Recording101

Yamaha Corporation of America

6600 Orangethorpe Ave.
Buena Park, CA 90620 USA
Customer Support: 714-522-9000

Yamaha Solutions Network

http://solutionsnetwork.yamaha.com/

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 AW2816 Recording 101 - Table of Contents

Introduction 1

AW2816 Overview 1
Purpose of this Guide 1
Getting Started 2

The Musician 2

The Instruments 2
Acoustics 2
The Performance 3

Microphones 3

Dynamic Microphones 4
Condenser Microphones 4
Ribbon Microphones 5
Tube Microphones 6
Microphone Selection & Placement 6

Cables 9

Unbalanced 9
Balanced 10

Connectors 10

XLR 10
1/4 inch Balanced (TRS) 11
1/4 inch Unbalanced (Phone) 11
RCA 11

The Mixing Console 12

Split and In-line Console 11

Mixing Layers 12
Channel Strip Overview 14
Phantom Power 15
Microphone Pre-amp 15
Peak Meter 15
Phase Reversal 15

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Dynamic Processors 16
Equalizer 17
Auxiliary Sends 19
Bus Sends 19
Direct Out 20
Stereo Bus Assign 21
Pan Pot 21
Fader 21
Fader Group 22
Mute 22
Mute Group 22
Channel Pairing 22

Multi-Track Recorders 22

Analog Multi-Track Recorders 23

Digital Multi-Track Recorders 23

2-Track Recorders 24

Conclusion 25

Step-by-Step Procedures

Recalling Scene 00 26
Saving Mixer Settings as a Scene 27
Routing an Input to a Track Using a Bus 28
Routing a Monitor Channel to an Internal Effects Processors 29
Routing an Input Channel to the Internal Effects Processors 30
Bouncing Tracks 30

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Introduction

Congratulations on your purchase of the AW2816!

The Yamaha AW2816 Professional Audio Workstation will make it possible for you to record,
edit, mix, and master to a CD without the need for any external equipment other than your
microphones and/or line sources and a monitor system - headphones, of course, might be helpful
in some situations. The AW2816 is also expandable via optional I/O interface cards that provide
direct connectivity with all types of digital and analog gear.

The following is an brief overview of what the AW2816 can do:

! 16-Track Hard Disk Recorder – The AW2816 records onto an internal hard drive.
Sixteen separate recording tracks for recording allow you to record each instrument to
its own track and then mix all of them together later on.

! 28-Channel Mixing Console – As a 28-channel mixing console, the AW2816 makes

it possible to combine audio signals and route them to a set of outputs.

! Built in CD-RW – The internal CD-RW drive can be used to make audio CDs of
your songs, or to store song data.

The Purpose of this Guide

Unless you have had past recording experiences with a multi-track recorder or have used a
digital mixer, the AW2816 may seem very complex. There are no instant shortcuts to learn how
to use the AW2816 proficiently. It will take time and energy but in the end the satisfaction that
is achieved when you are able to record your own music from start to finish will make it worth
the effort.

This guide, therefore, is written with the recording novice in mind. It is also designed to cover
basic recording principles and how they relate to the AW2816. If you already know what a bus is
and how to route an input to a track then this may not be for you. If, however, you have never
recorded before or need a little help getting started, then this guide may help to provide a
foundation from which you can continue to expand your learning and knowledge of the AW2816
and the world of digital recording. This guide can also be used as a supplement to the
AW2816’s Operation Guide.

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Getting Started

The first thing that should be done is to get a clear idea of the process involved in creating an
audio CD. The following illustration is a general outline of the process involved:

Multi-Track Recorder

Musician/Instrument Microphone Mixing Console CD Recorder CD

It all starts with the musician. As the musician performs acoustic sound waves will be created.
A microphone is then used to capture the acoustic sound waves and convert them into an
electrical signal. This electrical signal is then sent to the mixing console by connecting the
microphone to the mixing console with a cable. At the mixing console the electrical signal is
boosted by a microphone pre-amp and, if desired, modified using equalizers or dynamic
processors. This signal is then sent to a multi-track recorder where it is recorded onto one of the
tracks. The track is then sent back to the mixing console where it is mixed together with other
tracks and input signals to create a stereo mix of all of the signals. This stereo mix is then sent to
a stereo recorder such as a CD recorder. The musical performance is recorded onto the CD in a
format that can be played on any CD player.

The AW2816 is a mixing console, multi-track recorder, and CD recorder all in one unit. The
only other things needed to capture the musical performance and record it onto a CD are the
cables and the microphones.

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The Musician

The Instruments
All good recordings start at the source so it is very important that the musical instruments used in
the recording are in tune and that you have the best possible quality of sound. If necessary, put
new strings on the guitars, new heads on the drums, etc. before recording a performance.

Acoustics
The acoustical environment will also play a very large role in getting a quality recording. Record
a performance in a room that does not have serious acoustical problems such as standing waves,
or multiple reflections. If the room sounds bad it is going to be very difficult to get a good
recording. A little bit of acoustic foam or sound insulation in the recording room will do
wonders for the sound. There are many informative books available at local music stores that
cover the acoustical treatment of the studio in much greater detail.

The Performance
It is also important to record a quality performance. No amount of equalizing, or processing, can
appreciably improve a bad performance. If it is not a good performance or it is not recorded
properly it will be very difficult to fix later on. Musicians should be well rehearsed and prepared
to perform at their best.

Microphones
A microphone is a type of transducer – a device that converts one form of energy into another.
There are many types of transducers that are used to convert acoustic energy to electrical energy
(microphones) and then back into acoustic energy (speakers). A microphone is used to record
any instrument that does not have an internal pickup or does not output an electrical signal.

Electric guitars and basses have pickups, also a type of transducer, that convert acoustical signals
into to electrical signals. This makes it possible to plug the electric guitar or bass directly into a
mixing console without a microphone. For acoustic reasons, though, it may be more desirable to
plug the electric guitar or bass into an amplifier and then use a microphone to pickup the
acoustical signal from the amplifier. Keyboards, sound modules, and drum machines output an
electrical signal and so they are usually connected directly to the mixing console.

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Three common microphone types are dynamic, condenser, and ribbon. Each type has different
characteristics and as a result will be used for different applications.

Dynamic Microphones
The most common type of microphone is the dynamic microphone. This microphone is made up
of a flexibly mounted diaphragm that is coupled to a coil of fine wire. The coil is mounted in the
air gap of a magnet so that it is free to move back and forth within the gap. When sound waves
strike the diaphragm, the diaphragm will vibrate. As the diaphragm vibrates it will in turn cause
the coil to move back and forth in the field of the magnet. As the coil cuts through the lines of
magnetic force in the gap, a small electrical current is induced in the wire, which is an electrical
representation of the sound wave.

Construction of a Dynamic Microphone

Dynamic microphones are highly dependable, can handle high sound pressure levels, and are
very rugged. For these reasons they are usually used on drums and guitar amps.

Condenser Microphones
Next to the dynamic microphone, the most common microphone type is the condenser. Recent
advances in technology have brought the prices of condenser microphones down considerably.
As a result they are becoming even more common in home studios and project studios.

In a condenser microphone, a gold-coated plastic diaphragm is mounted above a conductive back

plate. The diaphragm and back plate, separated by a small volume of air, form an electrical
component called a capacitor (or condenser). A voltage between 9 and 48 volts is applied to the
diaphragm by an external power supply, charging it with a fixed, static voltage. This is also
commonly referred to as Phantom Power. As the diaphragm vibrates in response to the sound
waves an electrical charge is induced that is an electrical representation of the acoustic sound
wave.

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 Construction of a Condenser Microphone

On the AW2816, XLR Inputs 1 and 2 can supply phantom power to a condenser microphone.
Inputs 3-8 are not capable of this. If a condenser microphone is to be connected to inputs 3-8 an
external phantom power supply should be used. The ‘PHANTOM’ [ON/OFF] power switch on
the AW2816 should only be turned on when a microphone that requires phantom power is
connected to input 1 or 2. Caution is required when using phantom power on the AW2816 as it
is possible to damage older ribbon microphones and equipment with unbalanced outputs if they
are connected to input 1 or 2 with the phantom power switch turned to ON.

Condenser microphones generally have very good sonic quality and are used in a wide range of
applications. For vocals, a condenser microphone with a large diaphragm would be a good
choice. For acoustic instruments such as acoustic guitar a small diaphragm condenser
microphone is often used.

Ribbon Microphones
Ribbon microphones are similar to dynamic microphones in design. A ribbon microphone has a
very light, thin, corrugated metal ribbon stretched within the air gap of a powerful magnet. The
ribbon is clamped at the ends, but is still free to move within the air gap. As sound waves strike
the ribbon it vibrates and cuts the magnetic lines of force within the air gap. This produces an
electrical signal that is a representation of the sound wave. The electrical signal that is produced
is usually very low-level so a ribbon microphone will also incorporate a transformer. The
transformer will help to boost the level of the signal.

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 Construction of a Ribbon Microphone

Ribbon microphones typically have very good sonic quality and are very smooth and natural
sounding. However, ribbon microphones can be very fragile. This is especially true of older
ribbon microphones. Newer ones are much less fragile than older ones but are still not as sturdy
as a dynamic microphone. Common applications for ribbon microphones are vocals and acoustic
instruments. Older ribbon microphones do not handle high sound pressure levels very well so are
not used on guitar amplifiers or drum-sets unless placed a few feet away from the source.

Tube Microphones
A tube microphone is a type of condenser microphone but since it is so widely used in recording
it needs to be mentioned separately. A tube microphone uses the same design as the condenser
but instead of relying on voltage supplied from the mixing console it uses a separate vacuum
tube power supply. Tube microphones are generally very smooth sounding and are used
extensively in professional recording studios. Although technological advances have made it
possible to build quality tube microphones much less expensively, a good tube microphone can
range anywhere from $500 to over $10,000. For this reason they are not as common in home
and project studios. Tube microphones are used most often for recording vocals but are also
often used on acoustic instruments.

Microphone Selection and Placement

As mentioned earlier each microphone will have different sonic characteristics. Here are a few
brief suggestions on microphone selection and placement:

Vocals
A large diaphragm condenser microphone or a tube microphone is a good starting place for a
vocal microphone. For solo vocals use only one microphone placed 6-10 inches from the
vocalist. Be sure to use a pop filter an inch or two away from the microphone. While some

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vocalists do use dynamic microphones for recording vocals a large diaphragm condenser or tube
microphone is more common.

Acoustic Guitar
For mono recording, a small condenser microphone placed 8-12 inches from the guitar at about
the 12th fret will give a nice bright acoustic guitar sound. For a more open sound use a large
diaphragm condenser or tube microphone placed 8-12 inches directly in front of the guitar.
Moving the microphone towards the bridge will provide lower end while moving the microphone
up the neck will provide a brighter sound. For a stereo recording the most common method is to
use a small diaphragm condenser at the 12th fret as mentioned above and also a large diaphragm
condenser about 12 inches directly in front of the guitar or towards the bridge.

Electric Guitar
There are many different approaches to recording the electric guitar but the most basic is to
simply connect the guitar to an amplifier and use a dynamic microphone on the guitar amp. The
microphone should be fairly close to the grill cloth of the amplifier and a little off-axis from the
cone of the speaker. For a more open sound, place a large diaphragm condenser microphone a
few feet back from the amplifier and mix it with the signal of the dynamic microphone.

Electric Bass Guitar

The most common approach to recording an electric bass guitar is to run it through a DI box and
then into the mixing console. On the AW4416 there is a High Z input. This allows the electric
bass to be connected directly to the mixing console instead of going through the DI box. If
desired it can instead be connected to a bass amplifier and the amplifier would be recorded in the
same manner as described above for recording the electric guitar.

Drum set
There are two basic approaches to recording the drum set. One is to close mike the drum kit.
This involves having microphones close up on each individual drum, a stereo pair of overhead
microphones, and possibly distant room microphones also. This will provide a nice, tight sound
and the individual drum levels will be much more controllable. The drawback is that this
requires many microphones and will take up a large number of tracks on the multi-track recorder.

The second approach is to only use a few microphones. This will produce a more open, roomier
sound. If done correctly this will provide a very natural drum sound with a minimum number of
microphones. This will take a little more practice and more attention to microphone placement
than the close mike approach. A basic setup would be to use a separate microphone on the kick
and the snare drums, and also a stereo pair of overhead microphones. A distant room
microphone can also be used if desired.

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Here are some guidelines for the different drums within the drum set:

Kick drum – For a tight sound use a dynamic microphone designed for a kick drum. It
should be placed inside the kick drum 6-8 inches from the head and aimed at the beater
of the kick drum pedal. For a more open sound a large diaphragm condenser microphone
or a ribbon microphone would be placed 1-2 feet in front of the kick drum.

Snare drum – A dynamic microphone is used most often. Place it a few inches above the
top head of the snare and aim it at the center of the drum. If the sound of the bottom
snares is also desired a dynamic or small diaphragm condenser would be placed directly
underneath the snare drum and a few inches away. When doing this be sure to reverse
the phase of the bottom snare microphone. (The phase of a microphone can be reversed
on the View screen of the AW2816.)

Toms – If close miking the toms, the same approach as the snare can be used. It is
uncommon to mike the bottom of the toms but can be done if desired.

Overheads – One of the more common methods is to use a stereo pair of condenser
microphones placed a few feet above the drum set. Make certain that the microphones are
equidistant from the center of the snare drum.

Room microphones – For a mono room sound, a single large diaphragm condenser or
tube microphone would be placed in the most pleasing spot in the room. Walk around
the room until a spot is found in which the drum sets sounds the best and place the
microphone in this spot. For a stereo room sound use a pair of large diaphragm or tube
microphones placed in separate spots the same distance in the room from the drum set.

These are just some simple guidelines when selecting and placing microphones. There are no
rules. If these suggestions do not work for you, by all means try other microphones and different
placement. Choosing the right microphone and placing it in the right spot is a major factor in
obtaining a quality-sounding recording. If you are unhappy with the sound, it is always best to
experiment with microphone selection and placement before trying to correct it with
equalization.

It is a good idea to have several different microphones in your collection. A basic starting
microphone collection would be a few dynamic microphones, a pair of small diaphragm
condensers, and a good large diaphragm condenser.

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Cables
Once the microphone has taken the acoustic sound wave and converted it into an electrical
signal, the electrical signal must be sent to the mixing console. In order to do this the microphone
must be connected to the mixing console with a cable. There are many different types of cable
so this next section is devoted to various cable types, their construction, and how they are
commonly used.

For our purposes we will look at two basic types of cables. They are balanced and unbalanced.

Unbalanced Cables

Unbalanced cables are cables that have one wire and a shield around this wire.

Construction of an Unbalanced Cable

Unbalanced cables are generally used for connecting guitars, keyboards, or drum machines to the
mixing console. Cassette decks, consumer CD players, and mini disc players also will have
unbalanced outputs and therefore unbalanced cables will need to be used in order to connect it to
the mixing console.

The most common types of connectors used with unbalanced cables are phone plugs (also
referred to as ¼”) and phono (also referred to as RCA).

On the AW2816 the only unbalanced inputs are the Hi-Z input on channel 8 and the Stereo
Digital In. The only unbalanced outputs are the Omni Outs.

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Balanced Cables

Balanced cables have two wires and a shield.

Construction of a Balanced Cable

Because balanced cables have two conductors they are less susceptible to noise and hum than
unbalanced cables. This is particularly important when using long cable runs. The longer the
cable, the more susceptible it is to noise and hum.

Connectors

There are several types of connectors used in audio. The following are the most common:

XLR
The XLR connector is a 3-prong connector that was originally introduced by Canon. For this
reason it is also sometimes referred to as a Canon connector. The XLR connector is the most
common connecter used with balanced cables.

Only inputs 1 and 2 of the AW2816 use XLR connectors.

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TRS
The TRS (Tip/Ring/Sleeve) connector is a 1/4-inch connector used with balanced cables. It is
also referred to as a balanced 1/4 inch connector.

Inputs 3–8 of the AW2816 use TRS connecters. In order to connect microphones with XLR
outputs to inputs 3-8 of the AW2816, a XLR to TRS cable should be used. There is no need for
balancing transformers as inputs 3-8 are balanced.

The Monitor Outputs of the AW2816 also use TRS connectors.

PHONE
The phone connector is used with unbalanced cables. It is called a phone connector because it
was originally used for connecting lines together on a telephone switchboard. It is also
commonly referred to as unbalanced 1/4 inch connector. This is usually used for connecting
guitars or keyboards to amplifiers or to the mixer.

The Hi Z input and the Omni Outs of the AW2816 use unbalanced 1/4-inch connecters.

RCA
The Radio Corporation of America (RCA) was the original developer of the RCA connector. It
was developed, and is still commonly used, for home stereos and televisions.
It is also sometimes referred to as a phono connector.

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The only input on the AW2816 that uses a RCA connector is the Digital Stereo Input. The
outputs of the AW2816 that use RCA connectors are the Stereo Outputs and the Digital Stereo
Input.

The Mixing Console

The mixing console is the heart of the recording studio. It is where all of the audio signals are
connected and ultimately mixed down to a stereo audio signal so that it can be recorded onto a 2-
track recorder such as a CD or cassette recorder.

A mixing console is made up of many different channel strips. A channel on a mixing console is
where a single audio signal is connected and then routed to an output on the mixing console. A
channel on a mixing console will also have an equalizer section. On some mixing consoles there
will also be a dynamic processor such as a compressor. In addition to the channel strips the
mixing console will also have a master section. This would be where all of the signals are
combined to a stereo mix and then routed to various outputs. These outputs would include
monitor outputs, stereo outputs for recording to a 2-track recorder, and possibly headphone or
cue outputs.

There are two basic types of mixing consoles used for recording:

Inline Mixing Console – Both the inputs and the playback controls are on the same
channel.

Split-Mixing Console – The input and playback controls are on separate dedicated
channels.

NOTE: Playback channels are also commonly referred to as tape return or monitor channels.

The AW2816 is a split-mixing console. The first 8 channels of the AW2816 are input channels.
The next 4 channels are stereo input channels that are used for the outputs of the two internal
effect processors. The remaining 16 channels are used for playback of the 16 internal tracks.

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This comes to a total of 28 channels. Since the AW2816 obviously does not have 28 physical
channels the AW2816 uses “mixing layers” to control the 28 channels.

The Mixing Layers

The AW2816 has 3 mixing layers. Depending upon which mixing layer is selected, different
channels will be used.

When the INPUT 1-8 button is pressed, input channels 1-8 are being controlled. When the
RECORDER 1-8 button is pressed, playback channels 1-8 are being controlled. When the
RECORDER 9-16 button is pressed, playback channels 9-16 are being controlled. The 2 stereo
channels used for the output of the internal effects processors are controlled by the blue RTN 1
and RTN 2 knobs in the center of the AW2816.

The following image shows how the mixing layers function, and how the AW2816 would look if
it was laid out like an analog mixing console:

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Channel Strip Overview
The figure below shows what an input channel strip for the AW2816 would look like if it was an
analog mixing console.

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Phantom Power
As stated earlier, condenser microphones need an external power supply in order to work. This
is usually 48 volts. The mixing console will send 48 volts back to the microphone over the
microphone cable. Only inputs 1 and 2 of the AW2816 can supply phantom power to condenser
microphones. If more than 2 condenser microphones are to be used at one time with the
AW2816, an external phantom power supply should be used. These are available at most music
stores. The microphone should first be connected to the phantom power supply and then the
phantom power supply should be connected to the AW2816.

Microphone Pre-Amp
Next on an input channel is the microphone pre-amp. Microphones generally do not have very
high output levels. In order for the signal coming from the microphone to be recorded at a
sufficient level to be above the noise floor the signal must be boosted. The pre-amps job is to
boost the signal from the microphone. Typical microphone pre-amps have about 60 dB of gain
available. The AW2816 has 8 microphone pre-amps. Inputs 1-2 have XLR input connectors
while inputs 3-8 have 1/4” TRS connectors. The microphone pre-amps are identical on all 8
input channels but the input connectors are different. A XLR to TRS cable should be used to
connect more than 2 microphones to inputs 3-8 of the AW2816.

The 8 pre-amps on the AW2816, while sonically being very clean and transparent, have slightly
less gain. For most instances this is plenty but for recording quiet instruments or vocalists it may
be necessary to use an external microphone pre-amp.

A gain trim knob, located on the input channel, controls the level of each individual microphone
pre-amp. On the recording console this is usually located at the top of the input channel strip
while on some live consoles it is located right above the fader.

Peak Meter
The peak meter on a mixing console is normally right after the preamp. This is used to indicate
if the signal is clipping at the input stage. Some consoles have both peak meters and input level
meters while others simply have a peak meter. The AW2816 has a peak meter before the Analog
to Digital Converter and an input meter after the converter. The peak meter shows whether or not
the input signal is too high. The peak meter on the AW2816 lights up 3 dB before clipping. It is
acceptable to have the peak light come on periodically but if it stays on the input level is to high
and the gain trim should be turned down.

Phase Reversal Switch

Reverses the phase of the signal. Often if a signal is recorded with two microphones the
waveforms of the two signals will be beating in opposite directions creating a hollow or “out-of-
phase” sound. Since the waveforms would be beating in opposite directions they would begin to

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cancel each other out. Whenever using two microphones on an instrument the phase should be
checked.

Two Waveforms That Are Opposite Phase

Dynamic Processors
Digital mixers and expensive analog recording consoles will typically have some sort of dynamic
processing available on each individual channel. A dynamic processor simply provides control of
the signals level. Here are the different types of dynamics processors in the AW2816 and what
they do:

Compressor: A compressor does just what the name it implies; it compresses the signal.
Signals that exceed a specified level will be reduced by a set amount. This will even out
the level of the signal and provide a more consistent level. The threshold is the level at
which the compressor will begin to reduce the signal. The ratio is how much the signal
will be reduced when it passes the threshold level. Take for example a compressor that
has a threshold setting of –20dB and a ratio setting of 4:1. This means that only 1 dB of
output gain is allowed for every 4dB of input above –20 dB. So a signal with a level of –
16 dB would be reduced to –19 dB, a signal with a level of –12 dB would be reduced to -
18 dB, etc.

The output gain adds gain to compensate for any level that compression may have taken
away. The attack controls how fast the compression will be applied after the signal passes
the threshold. The release controls how long the compressor will continue to act after the
signal has fallen back below the threshold. The knee controls the curve of the
compressor. A soft knee (a setting of 5 on the AW2816) will provide smooth sounding
compression settings while a hard knee (a setting of 1 or below) will provide more drastic
compression.

Limiter:: A limiter is basically a specialized compressor. A limiter is used to control

peak levels without overly compressing the signal. A limiter is most often used on the
entire mix of all the tracks. To make a compressor act like a limiter, set the ratio very
high (20:1 or higher), the threshold close to 0 dB, a hard knee, and the attack to close to 0
ms.

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 Noise Gate: A noise gate allows only levels that exceed the set threshold to pass
through. It is normally used to get rid of unwanted noise on tracks. A noisy guitar track
or a kick drum or snare drum track are examples of where a noise gate is often used. It is
generally recommended that a noise gate be used only after a track is recorded. If the
threshold is set incorrectly while recording there is the possibility that more than just the
unwanted noise will be gated out. By using the noise gate after the track has been
recorded there is room to experiment with the settings until it is set correctly.

Ducker: A ducker is a compressor that is triggered by a signal other than the channel
that is on. When the signal that is acting as a trigger exceeds the threshold level the
regular signal is compressed. A common application for a ducker is in a broadcast
situation. The ducker would be applied to the music channel and triggered by the DJ’s
microphone. Whenever the DJ speaks the level of the music will be “ducked” below the
level of the DJs microphone. Once the DJ stops talking the music will return to normal
broadcast levels. While not commonly used in music recording studios it can sometimes
be useful as an effect.

Expander: An expander works in just the opposite way of a compressor. It is used to

expand signals that may not have enough dynamic range to make it seem more
expressive. Signals that exceed the set threshold will have their gain increased according
to the ratio the same way that a compressor decreases the gain.

Compander: A compander is just what it sounds like, a combination of a compressor and

an expander. A compander raises the level of signals below the threshold and
compresses signals above the threshold.

This only scratches the surface of what a dynamic processor is about and what can be done with
them. Don’t expect to learn all about dynamic processors overnight but don’t be afraid to
experiment either. The AW2816 has 40 presets that are very useful for getting started. Use the
presets as starting points until more familiarity with dynamic processors is gained. A good
resource is a document entitled “Inside the 01V” distributed by C-Mexx. It details the effects
and dynamic processors within the 01V, another Yamaha digital mixer. This can be downloaded
at www.C-Mexx.com. (01V DOC/PDF supplements)

Equalizer
Next on the channel strip (see previous image) is the equalizer. An equalizer is used to modify
the frequency of the signal. In order to understand the equalizer we must first understand at least
a little about sound and how it works. As mentioned earlier, when a musical instrument is played
sound waves are created. The rate of a sound wave is called the frequency. Frequency is
expressed in Hertz. Hertz is a unit of measurement used to indicate frequency in cycles per
second.

The frequency of the sound wave corresponds to the pitch of the sound wave. The lower the
pitch of the sound wave is then the lower the fundamental frequency will be. For example, the

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low E on a bass guitar has a fundamental frequency of 41.2 Hertz while the fundamental
frequency of the high E string on a regular guitar is 659.3 Hertz. The human ear is commonly
believed to be able to hear sound waves from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hertz (20 kHz) but tests have
shown that it may actually extend much farther than this.

The equalizer is used to either boost or cut the signal at a set frequency. The frequency range in
which the equalizer can be set is called the bandwidth. Each channel of the AW2816 has a 4
band parametric equalizer. 4 bands means that the signal can be boosted or cut at 4 different
frequencies. Parametric means that the frequency is selectable and not preset. In addition to
being able to select the frequency at which the signal is boosted or cut, the width of the
equalization can also be set. This referred to as the “Q”. With a narrow (or high) Q, only the
frequencies very close to the selected frequency will be affected. This makes it possible to block
unwanted frequencies without changing the overall tone of the sound. With a low (or wide) Q, a
very wide range of frequencies will be affected with the selected frequency being the center.

Learning how to better utilize equalization takes practice. There are equalizer presets in the
AW2816 that can be used for reference. Try using the presets first if you have no prior
experience with the use of an equalizer.

Here are a few additional guidelines:

Check the sound source:

Before reaching for the equalizer check the sound source. It is best to correct any
problems with the sound at the source before using equalization to fix it. If the drums
sound dead, try using new heads; if the guitar is dull, replace the strings.

Check and adjust microphone placement:

Check and adjust microphone placement before using equalization. Simply moving the
microphone can usually make it possible to get the desired sound without having to use
equalization.

Cut frequencies before boosting them before using equalization:

Try cutting frequencies before boosting them if equalization is to be used. When a

frequency is boosted by using an equalizer, noise is added. To avoid this, try locating the
offending frequencies and cutting them. For example, if the desired objective is to boost
the low and high end the same effect can be achieved by simply cutting some of the mid-
range frequencies out. By getting rid of some of the mid range, the low and high end will
become much clearer. This achieves the same result as boosting the signal but without the
added noise.

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Auxiliary Sends
An auxiliary send (Aux Send) is a way to route the signal on the input channel to an output on
the mixer other than the main outputs. Auxiliary sends use a variable pot (potentiometer) to send
the signal to the auxiliary send outputs. Since variable pots are used it is possible to send as
much of each channel’s signal out the individual auxiliary sends as desired. Auxiliary sends are
commonly used to route signal to external effects processors or for headphone mixes. In live
sound they are also used to create monitor mixes for the musicians on the stage.

The auxiliary sends can also be set to pre- or post-fader. Typically, an auxiliary send connected
to an effects processor would be set to pre-fader. For headphone mixes the auxiliary send would
be set to post-fader. By doing this the signal that is routed out the auxiliary send is not affected
by the level of the channel fader. This allows the engineer in the control room to adjust the
control room mix without affecting the headphones mix.

The AW2816 has six auxiliary sends. By default Aux Sends 5 and 6 are connected to the two
internal effects processors of the AW4416. The remaining Aux Sends can be used to route
signal to external effects devices or for headphone mixes.

On the AW2816, the Omni Outs are commonly used for Aux Sends but it is also possible to
install an analog output card (MY4DA) that can be used as Aux Send outputs.

Unlike a traditional mixer, which uses pots to adjust the auxiliary send levels, the AW2816 uses
the faders. When an AUX button is pressed in the Fader Mode section of the AW2816, the
faders become the auxiliary sends. For example, when the AUX 1 button is pressed the faders
are used to send the individual channel signals via Aux Send 1. If Fader 1 is raised then Channel
1 will be sent via Aux Send 1, if Fader 2 is raised then Channel 2 will be sent via Aux Send 2,
etc.

The auxiliary send levels for each individual channel can also be viewed and adjusted on the
Channel View Screen of the AW2816. Simply select the desired channel, press the VIEW
button, then the F1 button to view the Channel View screen.

Bus Sends
Like an auxiliary send a bus send is used to route the signal on the channel to a mixer output.
The difference is that a bus send does not use a variable pot. A bus send will send a fixed level to
the output. Bus sends are typically used to route an input channel to a track on the multi-track
recorder. They are also used to bounce tracks.

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The AW2816 has 8 bus sends. By default, they are connected to the tracks of the internal hard
disk recorder of the AW2816. Here is how they are assigned by default:

Bus Send Track

Bus 1 Tracks 1 and 9
Bus 2 Tracks 2 and 10
Bus 3 Tracks 3 and 11
Bus 4 Tracks 4 and 12
Bus 5 Tracks 5 and 13
Bus 6 Tracks 6 and 14
Bus 7 Tracks 7 and 15
Bus 8 Tracks 8 and 16

Looking at this table, we can see that if a channel is assigned to Bus Send 1 it will be routed to
both Tracks 1 and 9. This does not mean that it is recorded on both tracks although this is
possible if desired. This just means that it is routed to both tracks. Only the tracks that are
record enabled will be recorded.

Since it is possible to assign multiple channels to a single bus send, bus sends are also commonly
used when several tracks need to be “bounced”, a common recording practice that combines
tracks in order to free up other tracks for additional recording. To do this, simply assign all of
the tracks that are to be combined to the appropriate bus send. For example, if Tracks 1-5 are to
be combined onto Track 16, assign Tracks 1-5 to Bus Send 8. For more information on how to
do this refer to the Step-by-Step Procedures in the back of this guide.

Assignment of channels to the bus sends on an AW2816 can be done either in the Pan/Route
screens or the Channel View (CH View) screen. When assigning the channels to the bus sends,
make sure that the assignments are made in the appropriate mixing layer on the AW4416.

Direct Out
The direct outs are used to route an input channel directly to a track, bypassing the bus sends.
On analog consoles, it is very important to use the direct outputs whenever possible as this
bypasses all of the extra circuitry of the bus sends. The extra circuitry in analog mixing consoles
adds additional noise. On a digital mixer, this is not an issue since all of the routing is done
digitally. Either a bus send or a direct out can be used to route an input channel to a track with
equal results. Keep in mind though that a track can only be set to record from one source. A
track cannot be set to record from both a bus send and a direct out of an input channel. By
default, the tracks are set to record from the busses but any track can be set to record from a
direct output of any input channel if desired.

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On the AW2816, the recording source of the 16 tracks can be changed in the Recorder Track
Input Assign section of the Patch In screen. To view this screen, press the [PATCH] button
Then press the [F1] button.

Stereo Bus Assign

On each channel, there is a switch to assign it to the stereo bus. The stereo bus of the mixer is
where all of the signals are combined and then routed to the stereo outputs of the mixer. In a
recording setup the stereo bus outputs would be connected to a 2-track recorder such as a CD
recorder, DAT (Digital Audio Tape) recorder, or an analog 2-track recorder.

Typically, when using a split recording console such as the AW2816, the input channels would
not be assigned to the stereo bus but the playback channels would. This allows for the input
signal to be adjusted without affecting what is heard in the control room. If both the input and
playback channels are assigned to the stereo bus, then the signal will be heard twice and will
therefore be inaccurate.

Pan Pot
The pan pot pans the channel signal between the left and right side of the stereo bus as well as
between the odd and even numbered busses. If a channel’s pan pot is turned completely to the
left, then that channel will only be heard in the left speaker. If it is turned completely to the right
then it will only be heard in the right speaker. If the pan pot is set to the center position, then it
will be heard in both speakers equally.

For bus send assignments, adjusting the pan pot will pan the channel between the odd and even
numbered busses. For example, if a channel is assigned Bus Sends 1 and 2 and is panned all of
the way to the left, then it will only go Bus Send 1. If it is panned all of the way to the right, then
it only go Bus Send 2.

The panning of a channel can be adjusted in the Channel View screen or the Pan/Route screen.

Fader
The fader is used to adjust the volume of the channel. When setting levels, it is best to try to
keep the fader near the 0 mark.

Fader Group
The AW2816 allows grouping of faders together. When faders are grouped together any fader
within the group can control the level of the rest of the faders within the fader group. This is
very useful for drums and background vocals. The fader groups can be set within the Channel
View screen

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Mute
The mute switches the channel on and off. On the AW2816 it is the ON button directly above
the fader.

Mute Group
The mute group on the AW2816 allows the mutes of channels to be grouped together. When any
channel within the mute group is turned off or on, the rest of the channels in the mute group will
do the same. The mute group is also very useful for drums and background vocals. Mute groups
can be set within the Channel View screen.

Channel Pairing
The channel pairing allows adjacent channels to be paired beginning with Channels 1 and 2. For
example, Channels 1 and 2 can be paired together but Channels 2 and 3 cannot. When channels
are paired any adjustment made on one channel is duplicated on the other channel.

The Multi-Track Recorder

After the mixer, the signal would be routed to a multi-track recorder. A multi-track recorder is
just what it sounds like; a recording device that has multiple tracks. By recording each
instrument onto a separate track adjustments to the levels, equalization, and effects can be made
once all of the tracks are recorded. When recording of music began there were no multi-track
recorders. Recording was done directly to a single track. This required all of the musicians to
perform the song together and it was mixed as it was being recorded. As recording technology
advanced the number of tracks on a multi-track recorder increased. This led to modern multi-
track recorders that can have anywhere from 8 to 48 tracks. There are also computer-based,
multi-track recorders in which the number of tracks is only limited by the amount of processing
power available and the size of the hard drive.

Analog Multi-track Recorders

Analog multi-track recorders record the signal from the mixer onto tape. On an analog recorder
a continuos representation of the signal is recorded onto the tape. A good analogy to use when
comparing analog and digital recording would be the difference between an analog watch and a
digital watch. On an analog watch the hands are moving continuously and can show intervals in
between the minutes and seconds. On a digital watch an exact number is displayed. There are
no spaces between the numbers. This is basically the same way that analog and digital recorders
work.

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There are several different formats in use today. The most commonly used one in professional
studios is the 2- inch 24-track recorder. In this format, 24 tracks of information are recorded
onto 2-inch wide tape. Some other formats would be the 2-inch 16 track, 1-inch 16 track, 1/ 2-
inch 8 track, 1/2-inch 2 track, and 1/4-inch 2 track. The 1/2-inch and 1/4-inch 2-track recorders
would be used to record the final mix onto.

Digital Multi-track Recorder

A digital multi-track recorder also records the signals from the mixer onto individual tracks, but
it is a digital representation of the sound wave. There are two basic types of digital recorders:
Tape: Many digital multi-track recorders record the digital representation of the signal
onto tape. Common formats are VHS tape and Hi-8 tape. These are usually 8-track
recorders and several recorders are linked together for as many tracks as are needed. The
Alesis ADAT is an example of a digital multi-track recorder that records onto tape. This
recorder uses VHS tape for recording. VHS tapes are the kind of tapes that are used in
VCRs. Another common example of this format is the Tascam DA series of recorders.
These are also 8-track recorders but instead record onto Hi-8 tape, which is the tape
commonly used for hand-held video recorders.

Tape-based digital systems as well as the cost of tape are generally affordable. As a result
tape-based digital recorders have become very common in project and home studios.
Hard Disk: Hard disk based recorders are ones that record onto a hard drive instead of to
tape. There are stand-alone hard disk recorders such as the AW2816, and software
programs that make it possible to record to a computer’s hard drive.

Hard disk recording offers several advantages over tape based systems. First, there is
instant access to points within the song. On tape-based systems the user would have to
wait for the tape to rewind or fast forward to the desired point in a song. Additionally,
hard disk systems, feature the capability of editing digital audio. The AW2816, for
instance, has basic editing capabilities that make it possible to accomplish less
demanding editing tasks. Since it was designed to be a portable digital mixing console,
however, the editing features are not as extensive as what might be found on a software-
based system. Software applications such as Pro-Tools by Digidesign offer advanced
digital audio editing capabilities.

As with any hard disk based system, good housekeeping is important on the AW2816.
This means that since a hard drive is being used, the drive should be periodically
defragmented. As audio is recorded onto a hard drive it can be scattered all over the
drive in fragments. The more editing or punch-ins are done, the more fragmented the
drive will be. This makes it very difficult for the system to locate all of the audio
fragments for a particular song and play them back accurately. Defragmenting a drive
simply places all of the fragments of audio for each song in the same place on the hard

23
 drive as each other. This makes it much easier for the system to play back the tracks
correctly.

It is also very important to back up any data. If the hard drive crashes or has problems it
is possible to lose all of the data on the hard drive. The easiest way to back up the songs
on the AW4416 is to store them onto a removable CD using the internal CD-RW
recorder. The songs can be backed up using either CD-R or CD-RW media.

Once the signal is recorded onto the multi-track recorder, it should be routed back into a
playback channel of the mixing console. Here, it is mixed together with all of the other
tracks from the multi-track recorder as well as with the output of effect devices, etc. This
mix of all of the signals is routed to the stereo output of the mixing console and then
recorded onto a 2-track recorder.

2-Track Recorder
In order for the song to be played back on a regular CD player, cassette deck, or other playback
device, it must be mixed down to a stereo signal and recorded onto a 2-track recorder. Examples
of 2-track recorders are the cassette deck, CD recorder, and the DAT (Digital Audio Tape)
recorder. In professional studios, the stereo mix is often first recorded to an analog 1/ 2-inch
recorder and then taken to a Mastering Studio for final adjustments before it is mass-produced.

The AW2816 has 2 tracks dedicated for this purpose that are separate from the 16 regular tracks.
This is the Stereo Track. In order to record a stereo mix of all of the tracks, they must first be
recorded onto the Stereo Track. After the stereo mix of the song has been recorded onto the
Stereo Track of the song, it can be then transferred onto a CD using the internal CD-RW drive of
the AW2816. This CDR can then be played back on any commercial CD player.

Conclusion
So there you have it, a basic guide to the recording process and how it relates to the AW2816.
Once again, this is not a definitive guide to recording nor was it intended to be. If you have
never recorded before this guide should get you pointed in the right direction. If possible, try
attending recording classes if they are available at the schools in your area. If this is not
possible, try the local music store for basic recording handbooks. Above all else, learning the
recording process requires hands-on experience. The real learning begins once you actually
begin recording.

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 STEP-BY-STEP PROCEDURES

Recalling the Initial Data Scene on an AW2816

All of the internal settings on an AW2816 can be stored in the internal memory as a ''scene''. Scene 00 in
the AW2816 is the ''Initial Data'' setting. Recalling Scene 00 on the AW4416 sets the Mixer back to its
default settings. Unless the settings from the previous Song are needed, Scene 00 should always be
recalled before starting a new Song.

NOTE: The demo Song of the AW2816 has an Expander on the Stereo Bus. If the current Song is the
demo Song, and if Scene 00 is not recalled before starting a new Song, the Expander settings carried
over from the demo Song can create an unwanted effect on the audio when the Stereo Bus level falls
below -35 dB.

1) Press the [SCENE] button. The 'SCENE MEMORY LIBRARY' will appear.

2) Press the [F1] button.

3) Turn the (DATA/JOG) dial to select '00.Initial Data' from the 'No. LIBRARY TITLE' list box.

4) Press the o 'CURSOR' buttons to move the cursor to 'RECALL'.

5) Press the [ENTER] button. The 'CONFIRMATION' prompt window will appear with the message,
'ARE YOU SURE?'.

6) Press the 'CURSOR' button to select 'OK'.

7) Press the [ENTER] button to execute the scene recall operation.

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Saving Mixer Settings for a Song in an AW2816

In order for the mixer settings for a Song to be saved with the Song, they must be stored as a Scene
Memory.

NOTE: The steps involving 'Confirmation' prompts will not be necessary if the 'Store/Recall Confirmation'
options have been disabled in the 'UTILITIES: Prefer 1. page'.

Saving Mixer Settings:

1) Configure the AW2816 with ALL of the desired parameter settings for the beginning of the selected
Song.

2) Press the [SCENE] button in the 'AUTOMATION' section above the (DATA/JOG) dial.

3) Use the (DATA/JOG) dial to select an empty or blank Scene Memory location as indicated by a
title of ''[ NO DATA! ]''. Once selected, the Scene Memory location will begin blinking.

4) Press the [STORE] button. The 'TITLE EDIT' page will appear.

5) Name the Scene using the character template in the 'TITLE EDIT' page.

6) When completed, use the 'CURSOR' buttons to select 'OK', then press the [ENTER] button. The
new Scene will be saved AND associated with the current Song.

7) Repeat steps 1-6 to create additional scenes, or ''mixes'' of the Song.

NOTE: When a Song is recalled, the mixer settings from the previous Song will remain as the current
settings until a different Scene Memory is recalled.

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Routing an Input Channel via Busses to a Recording Track on an AW2816

One way to route Input Channels to Recording Tracks Bus-to-Track Relationships

is via the eight (8) Busses. The ''Bus-to-Track'' Bus Recording Tracks
relationships are listed in the following table:
1 1 and 9
EXAMPLE: If Input Channel 5 is routed to Bus 1 then 2 2 and 10
the audio from Input Channel 5 can be recorded on 3 3 and 11
Tracks 1 and 9. However, recording can only occur on 4 4 and 12
a Track that is actually record enabled or ''armed''. 5 5 and 13
6 6 and 14
7 7 and 15
8 8 and 16

Starting with Initial Data:

WARNING: All current parameter settings will be lost. If the current settings and data are not expendable,
store the data to an unused Scene before executing the the 'Initial Data' Scene recall.

1) Press the [SCENE] button located above the (DATA/JOG) dial.

2) Press the [F1] button below the screen.

3) Select "00. Initia Data" using the (DATA/JOG) dial.

4) Press the [RECALL] button located above the (DATA/JOG) dial. A confirmation window will
appear, unless 'Recall Confirmation' has been disabled in the 'UTILITIES: Prefer 1. page'.

5) Use the CURSOR' buttons to select 'OK'.

6) Press the [ENTER] button. All existing ''Input-to-Bus'' assignments will be cleared.

Routing an Input to a Bus:

1) Press the [PAN] button to view the main 'PAN/ROUTING' screen.

2) Press the [F1] button to select the 'PAN 1-16' page. On this page, Input Channels 1-16 can be
assigned to the 8 Busses.

NOTE: The numbers '1-16' in this screen represent the 16 Input Channels. Under each Input
Channel, boxes '1-8' represent the 8 busses and the 'ST' box represents the Stereo Bus.

3) Using the 'CURSOR' buttons, highlight the desired Bus under the desired Input Channel.

4) Press the [ENTER] button. The box will be ''filled'' or ''darkened'' when actually selected.

At this point, the selected Input Channel is now assigned to the selected Bus and the audio signal at
the selected Input Channel/Bus can be recorded on the corresponding Recording Track(s). (Refer to
the 'Bus-to-Track Relationships' table above.)
NOTE: The same procedures found in steps 3 and 4 can be used to deselect or unassign an Input
Channel to a Bus. The [ENTER] button will toggle the setting of the selected Bus of the selected Input

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 Channel.

Routing a Monitor / Playback Channel to an Internal Effects Processor

Any or all Tracks can be routed through the two Effects Processors in the AW2816. Since all Tracks
''share'' the two Effects Processors, it is not possible to have each Track routed to a different, or
dedicated, Effect simultaneously.

1) Press the [RECORDER 1-8] or [RECORDER 9-16] key in the 'MIXING LAYER' section, to select
the desired Mixing Layer for the playback channels.

2) Press the [AUX 5] (EFF1) or [AUX 6] (EFF2) button in the 'MIXER' section, and raise the faders of
any channels that are to be sent to the effects processor.

NOTE: The higher a Track fader is raised, the greater the amount the Track will be ''effected''.

3) Press the [HOME] button in the 'MIXER' section.

4) Adjust the Effects Return levels with the Blue RTN 1 and RTN 2 knobs as desired.

Routing an Input Channel to an Internal Effects Processor

Any or all Tracks can be routed through the two Effects Processors in the AW2816. Since all Tracks
''share'' the two Effects Processors, it is not possible to have each Track routed to a different, or
dedicated, Effect simultaneously.

For routing an input channel to effects unit 1

1) Press the [1-8] ‘INPUT’ key in the ‘MIXING LAYER’ section.

2) Press the [AUX 5] (EFF1) or [AUX 6] (EFF2) key in the 'MIXER' section, and raise the faders of any
input channels that are to be sent to the effects processors.

NOTE: The higher a Track fader is raised, the greater the amount the Track will be ''effected''.

3) Press the [HOME] button.

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4) Adjust the Effects Return levels with the Blue RTN 1 and RTN 2 knobs as desired.

Bouncing Tracks when Recording on a AW2816

If more Tracks are needed in the AW2816 for recording it is possible to bounce several Tracks to either a
single Track, or to two separate Tracks for a stereo mix. For this to happen the destination Track(s) must
be selected and set to record from a Bus. Also, the Track(s) being bounced together must be assigned to
that same Bus.

1) Assign the bounce Track(s) to a Bus:

a) Press the [PATCH] key then the [F1] key to access the 'SET UP/Patch In' screen.

b) Press the or 'CURSOR' buttons to move the cursor to the

'RECORDER TRACK INPUT ASSIGN' section and highlight the input assignment of the
destination Track.

c) Turn the 'JOG/DATA' wheel to select one of the 8 Busses of the AW2816 from which the
destination Track will record.

2) Assign the record Track(s) to a Bus, or Busses:

a) Press the [PAN] button and the [F3] buttons. The 'PAN/ROUTE' page will display.

b) Use the 'CURSOR' buttons to move the cursor to the bus

assignment section of the first Track that is to be bounced and highlight the bus that was
selected in step 1 as the source from which the destination Track will record.

c) Press the [ENTER] button.

d) Repeat steps 2.c - 2.d for any other Tracks that are to be bounced together onto the
destination Track.

3) Bounce the selected Track(s):

a) Press the appropriate [1] - [16] button in the 'REC TRACK SELECT' section for the
selected destination Track.

NOTE: If the Tracks are being bounced to two separate Tracks to form a stereo mix, then
repeat steps 1.a - 3.a to set up a second destination Track. When assigning tracks to two
Busses, panning the source Track all of the way to the left will send it only to the odd
numbered Bus and panning the source Track all of the way to the right will send it to the even
numbered Bus.

b) Press the [PLAY] and [RECORD] buttons to record onto the destination Track(s).

29