in G.81s.
The general synchronisation network topology is a tree structure. ( Figure 78 )

The timing is transferred by the regenerator section between SDH equipment. Generally,
SDH regenerator slave clocks do not filter clock noise, but they do not add much noise
either.
A cross–connect slave clock filter some slave noise, especially that of the regenerator slave
clocks, but it also adds some clock noise.
A main node slave clock can filter more clock noise, but it also adds more clock noise.
Figure 78 : Distribution of timing
Main nodes
Local nodes
> > > > > >
primary reference clock

slave clock (G.812)
DXC or ADM slave clock (G.81s)
>
regenerator slave clock (G.958)

THE SDH NETWORK
The restoration of the timing distribution is also based on a hierarchical structure.

( Figure 79 )
The main node slave clocks can maintain timing to the greatest accuracy. Cross–connect
slave clocks can maintain a usable service.
Regenerator slave clocks only send alarm signals when the incoming reference is lost.
Figure 79 : Restoration of the timing distribution
Main nodes
Local nodes
> > > > > >

break in timing distribution network
slave clock (G.812)
new link to restore timing distribution
@ main node clock
>
regenerator slave clock (G.958) in holdover and not slaved
to DXC clock in holdover
”Off air” timing is an other alternative to synchronise the SDH network.

Both GPS (Global Positioning Satellite system) and LORANS–C offer very high stability
timing reference, which can be recovered from air. The advantages of these systems are:
– timing is very stable, with very low clock noise;
– timing is not influenced by errors and breaks in the transmission links;
– no need to design a complex synchronisation network.

THE SDH NETWORK
3.4 PHYSICAL INTERFACES
SDH is primarily an optical networking standard. Therefore, this chapter is about optical
interfaces. However, because we can also build an SDH network on radio links, some
attention is also given to the radio interfaces.
3.4.1 OPTICAL INTERFACES
a. Optical Fibre Characteristics
The optical fibre medium is a glass cylinder surrounded by a cladding glass tube. (Figure 80)
Figure 80 : An optical fibre
core cladding protective jacket
A very important parameter of an optical fibre is the refractive index (n). It is the ratio of the
speed of light in vacuum (c0) to the speed of light in the medium (cx),
thus n= c0 /cx.
The refractive index of vacuum is n0=1.
The core and the cladding have different refractive indexes. They are always chosen that
ncore ≥ncladding. This is a condition for total reflection at the edge between the core and the
cladding.
See Figure 81 for reflection and refraction of light.

THE SDH NETWORK
Figure 81 : Reflection and refraction of light
normal of normal of
incidence incidence
reflected ray
medium medium
with n1 with n1
medium medium
with n2 with n2
refracted ray
Reflection of light Refraction of light
The refractive index profile is a curve of the refractive index (n) over the
cross section (r) of the optical fiber.
Two types of index profiles are defined ( Figure 82 ):

– step index profile: the refractive index of the core has the same value (n1) over the
complete cross–section of the core. At the interface with the
cladding the refractive index changes in a step.
– graded index profile: the refractive index of the core decreases parabolically from a
maximum value n1 at the axis of the core to a refractive index n2 at
the interface with the cladding.
Figure 82 : Index profile of fibers
n n
n1 n1
n2 n2
n0 n0
r r
core core
cladding cladding
Step index profile Graded index profile

THE SDH NETWORK
Types of optical fibres are ( Figure 83 ):
– single mode fibre, also known as mono–mode fibre:

step index profile;
typically: diameter of core= 8,7µm, diameter of cladding=125 µm.
Mostly this type of fibre is used in SDH networks.
– multi mode fibre:

step index;
typically: diameter of core= 50µm, diameter of cladding=125 µm.
or
graded index profile;
typically: diameter of core= 100µm, diameter of cladding=140 µm.
Figure 83 : Optical fibre types

cladding
core
light single mode fibre
cladding
core
light multi mode fibre
step index profile
cladding
core
multi mode fibre
light graded index profile

THE SDH NETWORK
Not all light waves pass through the optical fibre with the same efficiency. The attenuation of
the light waves depends also on their wavelength. The range of wavelengths that pass
through optical fibres with little loss, and consequently are suitable for optical transmission
are called optical windows. The most commonly used windows are around the
wavelengths of 850nm, 1300nm, and 1550nm.
Figure 84 shows a typical example for single mode fibre.
Figure 84 : Channel capacity of single mode fibre
Loss
(dB/km)
900 1100 1300 1500 1700

Wavelength (nm)
Dispersion is an other factor that reduces the transmission quality. Because of dispersion,
light pulses in the optical fibre broaden temporally ( Figure 85 ).
The total dispersion consists of:
– modal dispersion: mostly occurs in multi mode step index fibres;
– material dispersion;
– waveguide dispersion : mostly occurs in single mode fibres.
The combination of material dispersion and waveguide dispersion is the
chromatic dispersion.
Figure 85 : Effect of dispersion
input pulse output pulse

THE SDH NETWORK
b. Optical Interface Specifications
The recommendation G.957 about optical interfaces specifies optical transmitter, optical
receiver, and optical path characteristics.
The optical path is defined between the reference points S and R. ( Figure 86 )
Figure 86 : Reference points in the optical section at which

the physical interface is defined.
∇ ∇
optical plug optical plug
(transmitter) O (receiver)
S R
Figure 87 shows the standard classification of optical interfaces.

In the SDH network all optical fibres are of the single mode type, using the second and third
optical window.
Three different distance types are defined, because of different applications in the SDH
network. These are:
– Intra–office: to connect equipment up to a distance of 2 km;
– Short haul interoffice: to connect equipment up to a distance of 15 km;
– Long haul interoffice: to connect equipment up to a distance of 40 km or 60 km.
Figure 87 : Optical interfaces classification (G.957)
Interoffice
Application Intra–office
Short haul Long haul
distance (km) <2 ~ 15 ~ 40 ~ 60

nominal
wavelength(nm) 1310 1310 1550 1310 1550
Rec. G.652
fiber type Rec. G.652 Rec. G.652 Rec. G.652 Rec. G.652 Rec. G.653
Rec. G.654
STM STM–1 I–1 S–1.1 S–1.2 L–1.1 L–1.2 L–1.3

level STM–4 I–4 S–4.1 S–4.2 L–4.1 L–4.2 L–4.3
* STM–16 I–16 S–16.1 S–16.2 L–16.1 L–16.2 L–16.3
* : parameter value in function of the application, bit rate, fiber type : A–N.x
A: application (I, S, L) N: STM level (1,4,16)
x: fiber/optical source type (1: 1310nm/G.652. 2:1550nm/ G.652. or 1550nm/G.654. 3: 1550nm/ G.653.)

THE SDH NETWORK
The OPTICAL PATH between the reference points is specified by: (see also Figure 89 )
–attenuation range also known as optical budget: for each application, attenuation
is specified as a range, characteristic of the different application distances.
Remark: definition of attenuation is A (λ) = 10 log ( P1(λ) / P2(λ) ) in dB,
where λ : wavelength P: optical power.
– dispersion : the maximum dispersion value, defined in ps/nm. It depends on the

transmitter type, and the fiber dispersion coefficient over the operating
wavelength range.
Not all systems have a defined maximum dispersion value (see NA in Figure 89).
Such a system is limited by attenuation.
– reflections: are caused by refractive index discontinuities along the optical path.
This discontinuities occur because of splices, connectors, or other passive
components. Reflections can decrease system performance, thus they must be
controlled. Two parameters are used for that:

minimum optical return loss (ORL) at reference point S.
maximum discrete reflectance between reference points S and R.
The appendix of recommendation G.957. describes the measurement methods
for these two parameters.

THE SDH NETWORK
The OPTICAL interfaces at the TRANSMITTER and at the RECEIVER are specified by:
For the transmitter (see also Figure 88 and Figure 89):
– mean launch power: describes the transmitter output power.

The mean launch power is the average power of a pseudo–random data sequence
of full width transmitter pulses. Its maximum and minimum value is specified.
– extinction ratio : the ratio between the ”on” power and the ”off” power.
EX = 10 log 10 (A / B) where EX: extinction ratio,
A : average optical power level for a logical 1,
B : average optical power level for a logical 0.
For the receiver ( see also Figure 88 and Figure 89):

– receiver sensitivity : is the minimum acceptable value of average received optical

power at reference point R, for a bit error ratio BER=1 x 10–10.
– receiver overload : the maximum value of average received optical power at reference
point R that the receiver can accept and still maintain
the required quality (BER 1x10–10).
– optical path power penalty: the receiver must tolerate an optical path penalty of
maximum 1dB ( 2dB for L–16.2.). The optical path penalty is related to the
reflections and dispersions occurred over the optical path.
– receiver reflectance : the maximum value of permitted reflectance of the receiver

at reference point R.
Figure 88 : Transmitter and receiver parameters
Maximum launched power
Minimum launched power
Minimum
attenuation
Maximum
attenuation
Receiver overload
Optical path penalty

Receiver sensitivity

THE SDH NETWORK
Figure 89 : Optical interface specification for STM–1 (G.957)
Unit Values
Digital signal STM–1 according to Recommendations G.707 and G.958

Nominal bit rate kbit/s 155 520
Application code I–1 S–1.1 S–1.2
Operating wavelength nm 1260 – 1360 1260 – 1360 1430–1569 1430–1580

range
Transmitter at reference point S

Source type MLM LED MLM MLM SLM
Spectral characteristics
– max. RMS width (σ) nm 40 80 7.7 2.5 –
− max. –20 dB width nm – – – – 1
– min. suppression ratio dB – – – – 30

Mean launched power
– maximum dBm –8 –8 –8
– minimum dBm –15 –15 –15
Minimum extinction ratio dB 8.2 8.2 8.2
Optical path between S and R

Attenuation range dB 0–7 0–12 0–12
Maximum dispersion ps/nm NA 96 296 NA
Minimum optical return
loss of cable plant at S dB NA NA NA
Maximum discrete
reflectance between dB NA NA NA
S and R
Receiver at reference point R

Minimum sensitivity dBm –23 –23 –23
Minimum overload dBm –8 –8 –8
Maximum optical
dB 1 1 1
path penalty
Maximum reflectance of dB NA NA NA
the receiver at R
MLM: Multi–longitudinal mode NA: not applicable

LED: Light–emitting diode
SLM: Single–longitudinal mode

THE SDH NETWORK
Figure 89 : (con’t) Optical interface specification for STM–1 (G.957)
Unit Values

Application code L–1.1 L–1.2 L–1.3

range 1508–1580

Source type MLM SLM SLM MLM SLM
– max. RMS width (σ) nm 4 – – 4/2.5 –
− max. –20 dB width nm – 1 1 – 1
– min. suppression ratio dB – 30 30 – 30

Mean launched power
– maximum dBm 0 0 0
Minimum extinction ratio dB 10 10 10

Maximum dispersion ps/nm NA NA 296 NA
loss of cable plant at S dB NA 20 NA
Maximum discrete
reflectance between dB NA –25 NA
S and R

Maximum optical
dB 1 1 1
path penalty
Maximum reflectance of dB NA –25 NA
the receiver at R


THE SDH NETWORK
3.4.2 RADIO INTERFACES
In certain environments or under certain conditions it is interesting to use radio links in the
SDH transmission network.
For example :
– over difficult terrains: mountain areas, jungles, big rivers and lakes;
– for the access to the fibre network : the installation costs of fibre over the
”last mile” is too expensive, particularly if user doesn’t
need high capacity;
– as back–up of fibres in dangerous areas: areas with high possibility of
earthquakes, war zones;
– to close the loop in an SDH ring network:
in metropolitan areas, business parks;
– for usage in private networks.
When we use radio links, other difficulties need to be solved than if we use optical links.
For example:
– allocation of the available radio spectrum is needed:
this is done by international agreements;
– within the allocated spectrum, user channels also have to be allocated;
– interference tolerance levels have to be defined;
– have to limit (avoid) the interference with other systems:
for example with satellites;
– modulation techniques to be improved to increase bit rates (STM–16).
3.4.3 ELECTRICAL INTERFACES
Electrical interfaces on coaxial cables are required primarily for backwards compatibility with
the already installed PDH network. Thus, the STM–1 electrical section interface is exactly
equivalent to the 140 Mbit/s interface already defined in G.703.

THE SDH NETWORK

ALCATEL PRODUCTS FOR SDH
ANNEX A : ALCATEL PRODUCTS FOR SDH

The Alcatel 1600 product range contains transport system products, thus also includes
transmission equipments for the SDH network.
The list below is an overview of these available products.

Remark: because Alcatel is committed to continuous research and development, this
list can change in the future.
Synchronous High Order Mux

VC12 Fiber Optic Extender Alcatel 1631 FX
155 Mbit/s Compact Add/Drop multiplexer Alcatel 1641 SM/C
155 Mbit/s Add/Drop multiplexer Alcatel 1641 SM
2.5 Gbit/s Compact Add/Drop multiplexer Alcatel 1661 SM/C
2.5 Gbit/s Add/Drop multiplexer Alcatel 1664 SM
155 Mbit/s SONET Transport System Alcatel 1603 SM

2.5 Gbit/s SONET Transport System Alcatel 1648 SM
Synchronous Optical Fibre Line Equipment

622 Mbit/s Fibre Optic Line System Alcatel 1654 SL
2.5 Gbit/s Fibre Optic Line System Alcatel 1664 SL
Optical Amplifier
Optical Amplifier Alcatel 1610 OA
Synchronous High Order Cross–Connect Systems

4–3–1 Wideband Digital Cross–Connect Alcatel 1641 SX
4–4 Broadband Digital Cross–Connect Alcatel 1644 SX
3–1–0 Wideband Digital Cross–Connect (SONET) Alcatel 1630 SX
3–1 Wideband Digital Cross–Connect (SONET) Alcatel 1631 SX
3–3 Broadband Digital Cross–Connect (SONET) Alcatel 1633 SX

ALCATEL PRODUCTS FOR SDH

RECOMMENDATIONS
ANNEX B : RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SDH

Some important recommendations for the SDH network :
G.707 Synchronous digital hierarchy bit rates

G.708 Network node interface for the synchronous digital hierarchy
G.709 Synchronous multiplexing structure
G.70X Network node interface for the synchronous digital hierarchy
(Merged version of G.707, G.708 and G.709)
G.774 SDH management information model

G.781 Structure of recommendations on multiplexing equipment for the SDH
G.782 Types and general characteristics of SDH multiplexing equipment
G.783 Characteristics of SDH multiplexing equipment functional blocks
G.784 SDH Management
G.812 Timing requirements at the outputs of slave clocks suitable for plesiochronous
operation of international digital links
G.81s Timing characteristics of slave clocks suitable for the operation in SDH
equipments
G.825 The control of jitter and wander within digital networks which are based on the
SDH
G.957 Optical interfaces for equipment and systems relating to the SDH
G.958 Digital line systems based on the SDH for use on optical fibre cables
G.652 Characteristics of a single mode optical fibre cable

G.653 Characteristics of a dispersion–shifted single mode optical fibre cable
G.654 Characteristics of a 1550nm wavelength loss–minimised single mode optical
fibre cable

RECOMMENDATIONS

ABBREVIATIONS
ANNEX C : ABBREVIATIONS
ADM Add/Drop multiplexer

AIS Alarm Indication Signal
ANSI American National Standards Institute
APS Automatic Protection Switching
ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode
AU Administrative Unit
AUG Administrative Unit Group
Bellcore Bell Communications Research

BER Bit Error Ratio
BIP Bit Interleaved Parity
BISDN Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network
C Container
CCITT International Telegraph and Telephone
Consultative Committee
CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check
DC Direct Current
DCC Data Communication Channel
DXC Digital Cross Connect
ECC Embedded Control Channel

ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute
FDDI Fiber Distributed Data Interface
GPS Global Positioning System
HEC Header Error Control
ITU–T International Telecommunication Union

Standardisation Sector (the former CCITT)
MAN Metropolitan Area Network

MSOH Multiplexing Section Overhead
NDF New Data Flag
OAM&P Operation, Administration, Maintenance and Provisioning

OLTE Optical Line Terminal Equipment
ORL Optical Return Loss

ABBREVIATIONS
PAPI Path Access Point Identifier

PCM Pulse Code Modulation
PDH Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy
POH Path Overhead
PPM Part Per Million
RDI Remote Defect Indication

REI Remote Error Indication
RFI Remote Failure Indication
RMS Root Mean Square
RSOH Regenerator Section Overhead
SDH Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

SETS Synchronous Equipment Timing Source
SOH Section Overhead
SONET Synchronous Optical Network
SPE Synchronous Payload Envelop

STM Synchronous Transport Module
STS Synchronous Transport Signal
TM Terminal Multiplexer
TMN Telecommunications Management Network
TU Tributary Group
TUG Tributary Unit Group
TVAR Time Variance (Allan Variance)
VC Virtual Container

SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY
MODULE CODE
GETE/1030
LIST OF TRANSPARENCIES
Figure 1 : Relative cable cost – coaxial cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Figure 2 : A traditional network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Figure 3 : Evolution of transmission cost – optical systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Figure 4 : Optical fibre based ring network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Figure 5 : Back–to–back multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Figure 6 : Byte interleaving in the first order signal (PDH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Figure 7 : Bit interleaving in a higher order signal (PDH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Figure 8 : Add/drop multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Figure 9 : International plesiochronous digital hierarchies (kbit/s) . . . . . . . . 9
Figure 10 : STM–1 (SDH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 11 : STS–1 (SONET) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 12 : SDH network structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Figure 13 : Synchronous multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 14 : Multiplexing : from C–1 to STM–N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure 15 : Containers in SDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Figure 16 : Virtual Container . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 17 : Tributary Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 18 : Tributary Unit Group (example TUG–2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 19 : Administrative Unit (example AU–4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 20 : Administrative Unit Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Figure 21 : CCITT multiplexing structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 22 : ETSI multiplexing structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Figure 23 : Section Overhead STM–1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Figure 24 : Contents of the SOH (STM–1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Figure 25 : AIS and RDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Figure 26 : Protection switching (example) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Figure 27 : B2 and REI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Figure 28 : Clock phase variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Figure 29 : Possible positions of a VC–4 in an STM–1 (examples) . . . . . . 29
Figure 30 : AU Pointer format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
EDITION : 03
770 00438 1030–VVBE i BELL EDUCATION CENTRE

Figure 31 : AU Pointer offset numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Figure 32 : Positive justification in the AU–4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Figure 33 : Negative justification in the AU–4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Figure 34 : TU–3 Pointer format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Figure 35 : TU–3 Pointer offset numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Figure 36 : TU–2 and TU–1 Pointer format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Figure 37 : TU–2 and TU–1 Pointer offset numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Figure 38 : Path Overhead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Figure 39 : POHs for VC–4 and VC–3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figure 40 : G1 byte format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Figure 41 : H4 byte position indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Figure 42 : VC mapping in multiframe and lower order POH . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Figure 43 : VC–1, VC–2 POH V5 byte format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Figure 44 : Lower order VCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Figure 45 : Possible structures of a TUG–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Figure 46 : TUG–2 multiframe contains 3 TU–12s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Figure 47 : Possible structures of a VC–3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Figure 48 : Possible structures of a TUG–3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Figure 49 : Possible structures of a VC–4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Figure 50 : Structure of the AU–3 and AU–4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Figure 51 : Possible structures of an AUG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Figure 52 : Multiplexing of N AUGs into STM–N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Figure 53 : STM–N SOH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Figure 54 : VC–4–Xc structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Figure 55 : ATM cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Figure 56 : ATM cells mapped into VC–4–Xc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Figure 57 : Typical SDH network configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Figure 58 : Add/Drop multiplexer function (example) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Figure 59 : Digital Cross–connect function (example) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Figure 60 : Higher order multiplexer function (example) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Figure 61 : SDH network element types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Figure 62 : Ring interconnection with STM–N tributaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Figure 63 : Ring interconnection with STM–N tributaries (dual node) . . . . 63
Figure 64 : Single node ring interconnection with DXC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Figure 65 : N : 1 protection (example) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Figure 66 : Possible failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Figure 67 : Link and path protection in self–healing networks (example) . 67
Figure 68 : Unidirectional, self–healing ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Figure 69 : Two–fiber bidirectional self–healing ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
BELL EDUCATION CENTRE ii 770 00438 1030–VVBE

Figure 70 : Link protection in a ring network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Figure 71 : Traffic division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Figure 72 : Traffic duplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Figure 73 : Regular clock and Gapped clock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Figure 74 : Clock signal with phase variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Figure 75 : Clocks and pointer processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Figure 76 : Phase variation from clock noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Figure 77 : Measurement of TVAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Figure 78 : Distribution of timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Figure 79 : Restoration of the timing distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Figure 80 : An optical fibre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Figure 81 : Reflection and refraction of light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Figure 82 : Index profile of fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Figure 83 : Optical fibre types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Figure 84 : Channel capacity of single mode fibre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Figure 85 : Effect of dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Figure 86 : Reference points in the optical section at which . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Figure 87 : Optical interfaces classification (G.957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 88 : Transmitter and receiver parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Figure 89 : Optical interface specification for STM–1 (G.957) . . . . . . . . . . 89
Figure 89 : (con’t) Optical interface specification for STM–1 (G.957) . . . . 90
Figure 90 : Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Figure 91 : Characteristics of SDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Figure 92 : Network aspects of SDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Figure 93 : Network protection levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Figure 94 : Physical interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Figure 95 : Optical path parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Figure 96 : Optical transmitter and receiver parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 97 : Radio and electrical interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Figure 98 : Alcatel 1600 range for SDH (1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Figure 98 : (con’t) Alcatel 1600 range for SDH (2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Figure 99 : Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
770 00438 1030–VVBE iii BELL EDUCATION CENTRE

Cost
Higher quality
coax
High quality
coax
Thick coax
Thin coax
Mbit/s
2 8 34 140
Figure 1 : Relative cable cost – coaxial cable
770 00438 1030–VVBE 1 BELL EDUCATION CENTRE

Network
node
1 x 8 Mbit/s
2 x 2 Mbit/s
2 x 8 Mbit/s
Network Network
node node
1 x 2 Mbit/s 2 x 2 Mbit/s
Network
node
Figure 2 : A traditional network

Transmission Cost per Mbit/s.km
(relative)
45 Mbit/s
1000
90 Mbit/s
100 400 Mbit/s

10 1.2 Gbit/s
2.5 Gbit/s
1
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Figure 3 : Evolution of transmission cost – optical systems

Network
node
140 Mbit/s
ring network
Network Network
node node
Network
node
Figure 4 : Optical fibre based ring network

140 Mbit/s
140 Mbit/s
2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s
140 34 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s
34
2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s
2
34 34 . .
. . 34 140
2
2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s
2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s
34 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s
34 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s
34 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s
64 x 2 Mbit/s
Figure 5 : Back–to–back multiplexing

channel nr.
0 1 2 3 29 30 31 0 1 2 3 29 30 31 0 1 2 3 29 30 31
ËË ÉÉ ËËË ÉÉ ËËË ÉÉ
ËËchannel 8 bits
ÉÉ ËËË ÉÉ ËËË ÉÉ
Frame 125µs
time
ËËË ÉÉÉ
ËËË = 8 bits
ÉÉÉ = 8 bits
= 8 bits
Figure 6 : Byte interleaving in the first order signal (PDH)

Within the frame
bit nr.
ËËËË ÉÉÉ ËËË ÉÉÉ

d e f p q r

time
ËËËË= 1 bit ÉÉÉ = 1 bit

ËËËË
= 1 bit
ÉÉÉ
Figure 7 : Bit interleaving in a higher order signal (PDH)

140 Mbit/s signal 140 Mbit/s signal
ADD/DROP multiplexer
Drop lower order Add

signal
Figure 8 : Add/drop multiplexing

Hierarchical North Europe Japan Trans–Atlantic
level America
0 64 64 64 64
1 1544 2048 1544 2048

2 6312 8448 6312 6312
3 44736 34368 32064 44736
4 139264 139264 97728 139264
Figure 9 : International plesiochronous digital hierarchies (kbit/s)

270 bytes
1 9 10 270
1
Overhead PAYLOAD 9 rows
125 µsec
Figure 10 : STM–1 (SDH)

90 bytes
1 3 4 90
1
Over PAYLOAD 9 rows

head
125 µsec
Figure 11 : STS–1 (SONET)

Transmission path
Multiplex section
Regenerator
section
Figure 12 : SDH network structure

lower order
VIRTUAL CONTAINERs
CONTAINER
lower order
PATH OVERHEAD
higher order
PATH OVERHEAD
higher order
VIRTUAL CONTAINERs
AU PTR Payload
SECTION
OVERHEAD Synchronous Transport Module
Figure 13 : Synchronous multiplexing

C–1 C–1
POH C–1 VC–1
TU–1 PTR VC–1 TU–1
TU–1 PTR TU–1 PTR VC–1 VC–1 TUG–2
byte interleaved
TUG–2 TUG–2 TUG–3

byte interleaved
VC–4 POH TUG–3 TUG–3 VC–4
AU–4 PTR VC–4 AU–4
AU–4 PTR VC–4 AUG
SOH AUG AUG STM–N
byte interleaved
Figure 14 : Multiplexing : from C–1 to STM–N

Name Bitrate (Mbit/s)
C–11 1,544
C–12 2,048
C–2 6,312
C–3 34,368
44,736
C–4 139,264
Figure 15 : Containers in SDH

POH Container
Figure 16 : Virtual Container

TU PTR
lower order
Virtual Container
Figure 17 : Tributary Unit

TU–1 TU–1
Figure 18 : Tributary Unit Group (example TUG–2)

AU PTR higher order
Virtual Container
Figure 19 : Administrative Unit (example AU–4)

AU–3 AU–3
Figure 20 : Administrative Unit Group

xN x1
139,264 Mbit/s
x3
x1
x3
x7
AU–3 VC–3 C–3
x7 44,736 Mbit/s
34,368 Mbit/s
x1
TUG–2 TU–2 VC–2 C–2
6,312 Mbit/s
x3
mapping

x4
multiplexing
TU–11 VC–11 C–11
1,544 Mbit/s
Figure 21 : CCITT multiplexing structure

xN x1
139,264 Mbit/s
x3
x1
x7
C–3
44,736 Mbit/s
34,368 Mbit/s
x1
x3
mapping
multiplexing
VC–11 C–11
1,544 Mbit/s
Figure 22 : ETSI multiplexing structure

1 9 10 270 bytes
1
3
STM–1
5
1 9 bytes
2 REGENERATOR
SECTION OVERHEAD
3
6
MULTIPLEXER
7
SECTION OVERHEAD
8
Figure 23 : Section Overhead STM–1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 bytes
1 A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0 X X
RSOH 2 B1 E1 F1 X X
3 D1 D2 D3
5 B2 B2 B2 K1 K2
6 D4 D5 D6
MSOH
7 D7 D8 D9
8 D10 D11 D12
9 S1 Z1 Z1 Z2 Z2 M1 E2 X X
Figure 24 : Contents of the SOH (STM–1)

AIS
MUX MUX
transmit end RDI receive end
Figure 25 : AIS and RDI

Active fibre
Protection fibre
Transmitter
Transmitter
Receiver
Receiver
Multiplexer A
Multiplexer B
Transmitter
Receiver Multiplexer C
Figure 26 : Protection switching (example)

STM–N (with B2)
MUX MUX
transmit end STM–N (with M1) receive end
Figure 27 : B2 and REI

incoming SDH equipment outgoing
STM–N STM–N
processing and
(incoming clock) temporary buffering (outgoing clock)
outgoing reference clock
Figure 28 : Clock phase variations

STM–1 STM–1
1 270 1 270
1 1
RSOH RSOH
4 AU PTR 4 AU PTR
MSOH MSOH
9 9
VC–4
VC–4
Figure 29 : Possible positions of a VC–4 in an STM–1 (examples)

I ––––––––––––––> H1 <––––––––––––– I –––––––––––––> H2 <–––––––––––––– I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
I –––––––––> 10 bit pointer value : 0 to 782 <––––––– I
disabled : 0110
AU Pointer example:
S bits : show AU type, value 10
1 0 0 1 S S 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Figure 30 : AU Pointer format

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 270
opportunity (3 bytes) opportunity (3 bytes)
4 H1 Y Y H2 1 1 H3 H3 H3 0 – 1 – – 86 – –
– –
87 – 88
–
9 521 – –
1 522 –
125 µsec
782 – –
Y H2 1 1 H3 H3 H3 0 – 1 – – 86 – –
4 H1 Y –
9
250 µsec
Y byte : 1001SS11 (S bits are not specified) 1 byte : 11111111
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 270
opportunity ( 3x1 byte) opportunity ( 3x1 byte)
4 H1 H1 H1 H2 H2 H2 H3 H3 H3 0 0 1 1 1 85 86 86 86
0
87 87 87 88
9 521 521
1 522 522
125 µsec
782 782 782
H1 H1 H1 H2 H2 H2 H3 H3 H3 1 1 1 85 86 86 86
4 0 0 0
9
250 µsec
Figure 31 : AU Pointer offset numbering

VC–4
pointer value = A
VC–4
three positive
pointer value : I bits inverted justification bytes
VC–4
pointer value = A+ 1
VC–4
pointer value = A+1
VC–4
Figure 32 : Positive justification in the AU–4

VC–4
pointer value = A
VC–4
pointer value: three negative
D bits inverted justification bytes
H1 Y Y H2 X X
VC–4
VC–4
VC–4
Figure 33 : Negative justification in the AU–4

I ––––––––––––––> H1 <––––––––––––– I –––––––––––––> H2 <–––––––––––––– I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
I –––––––––> 10 bit pointer value : 0 to 764 <––––––– I
disabled : 0110
S bits : show TU type, value 10
Null Pointer Indicator
1 0 0 1 S S 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
S bits: not specified.
Figure 34 : TU–3 Pointer format

VC–4
ÉÉÉ
1 261
ÉÉÉ
1 P H1 H1 H1 positive justification
a opportunity ( 3x1 byte )
ÉÉÉ
t H2 H2 H2
ÉÉÉ
h H3 H3 H3 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 83 83 83 84 84 84
ÉÉÉ
O 85 85 85 86 86 86 87
v
ÉÉÉ
e Fixed negative justification
ÉÉÉ
r- stuff opportunity ( 3x1 byte)
ÉÉÉ
h
ÉÉÉ
e
a
9 d ÉÉÉ
ÉÉÉ
593 594 594 594
125 µsec
ÉÉÉ
1 H1 H1 H1 595 595 595 596
ÉÉÉ
H2 H2 H2 763 764 764 764
P
ÉÉÉ
O H3 H3 H3 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 83 83 83 84 84 84
H
ÉÉÉ
Fixed 85 85 85 86 86 86 87
ÉÉÉ
stuff
ÉÉÉ
Figure 35 : TU–3 Pointer offset numbering

I ––––––––––––––> V1 <––––––––––––– I –––––––––––––> V2 <–––––––––––––– I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
disabled : 0110
S bits : show TU type, value 00 I –––––––––> 10 bit pointer value : 0 to 427 <––––––– I
1 0 0 1 S S 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Figure 36 : TU–2 and TU–1 Pointer format

TU multiframe TU–2 TU–12 TU–11
o f f s e t v a l u e s
TU nr.1 V1
321 105 78
125 µsec 427 139 103

TU nr.2 V2
0 0 0
106 34 25
250 µsec neg. just.

TU nr.3 V3 (1 byte)
pos. just. 107 35 26
(1 byte )
375 µsec 213 69 51

TU nr.4 V4
214 70 52
500 µsec 320 104 77
Figure 37 : TU–2 and TU–1 Pointer offset numbering

POH payload
Virtual Container
Figure 38 : Path Overhead

1 261 bytes 1 85
J1 J1
B3 B3
C2 C2
G1 G1
F2 F2
H4 H4
Z3 Z3
K3 K3
Z5 Z5
VC–4 VC–3
Figure 39 : POHs for VC–4 and VC–3

REI RDI ––
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Figure 40 : G1 byte format

POH Payload
1 TU PTR (V4)
VC–3 / VC–4
6 H4: 00
9
1 TU PTR (V1)
VC–3 / VC–4
H4: 01
6
9
1 TU PTR (V2)
VC–3 / VC–4
H4: 10
6
9
1 TU PTR (V3)
VC–3 / VC–4
H4: 11
6
9
1 TU PTR (V4)
VC–3 / VC–4
Figure 41 : H4 byte position indicator

TU nr.1 V1
TU nr.2 V2
TU nr.3 V3
V5
TU nr.4 V4
125 µsec
J2
250 µsec
Z6
375 µsec
K4
500 µsec
Figure 42 : VC mapping in multiframe and lower order POH

BIP–2 REI RFI SIGNAL LABEL RDI
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Figure 43 : VC–1, VC–2 POH V5 byte format

POH POH POH
(V5) (V5) (V5)
9
r
o
w
s
VC–11 VC–12 VC–2
Figure 44 : Lower order VCs

4 TU–11s in TUG–2 3 TU–12s in TUG–2 1 TU–2 in TUG–2
ÅÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÂÂ ÅÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇ
ÉÉ ÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÂÂ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇ
ÉÉ ÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÂÂ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇ
ÉÉ ÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
9
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÂÂ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇ
ÉÉ ÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÂÂ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇ
ÉÉ ÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÂÂ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇ
ÉÉ ÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
r
o
w
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÂÂ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇ
ÉÉ ÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
s
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÂÂ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇ
ÉÉ ÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÂÂ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇ
ÉÉ ÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÂÂ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇ
ÉÉ ÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÅÅ Ç ÉÉ ÂÂ
TU Pointer byte
ÅÅ TU nr. 1 Ç TU nr. 2 ÉÉ TU nr. 3 ÂÂ TU nr. 4

12 bytes
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
V1
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ TU Pointer byte
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ ÅÅ TU nr. 1
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ 9
ÅÅ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ ÇÇ TU nr. 2
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ r
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ o
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ w
ÉÉ TU nr. 3
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ s
ÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
É
ÅÅ
ÇÇÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅ ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
Å
ÇÇ
ÉÉÉÉ
ÇÇ
V2 ÅÅ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ ÉÉ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅ ÅÅ
ÉÉÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇÅ
ÅÉÉ
ÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
125 µsec
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
V3 ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅ ÅÅ
ÉÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
250 µsec
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÅÅ
ÉÇÇ
ÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅ
ÇÇ
ÅÉÉ
ÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
375 µsec
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
V4
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ 500 µsec
Figure 46 : TUG–2 multiframe contains 3 TU–12s

7 TUG–2s in VC–3 C3 container
P P
9
r O
C–3
O
o
w H H
s
85 bytes 85 bytes

7 TUG–2s in TUG–3 1 TU–3 in TUG–3
N H1
P H2
9 I H3 P
r C–3
O
o
w H
s
86 bytes 86 bytes
fixed stuff

3 TUG–3s in VC–4 C–4 container
P P
9
r O
C–4
O
o
H
w H
s
261 bytes 261 bytes
fixed stuff

AU–3 (VC–3 plus 2 columns of fixed staff) AU–4
P
9 O
H
AU–Pointer
r AU–Pointer VC–4
o
w
s
1 30 59 87
87 bytes 261 bytes
fixed stuff
Figure 50 : Structure of the AU–3 and AU–4

3 AU–3s in AUG AU–4 in AUG
9
r AU–Pointers AU–Pointer
o
w
s
261 bytes 261 bytes
Figure 51 : Possible structures of an AUG

AUG nr. 1 AUG nr. N
AU–Pointer AU–Pointer
261 bytes 261 bytes

1 11..122..233...344..4
RSOH
AU–Pointers
H1H1..H1H2H2..H2 H3H3 H3
MSOH
260260...260261261..261
9
N x 9 bytes N x 261 bytes
Figure 52 : Multiplexing of N AUGs into STM–N

1 Nx9
* 1 ... N 1 ... N 1 ... N 1 ... N

J0
A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 A2 A2 A2 (n–1)x Z0
X X X X
R
S
B1 E1 F1 X X X X O
H
D1 D2 D3
AU Pointers
B2 B2 B2 B2 B2 B2 K1 K2
D4 D5 D6 M
S
O
D7 D8 D9 H
D10 D11 D12

S1 Z2 M1
(n–1)x Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1 (n–2)x Z2 Z2 Z2 Z2 Z2 E2 X X X X
: nth frame information

*
Figure 53 : STM–N SOH

P
9
r O
C–4–Xc fixed stuff
o
w
s H
X–1 X x 260
X x 261 bytes
Figure 54 : VC–4–Xc structure

Header Payload
1 56 53 bytes
Figure 55 : ATM cell

fixed
POH stuff
J1
B3 ...
C2
G1 ATM cell
F2
H4
Z3
K3
Z5 ...
X–1 X x 260
X x 261 bytes
Figure 56 : ATM cells mapped into VC–4–Xc

Cross
STM–16 Cross
Connect
Connect
Meshed Network Backbone
network
Cross Cross
Connect Connect
Cross
Connect Regional
Cross
Add Connect
network
gateway Drop
Mux gateway Add
Drop Add
Mux Drop
STM–4 Mux
Add Add
Drop Drop
Add
Ring Network
Mux Mux
Drop
Add
Mux Drop
Mux
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
gateway
Add Local
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
Drop Add gateway
Drop Add
network
Add Mux Add
Mux Drop
Drop Drop
Mux
Mux Mux
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
Add
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
Add- Drop STM–1
Drop
Mux Ring Network
Mux
Add-
Drop
Mux
Mux
Mux
user B Access
user A Mux
Mux Mux
Figure 57 : Typical SDH network configuration

STM–1 STM–1
. . .
Figure 58 : Add/Drop multiplexer function (example)

. .
STM–1 . .
. . STM–1
...
Figure 59 : Digital Cross–connect function (example)

STM–1
STM–1
.
. . STM–4
. .
.
STM–1
Figure 60 : Higher order multiplexer function (example)

Cross–Connect
Add/Drop mux
Line equipment
Relative complexity
Figure 61 : SDH network element types

ADM ADM
ADM STM–4 ring ADM ADM STM–1 ring ADM
STM–1 tributaries
interconnection
ADM ADM
Figure 62 : Ring interconnection with STM–N tributaries

ADM ADM
ADM ADM
ADM STM–4 ring STM–1 ring ADM

ADM ADM
STM–1 tributaries
interconnection
ADM ADM
Figure 63 : Ring interconnection with STM–N tributaries (dual
770 00438 1030–VVBE 63

node)
BELL EDUCATION CENTRE
ADM ADM
ADM STM–4 ring DXC STM–1 ring ADM
ADM ADM
Figure 64 : Single node ring interconnection with DXC

Before failure After failure
1 1
J J
K .. K ..
. .
N N
N tributaries operational N –1 tributaries operational

J low priority traffic J high priority traffic , taken over from K
K high priority traffic low priority traffic is stopped
Figure 65 : N : 1 protection (example)

Protection
Failure
Example Type Redundancy
Component Equipment protection switching Board

EPS N+1
o EPS 1+1
o
o
Automatic protection switching
APS N+1 Board

and
o APS 1 +1 Cable
o o APS N:1
o o
o APS 1:1
Link Cable protection with 2 different routes

APS 1 +1 Route
route 1 APS 1 : 1
with 2 routes
Cause: types :
– excavator route 2 – ring
– sabotage – mesh
Node Node protection

types : Node
– ring
– mesh
Cause:
– fire
– energy
break–down
Figure 66 : Possible failures

Link restoration Path restoration
possible paths original path restored path
Figure 67 : Link and path protection in self–healing networks (ex-
770 00438 1030–VVBE 67

ample)
Active fibre
ADM
Protection fibre
ADM ADM
ADM
Figure 68 : Unidirectional, self–healing ring

Transmission fibre
ADM
Reception fibre
ADM ADM
ADM
Figure 69 : Two–fiber bidirectional self–healing ring

ADM
ADM ADM
ADM
Figure 70 : Link protection in a ring network

50% DXC
traffic
ADM
ADM Traffic division
50%
traffic ADM
DXC
50% DXC
traffic
ADM
50%
ADM traffic
50% Traffic division with 1+1 APS
traffic
50%
traffic ADM
DXC
Figure 71 : Traffic division

ADM
100% DXC
traffic 0
ADM Traffic duplication
100% 0
traffic
DXC
ADM
100% DXC
traffic ADM
100%
traffic
ADM
100% Traffic duplication with 1+1 APS
traffic
100% ADM
traffic
DXC
Figure 72 : Traffic duplication

ËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËË
ËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËË STM–1 regular clock
t0
72 missing STM–1 regular clock pulses : gap for RSOH and MSOH
t 0
VC–4 gapped clock
Figure 73 : Regular clock and Gapped clock

ideal clock signal
p(0) p(1) p(2) p(3) p(4) p(5) p(6) p(7) p(8) time
clock signal
p(0)+ e(0) p(2)+e(2) p(4)+e(4) p(6)+e(6) p(8)+e(8) time with phase variation
p(1)+e(1) p(3)+e(3) p(5)+e(5) p(7)+e(7)
Figure 74 : Clock signal with phase variation

VC data Pointer processor buffer + control VC data
Buffer write Buffer read

VC incoming VC outgoing
gapped clock gapped clock
Outgoing pointer
+
adjustment gaps or pulses
VC outgoing reference gapped clock
Figure 75 : Clocks and pointer processing

e(n)
Time
Figure 76 : Phase variation from clock noise

reference Time
A1 A2 A3
t t
Tvar(t) = (A1 – 2A2 + A3 ) 2
Figure 77 : Measurement of TVAR

Main nodes
Local nodes
> > > > > >

slave clock (G.812)
>
regenerator slave clock (G.958)
Figure 78 : Distribution of timing

@
Main nodes
Local nodes
> > > > > >

break in timing distribution network
slave clock (G.812)
new link to restore timing distribution
@ main node clock
>
regenerator slave clock (G.958) in holdover and not slaved to
DXC clock in holdover
Figure 79 : Restoration of the timing distribution

core cladding protective jacket
Figure 80 : An optical fibre

normal of normal of
incidence incidence
reflected ray
medium medium
with n1
with n1
medium medium
with n2 with n2
refracted ray
Reflection of light Refraction of light
Figure 81 : Reflection and refraction of light

n n
n1 n1
n2 n2
n0 n0
r r
core core
cladding cladding
Step index profile Graded index profile
Figure 82 : Index profile of fibers

cladding
core
light single mode fibre
cladding
core
light multi mode fibre

step index profile
cladding
core
multi mode fibre
light graded index profile
Figure 83 : Optical fibre types

Loss
(dB/km)
900 1100 1300 1500 1700

Wavelength (nm)
Figure 84 : Channel capacity of single mode fibre

input pulse output pulse
Figure 85 : Effect of dispersion

∇ ∇
optical plug optical plug
(transmitter) O (receiver)
S R
Figure 86 : Reference points in the optical section at which

Interoffice
Application Intra–office
Short haul Long haul
distance (km) <2 ~ 15 ~ 40 ~ 60

nominal
wavelength(nm) 1310 1310 1550 1310 1550
Rec. G.652
fiber type Rec. G.652 Rec. G.652 Rec. G.652 Rec. G.652 Rec. G.653
Rec. G.654
STM STM–1 I–1 S–1.1 S–1.2 L–1.1 L–1.2 L–1.3

level STM–4 I–4 S–4.1 S–4.2 L–4.1 L–4.2 L–4.3
* STM–16 I–16 S–16.1 S–16.2 L–16.1 L–16.2 L–16.3
* : parameter value in function of the application, bit rate, fiber type : A–N.x
A: application (I, S, L) N: STM level (1,4,16)
x: fiber/optical source type (1: 1310nm/G.652. 2:1550nm/ G.652. or 1550nm/G.654. 3: 1550nm/ G.653.)
Figure 87 : Optical interfaces classification (G.957)

Maximum launched power
Minimum launched power
Minimum
attenuation
Maximum
attenuation
Receiver overload
Optical path penalty

Receiver sensitivity
Figure 88 : Transmitter and receiver parameters

Unit Values

Application code I–1 S–1.1 S–1.2

range

Source type MLM LED MLM MLM SLM
– max. RMS width (σ) nm 40 80 7.7 2.5 –
− max. –20 dB width nm – – – – 1
– min. suppression ratio dB – – – – 30
Mean launched power
– maximum dBm –8 –8 –8
Minimum extinction ratio dB 8.2 8.2 8.2

Maximum dispersion ps/nm NA 96 296 NA

loss of cable plant at S dB NA NA NA
Maximum discrete
reflectance between dB NA NA NA
S and R

Maximum optical
dB 1 1 1
path penalty
Maximum reflectance of dB NA NA NA
the receiver at R

Figure 89 : Optical interface specification for STM–1 (G.957)

Unit Values

Application code L–1.1 L–1.2 L–1.3

range 1508–1580

Source type MLM SLM SLM MLM SLM
– max. RMS width (σ) nm 4 – – 4/2.5 –
− max. –20 dB width nm – 1 1 – 1
– min. suppression ratio dB – 30 30 – 30
Mean launched power
– maximum dBm 0 0 0
Minimum extinction ratio dB 10 10 10


Maximum dispersion ps/nm NA NA 296 NA
loss of cable plant at S dB NA 20 NA
Maximum discrete
reflectance between dB NA –25 NA
S and R

Maximum optical
dB 1 1 1
path penalty
Maximum reflectance of dB NA –25 NA
the receiver at R

Figure 89 : (con’t) Optical interface specification for STM–1
770 00438 1030–VVBE 90

(G.957)
DATA
CONTAINER (C)
CONTAINER + POH
VIRTUAL CONTAINER (VC)
VIRTUAL CONTAINER + TU POINTER

TRIBUTARY UNIT (TU)
TRIBUTARY UNITS
TRIBUTARY UNIT GROUP (TUG)
TRIBUTARY UNIT GROUPS + POH

HIGHER ORDER VIRTUAL CONTAINER (VC)
HIGHER ORDER VIRTUAL CONTAINER + AU POINTER

ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT (AU)
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS
ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT GROUP (AUG)
ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT GROUP + SOH

STM_N
Figure 90 : Terminology

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SDH :
NETWORK RESOURCES ARE SYNCHRONISED
ONE WORLDWIDE HIERARCHY AND

ALSO VERY HIGH BITRATES
ADD/DROP MULTIPLEXING
POSSIBILITY OF POWERFUL MANAGEMENT
BASED ON OPTICAL FIBRE TRANSMISSION LINKS
Figure 91 : Characteristics of SDH

SDH NETWORK ASPECTS :
SDH NETWORK CONFIGURATION

AND NETWORK ELEMENTS
NETWORK PROTECTION
TIMING ASPECTS
PHYSICAL INTERFACES
Figure 92 : Network aspects of SDH

SDH NETWORK PROTECTION LEVELS :
UNIT PROTECTION
MULTIPLEX SECTION PROTECTION

PATH PROTECTION
Figure 93 : Network protection levels

PHYSICAL INTERFACES :
OPTICAL INTERFACES
RADIO INTERFACES
ELECTRICAL INTERFACES
Figure 94 : Physiscal interfaces

OPTICAL PATH PARAMETERS:
ATTENUATION RANGE
DISPERSION
MINIMUM OPTICAL RETURN LOSS
MAXIMUM DISCRETE REFLECTANCE
Figure 95 : Optical path parameters

TRANSMITTER PARAMETERS:
MEAN LAUNCH POWER
EXTINCTION RATIO
RECEIVER PARAMETERS:
RECEIVER SENSITIVITY
RECEIVER OVERLOAD
OPTICAL PATH POWER PENALTY
RECEIVER REFLECTANCE
Figure 96 : Optical transmitter and reveicer parameters

RADIO INTERFACES:
OVER DIFFICULT TERRAINS
ACCESS TO FIBRE
BACK–UP FOR FIBRE

PRIVATE NETWORKS
ELECTRICAL INTERFACES:
COMPATIBILITY WITH PDH
Figure 97 : Radio and electrical interfaces

Synchronous High Order Mux
VC12 Fiber Optic Extender Alcatel 1631 FX

622 Mbit/s Compact Add/Drop multiplexer Alcatel1651 SM/C
2.5 Gbit/s Compact Add/Drop multiplexer Alcatel 1661 SM/C
2.5 Gbit/s Add/Drop multiplexer Alcatel 1664 SM

Optical Amplifier
Optical Amplifier Alcatel 1610 OA
Figure 98 : Alcatel 1600 range for SDH (1)

Synchronous High Order Cross–Connect Systems
4–3–1 Wideband Digital Cross–Connect Alcatel 1641 SX

4–4 Broadband Digital Cross–Connect Alcatel 1644 SX
3–1–0 Wideband Digital Cross–Connect (SONET)

Alcatel 1630 SX
3–1 Wideband Digital Cross–Connect (SONET)
Alcatel 1631 SX
3–3 Broadband Digital Cross–Connect (SONET)
Alcatel 1633 SX
Synchronous Optical Fibre Line Equipment
622 Mbit/s Fibre Optic Line System Alcatel 1654 SL

2.5 Gbit/s Fibre Optic Line System Alcatel 1664 SL
Figure 98 : (con’t) Alcatel 1600 range for SDH (2)

Some important recommendations for the SDH network :
G.707 Synchronous digital hierarchy bit rates
G.708 Network node interface for the synchronous digital hierarchy
G.709 Synchronous multiplexing structure
G. 70x Network node interface for the synchronous digital hierarchy
(merged version of G.707, G.708, G.709)
G.774 SDH management information model
G.781 Structure of recommendations on multiplexing equipment for SDH
G.782 Types and general characteristics of SDH multiplexing equipment

G.783 Characteristics of SDH multiplexing equipment functional blocks
G.784 SDH Management
G.812 Timing requirements at the outputs of slave clocks
suitable for plesiochronous operation of international digital links
G.81s Timing characteristics of slave clocks suitable for the operation in
SDH equipments
G.825 The control of jitter and wander within digital
networks which are based on the SDH
G.957 Optical interfaces for equipment and systems relating to the SDH
G.958 Digital line systems based on the SDH for use on optical fibre cables
Figure 99 : Recommendations

SDH Alcatel

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HANDOUT

 1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY

770 00438 1030–VHBE i BELL EDUCATION CENTRE

BELL EDUCATION CENTRE ii 770 00438 1030–VHBE

1. EVOLUTION TOWARDS SDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.4 ADVANTAGES OF SDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

770 00438 1030–VHBE iii BELL EDUCATION CENTRE

3. THE SDH NETWORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

3.1.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

ANNEX A : ALCATEL PRODUCTS FOR SDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

BELL EDUCATION CENTRE iv 770 00438 1030–VHBE

This handout is an introduction to the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) transmission

It supplies the reader with information about:

It has three appendixes:

– a list of the most common abbreviations in the SDH.

770 00438 1030–VHBE 1 BELL EDUCATION CENTRE

BELL EDUCATION CENTRE 2 770 00438 1030–VHBE

1. EVOLUTION TOWARDS SDH

770 00438 1030–VHBE 3 BELL EDUCATION CENTRE

Figure 1 : Relative cable cost – coaxial cable

Figure 2 : A traditional network

Network 2 x 8 Mbit/s Network

BELL EDUCATION CENTRE 4 770 00438 1030–VHBE

Figure 3 : Evolution of transmission cost – optical systems

Transmission Cost per Mbit/s.km

100 400 Mbit/s

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

770 00438 1030–VHBE 5 BELL EDUCATION CENTRE

Figure 4 : Optical fibre based ring network

1.1.1 THE PROBLEM IN PDH – Back–to–back multiplexing

Figure 5 illustrates back–to–back multiplexing.

BELL EDUCATION CENTRE 6 770 00438 1030–VHBE

Figure 5 : Back–to–back multiplexing

We need a lot of equipment for this procedure, a cascade of multiplexers/demultiplexers

770 00438 1030–VHBE 7 BELL EDUCATION CENTRE

Figure 6 : Byte interleaving in the first order signal (PDH)

BELL EDUCATION CENTRE 8 770 00438 1030–VHBE

Figure 7 : Bit interleaving in a higher order signal (PDH)

Within the frame

ËËË ÉÉÉ ËËË ÉÉÉ

ËËË ÉÉÉ ËËË ÉÉÉ

770 00438 1030–VHBE 9 BELL EDUCATION CENTRE

1.1.2 THE SOLUTION IN SDH – Add/Drop multiplexer

Figure 8 : Add/drop multiplexing

140 Mbit/s signal 140 Mbit/s signal

Drop lower order Add

BELL EDUCATION CENTRE 10 770 00438 1030–VHBE

1.2 TRANSMISSION HIERARCHY

1.2.1 THE PROBLEM IN PDH – Different hierarchies

Figure 9 : International plesiochronous digital hierarchies (kbit/s)

Hierarchical North Europe Japan Trans–Atlantic

1 1544 2048 1544 2048

2 6312 8448 6312 6312

3 44736 34368 32064 44736

4 139264 139264 97728 139264

1.2.2 THE SOLUTION IN SDH – One higher order hierarchy

For the SDH one common hierarchy will be defined.

770 00438 1030–VHBE 11 BELL EDUCATION CENTRE

1.3.1 THE PROBLEM IN PDH – Limited possibilities

1.3.2 THE SOLUTION IN SDH – Powerful management

1.4 ADVANTAGES OF SDH