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2
Governing Of the 1%, By the 1%, For the 1%
by Abby Zimet - 04.04.11 - 9:50 AM
http://www.commondreams.org/further/2011/04/04
A cogent, sorrowful, impassioned look by economist Joseph Stiglitz at the growing and wholly untenable disparity of
wealth in this country, the way it "distorts our society in every conceivable way," its subsequent erosion of our sense of
community and fair play, and, as in the Middle East, its likely cost.

The ruling families elsewhere in the region look on nervously from their air-conditioned penthouses—will they be
next?...The top 1 percent have the best houses, the best educations, the best doctors, and the best lifestyles, but there is one
thing that money doesn‘t seem to have bought: an understanding that their fate is bound up with how the other 99 percent
live. Throughout history, this is something that the top 1 percent eventually do learn. Too late.
Of the 1%, By the 1%, For the 1% five years ago, the corresponding figures W. Bush used to deride. Among our
Americans have been watching protests were 12 percent and 33 percent. One closest counterparts are Russia with its
against oppressive regimes that response might be to celebrate the oligarchs and Iran. While many of the old
concentrate massive wealth in the hands of ingenuity and drive that brought good centers of inequality in Latin America,
an elite few. Yet in our own democracy, 1 fortune to these people, and to contend that such as Brazil, have been striving in recent
percent of the people take nearly a quarter a rising tide lifts all boats. That response years, rather successfully, to improve the
of the nation’s income—an inequality even would be misguided. While the top 1 plight of the poor and reduce gaps in
the wealthy will come to regret. percent have seen their incomes rise 18 income, America has allowed inequality to
By Joseph E. Stiglitz percent over the past decade, those in the grow.
middle have actually seen their incomes
It‘s no use pretending that what has fall. For men with only high-school Economists long ago tried to justify the
obviously happened has not in fact degrees, the decline has been vast inequalities that seemed so troubling
happened. The upper 1 percent of precipitous—12 percent in the last quarter- in the mid-19th century—inequalities that
Americans are now taking in nearly a century alone. All the growth in recent are but a pale shadow of what we are
quarter of the nation‘s income every year. decades—and more—has gone to those at seeing in America today. The justification
In terms of wealth rather than income, the the top. In terms of income equality, they came up with was called ―marginal-
top 1 percent control 40 percent. Their lot America lags behind any country in the productivity theory.‖ In a nutshell, this
in life has improved considerably. Twenty- old, ossified Europe that President George theory associated higher incomes with

3
higher productivity and a greater The United States and the world have Rockefeller at the beginning of the last
contribution to society. It is a theory that benefited greatly from government- century to Bill Gates at the end. Lax
has always been cherished by the rich. sponsored research that led to the Internet, enforcement of anti-trust laws, especially
Evidence for its validity, however, remains to advances in public health, and so on. during Republican administrations, has
thin. The corporate executives who helped But America has long suffered from an been a godsend to the top 1 percent. Much
bring on the recession of the past three under-investment in infrastructure (look at of today‘s inequality is due to
years—whose contribution to our society, the condition of our highways and bridges, manipulation of the financial system,
and to their own companies, has been our railroads and airports), in basic enabled by changes in the rules that have
massively negative—went on to receive research, and in education at all levels. been bought and paid for by the financial
large bonuses. In some cases, companies Further cutbacks in these areas lie ahead. industry itself—one of its best investments
were so embarrassed about calling such ever. The government lent money to
rewards ―performance bonuses‖ that they None of this should come as a surprise—it financial institutions at close to 0 percent
felt compelled to change the name to is simply what happens when a society‘s interest and provided generous bailouts on
―retention bonuses‖ (even if the only thing wealth distribution becomes lopsided. The favorable terms when all else failed.
being retained was bad performance). more divided a society becomes in terms Regulators turned a blind eye to a lack of
Those who have contributed great positive of wealth, the more reluctant the wealthy transparency and to conflicts of interest.
innovations to our society, from the become to spend money on common
pioneers of genetic understanding to the needs. The rich don‘t need to rely on When you look at the sheer volume of
pioneers of the Information Age, have government for parks or education or wealth controlled by the top 1 percent in
received a pittance compared with those medical care or personal security—they this country, it‘s tempting to see our
responsible for the financial innovations can buy all these things for themselves. In growing inequality as a quintessentially
that brought our global economy to the the process, they become more distant American achievement—we started way
brink of ruin. from ordinary people, losing whatever behind the pack, but now we‘re doing
empathy they may once have had. They inequality on a world-class level. And it
Some people look at income inequality also worry about strong government—one looks as if we‘ll be building on this
and shrug their shoulders. So what if this that could use its powers to adjust the achievement for years to come, because
person gains and that person loses? What balance, take some of their wealth, and what made it possible is self-reinforcing.
matters, they argue, is not how the pie is invest it for the common good. The top 1 Wealth begets power, which begets more
divided but the size of the pie. That percent may complain about the kind of wealth. During the savings-and-loan
argument is fundamentally wrong. An government we have in America, but in scandal of the 1980s—a scandal whose
economy in which most citizens are doing truth they like it just fine: too gridlocked to dimensions, by today‘s standards, seem
worse year after year—an economy like re-distribute, too divided to do anything almost quaint—the banker Charles
America‘s—is not likely to do well over but lower taxes. Keating was asked by a congressional
the long haul. There are several reasons for committee whether the $1.5 million he had
this. Economists are not sure how to fully spread among a few key elected officials
explain the growing inequality in America. could actually buy influence. ―I certainly
First, growing inequality is the flip side of The ordinary dynamics of supply and hope so,‖ he replied. The Supreme Court,
something else: shrinking opportunity. demand have certainly played a role: in its recent Citizens United case, has
Whenever we diminish equality of laborsaving technologies have reduced the enshrined the right of corporations to buy
opportunity, it means that we are not using demand for many ―good‖ middle-class, government, by removing limitations on
some of our most valuable assets—our blue-collar jobs. Globalization has created campaign spending. The personal and the
people—in the most productive way a worldwide marketplace, pitting political are today in perfect alignment.
possible. Second, many of the distortions expensive unskilled workers in America Virtually all U.S. senators, and most of the
that lead to inequality—such as those against cheap unskilled workers overseas. representatives in the House, are members
associated with monopoly power and Social changes have also played a role— of the top 1 percent when they arrive, are
preferential tax treatment for special for instance, the decline of unions, which kept in office by money from the top 1
interests—undermine the efficiency of the once represented a third of American percent, and know that if they serve the
economy. This new inequality goes on to workers and now represent about 12 top 1 percent well they will be rewarded
create new distortions, undermining percent. by the top 1 percent when they leave
efficiency even further. To give just one office. By and large, the key executive-
example, far too many of our most talented But one big part of the reason we have so branch policymakers on trade and
young people, seeing the astronomical much inequality is that the top 1 percent economic policy also come from the top 1
rewards, have gone into finance rather want it that way. The most obvious percent. When pharmaceutical companies
than into fields that would lead to a more example involves tax policy. Lowering tax receive a trillion-dollar gift—through
productive and healthy economy. rates on capital gains, which is how the legislation prohibiting the government, the
rich receive a large portion of their largest buyer of drugs, from bargaining
Third, and perhaps most important, a income, has given the wealthiest over price—it should not come as cause
modern economy requires ―collective Americans close to a free ride. Monopolies for wonder. It should not make jaws drop
action‖—it needs government to invest in and near monopolies have always been a that a tax bill cannot emerge from
infrastructure, education, and technology. source of economic power—from John D. Congress unless big tax cuts are put in
4
place for the wealthy. Given the power of the top 1 percent, perhaps the greatest is of the wealth; where wealth is a main
the top 1 percent, this is the way you this: the erosion of our sense of identity, in determinant of power; where entrenched
would expect the system to work. which fair play, equality of opportunity, corruption of one sort or another is a way
and a sense of community are so of life; and where the wealthiest often
America‘s inequality distorts our society important. America has long prided itself stand actively in the way of policies that
in every conceivable way. There is, for on being a fair society, where everyone would improve life for people in general.
one thing, a well-documented lifestyle has an equal chance of getting ahead, but
effect—people outside the top 1 percent the statistics suggest otherwise: the As we gaze out at the popular fervor in the
increasingly live beyond their means. chances of a poor citizen, or even a streets, one question to ask ourselves is
Trickle-down economics may be a middle-class citizen, making it to the top this: When will it come to America? In
chimera, but trickle-down behaviorism is in America are smaller than in many important ways, our own country has
very real. Inequality massively distorts our countries of Europe. The cards are stacked become like one of these distant, troubled
foreign policy. The top 1 percent rarely against them. It is this sense of an unjust places.
serve in the military—the reality is that the system without opportunity that has given
―all-volunteer‖ army does not pay enough rise to the conflagrations in the Middle Alexis de Tocqueville once described what
to attract their sons and daughters, and East: rising food prices and growing and he saw as a chief part of the peculiar
patriotism goes only so far. Plus, the persistent youth unemployment simply genius of American society—something
wealthiest class feels no pinch from higher served as kindling. With youth he called ―self-interest properly
taxes when the nation goes to war: unemployment in America at around 20 understood.‖ The last two words were the
borrowed money will pay for all that. percent (and in some locations, and among key. Everyone possesses self-interest in a
Foreign policy, by definition, is about the some socio-demographic groups, at twice narrow sense: I want what‘s good for me
balancing of national interests and national that); with one out of six Americans right now! Self-interest ―properly
resources. With the top 1 percent in desiring a full-time job not able to get one; understood‖ is different. It means
charge, and paying no price, the notion of with one out of seven Americans on food appreciating that paying attention to
balance and restraint goes out the window. stamps (and about the same number everyone else‘s self-interest—in other
There is no limit to the adventures we can suffering from ―food insecurity‖)—given words, the common welfare—is in fact a
undertake; corporations and contractors all this, there is ample evidence that precondition for one‘s own ultimate well-
stand only to gain. The rules of economic something has blocked the vaunted being. Tocqueville was not suggesting that
globalization are likewise designed to ―trickling down‖ from the top 1 percent to there was anything noble or idealistic
benefit the rich: they encourage everyone else. All of this is having the about this outlook—in fact, he was
competition among countries for business, predictable effect of creating alienation— suggesting the opposite. It was a mark of
which drives down taxes on corporations, voter turnout among those in their 20s in American pragmatism. Those canny
weakens health and environmental the last election stood at 21 percent, Americans understood a basic fact:
protections, and undermines what used to comparable to the unemployment rate. looking out for the other guy isn‘t just
be viewed as the ―core‖ labor rights, which good for the soul—it‘s good for business.
include the right to collective bargaining. In recent weeks we have watched people
Imagine what the world might look like if taking to the streets by the millions to The top 1 percent have the best houses, the
the rules were designed instead to protest political, economic, and social best educations, the best doctors, and the
encourage competition among countries conditions in the oppressive societies they best lifestyles, but there is one thing that
for workers. Governments would compete inhabit. Governments have been toppled in money doesn‘t seem to have bought: an
in providing economic security, low taxes Egypt and Tunisia. Protests have erupted understanding that their fate is bound up
on ordinary wage earners, good education, in Libya, Yemen, and Bahrain. The ruling with how the other 99 percent live.
and a clean environment—things workers families elsewhere in the region look on Throughout history, this is something that
care about. But the top 1 percent don‘t nervously from their air-conditioned the top 1 percent eventually do learn. Too
need to care. penthouses—will they be next? They are late.
right to worry. These are societies where a
Or, more accurately, they think they don‘t. minuscule fraction of the population—less
Of all the costs imposed on our society by than 1 percent—controls the lion‘s share

5
Militarized Conservatism and End(s) of Higher
Education
Tuesday 5 April 2011
by: Henry A. Giroux, Truthout
http://truthout.org/print/702
without even including Iraq and Afghan same greedy disregard for the laws of
war costs)."(4) Moreover, the United fiscal gravity that governed the fight-now-
States maintains a massive ring of military play later war[s]" in Iraq and Afghanistan
bases and global presence around the and more recently in Libya.(9) Similarly,
world, occupying "over 560 bases and as the spirit of a hyper-militarized America
other sites abroad"(5) and deploying over bleeds into everyday life, politics
300,000 troops abroad, "even as our increasingly becomes an extension of war,
country finds itself incapable of paying for and right-wing, liberal and conservative
basic services."(6) In spite of how much politicians eagerly embrace a militaristic
military expenditures drain much-needed approach to policy and the need to cleanse
funds from social programs, the military the social order of any institution, mode of
budget is rarely debated in Congress or a dissent, social group and public sphere
serious object of discussion among the willing to question its state of permanent
public. Rather than avoid squandering war and its militarized and unchecked
resources and human lives on foreign embrace of economic Darwinism. These
wars, we avoid "the realities and costs of foreign and domestic wars are not
There can be little doubt that America has war."(7) unrelated, given that they are waged in the
become a permanent warfare state.(1) Not interests of right-wing militarists,
only is it waging a war in three countries, War is now normalized even as the United neoconservatives, liberals and corporate
but its investment in military power is States becomes more militarized, moving moguls - all of whom have a political and
nearly as much as all of the military closer to a national security state at home economic stake in such military incursions
budgets of every other country in the and an imperial/policing power abroad. abroad and wars at home. Wars make the
world combined. The Stockholm Military historian Andrew Bacevich is economic elite even richer just as they
International Peace Research Institute right in arguing, "The misleadingly named undermine civil liberties, public services
states, "The USA's military spending Department of Defense serves in fact as a and public dissent. A hyper-militarized
accounted for 43 per cent of the world Ministry of Global Policing."(8) War has America has not only fueled violations of
total in 2009, followed by China with 6.6 become central to American character, but executive power, it has also promoted
per cent; France with 4.3 per cent and the what is often unacknowledged is that its armed conflicts that are directly related to
UK with 3.8 per cent."(2) The conflicts in perpetual wars abroad are increasingly an economic crisis that has produced a
Iraq and Afghanistan have cost Americans matched by a number of wars being waged wave of political extremism in the United
a staggering $1 trillion to date, second on the domestic front. Such a disconnect States, while furthering the rise of a
only in inflation-adjusted dollars to the $4 becomes clear in the refusal of politicians, punishing state that places the burdens of
trillion price tag for World War II."(3) anti-public intellectuals and the general the current economic crisis on the backs of
Pentagon spending for 2011 will be more public to acknowledge how the federal the poor. We seem to have no trouble in
than $700 billion. To make matters worse, deficit has been run up by our military spending money for the production of
as Tom Englehardt points out, "We adventures. As Frank Rich argues, "The organized violence designed to kill people,
dominate the global arms trade, cultural synergy between the heedless but we have little money to spend on
monopolizing almost 70% of the arms irresponsibility we practiced in Iraq and education, health care, or other serious
business in 2008, with Italy coming in a our economic collapse at home could not social problems facing the United States.
vanishingly distant second. We put more be more naked. The housing bubble, As one educational journal pointed out:
money into the funding of war, our armed inflated by no-money-down mortgage
forces and the weaponry of war than the holders on Main Street and high-risk This juxtaposition of robust war spending
next 25 countries combined (and that's gamblers on Wall Street, was fueled by the and inadequate support for education
6
highlights the moral bankruptcy of The war on the social state is in high gear process of "reducing state support of social
political and economic leaders who seem and is most evident in a range of polices goods [and] means that states - the
to find endless piles of money to kill designed to punish unions, abrogate the institutions best placed to defend the gains
people abroad but not much to educate bargaining rights of workers, cut social workers and other popular forces have
them at home. And, of course, the protections and disinvest in higher made in previous struggles - are instead
relationship is plain: The more dollars education as a site of critical learning abandoning them."(17) Faced with
spent on war, the fewer available for while reorganizing it according to the massive deficits, states are refusing to
human needs - whether alternative energy, interests and values of a market-driven raise taxes on the rich or corporations
food stamps, in-home elder care, public culture. The mean-spirited and while enacting massive cuts in everything
libraries or keeping teachers in their ideologically dogmatic nature of the from Medicaid programs, food banks and
classrooms.(10) assault on labor can be seen in Maine's worker retirement funds to higher
Republican Gov. Paul LePage's call to education and health care programs for
War is not merely the outgrowth of polices remove a 36-foot, 11-panel mural by Judy children. For example, Florida's Gov. Rick
designed to protect the security and well- Taylor from the foyer in the state's Scott "[has] proposed slashing corporate
being of the United States. It is also, as Department of Labor building in income and property taxes, laying off
President Dwight Eisenhower pointed out, Augusta.(13) LePage claims that a number 6,700 state employees, cutting education
part of a military metaphysics - a complex of business officials complained about the funding by $4.8 billion and cutting
of forces that includes corporations, mural, echoing a sentiment he received in Medicaid by almost $4 billion. Scott's
defense industries, politicians, financial a fax that claimed that the mural "was ultimate plan is to phase the Sunshine
institutions and universities. Rich reminiscent of communist North Korea State's corporate income tax out entirely.
conservatives not only produce moral where they use these murals to brainwash He [wants] to gut Florida's unemployment
panics and fund collective rage and anger; the masses."(14) But LePage's contempt insurance system, leaving unemployed
they also lobby for and finance the for workers, unions, teachers and their workers 'with much less economic
military-industrial-academic complex.(11) struggles did not end with the removal of protection than unemployed workers in
War provides jobs, profits, political the mural; he also ordered seven any other state in the country.'"(18) Tom
payoffs, research funds and forms of conference rooms to be renamed, given Branstad, the Republican governor of
political and economic power that reach that few of them were named after notable Iowa, has proposed a $200 million tax cut
into every aspect of society. As a mode of labor organizers, including Cesar Chavez, on commercial property taxes and
public pedagogy, a state of permanent war a heroic figure who "led the United Farm corporate income, but at the same time,
needs willing subjects to abide by its Workers union in the sixties and wants to cut $42 million to state
values, ideology and narratives of fear and seventies."(15) LePage's actions mirror the universities and lay off hundreds of state
violence. Such legitimation is largely same disdain for democracy and the social workers.(19) The neoliberal culture of
provided through a culture addicted to the state that is being exhibited by Republican cruelty seems to know no bounds in Maine
production of organized violence, largely governors in Wisconsin and a number of given that Republican lawmakers are
circulated through various registers of other states in which draconian measures attempting to repeal the state's child labor
popular and media culture that extend are being imposed on the unemployed, laws. This is a move that is gleefully
from high fashion, television and working poor, middle class, students, and welcomed by the state's hospitality and
Hollywood movies to the production of others who are outside of the radar of tourism industries in spite of a major study
violent video games and music concerts politicians in the service of the corporate published by the respected journal, Child
sponsored by the Pentagon. The spectacle rich. Development, that found "that teens who
of war demands a culture of conformity, worked more than 20 hours a week were at
quiet intellectuals and a largely passive Waging War on the Social State a higher risk for bad grades and behavior
republic of consumers. A hyper- problems such as drug use and
militarized America lives amid a thick fog The second war, inextricably connected to delinquency."(20) While the politics of
of historical and social amnesia more than the war on the social state and democracy austerity is invoked, the hypocritical
willing to forget that wars not only cause itself, takes the form of a highly nature of such cuts is evident in the
economic distress, but also, as my ideological and politicized assault on passing of legislation for which taxing the
colleague David L. Clark points out, higher education. Under the regime of rich and corporations is off the table as is
renders human beings into machines, market fundamentalism, institutions that any self-criticism about lowering their
"converts economies into factories of were meant to educate young people as taxes. But there is more than hypocrisy at
death" and "threatens to transform the critically engaged citizens, willing to work here, there is also a mean-
world into a vast graveyard."(12) But war address major social problems and spiritedness fueled by an ideological
is not something that takes place question the operations of official power rigidity and fundamentalism that is evident
elsewhere, out of sight and out of mind; it have been either weakened or abolished, in actions of Gov. John Kasich of Ohio.
also produces military-like interventions as have many of those public spheres Typical of his fellow Tea Party extremists,
that take the form of a corporate war on where thinking is not circumscribed by Kasich has proposed cutting "$1 million
the social state and a right-wing war on appeals to instrumental rationality.(16) from food banks, $12 million from
any mode of critical education. This shift from the basic tenets of the children's hospitals and $15.9 million from
social contract to savage forms of an adoption program for children with
corporate sovereignty is part of a broader special needs."(21) He also proposes "tax
7
cuts for oil companies, a repeal of the services."(26) As social problems are replaced by private spaces and corporate
Ohio estate tax and an income tax cut for privatized and public spaces commodified, settings, whose ultimate fidelity is to
the rich ... [and he plans] to open his state's there has been an increased emphasis on expanding profit margins. For example,
parks to oil and gas drilling."(22) What is individual solutions to socially produced higher education is increasingly defined as
particularly shameful about Kasich's problems, while at the same time market another core element of corporate power
reforms is that his office admits that they relations and the commanding institutions and culture, and as such, has to be stripped
have little to do with deficits and great of capital are divorced from matters of of its role as a democratic public sphere
deal to do with a ruthless form of politics, ethics and responsibility. How vital to the ideals of democratization. In
economic Darwinism. How else might one else to explain the lack of massive protests the current climate, what has become clear
interpret a comment by one of his office over the recent revelations that mega- is that the neoliberal attack on the social
staff who claimed that "even if there corporations such as General Electric and state, workers and unions is now being
weren't an $8 billion deficit, we'd probably the Bank of America paid no taxes in spite matched by a full-fledged assault on
be proposing many of the same of accruing massive financial profits. The higher education. Such attacks are not
things."(23) Gov. Chris Christie has commodification of thought and the happening just in the United States, but in
become a poster-child for the Republican depoliticization of everyday life have many other parts of the globe where
engineered culture of cruelty, largely created both a culture of illiteracy and neoliberalism is waging a savage battle to
because of his mean-spirited attacks on cruelty in which notions of the public eliminate all of those public spheres which
public sector workers, which The New good, community and the obligations of might offer a glimmer of opposition to
York Times claims he views, citizenship are replaced by the market-driven policies, institutions,
appropriating the coded, racist ideology of overburdened demands of individual ideology and values. Higher education is
former President Reagan, as the "new responsibility and an utterly privatized being targeted by conservative politicians
welfare queens."(24) Central to Christi's ideal of freedom. and governments because it embodies, at
free-market ideology is the fashionable least ideally, a sphere in which students
notion that "public-sector unions - In the current market-driven society, with learn that democracy is, as Jacques
teachers, cops and firefighters ... are its ongoing uncertainties and collectively Rancière suggests, a rupture, a relentless
driving up local taxes beyond what the induced anxieties, core public values critique and dialogue about official power,
citizenry can afford, while also demanding regarding compassion for the common its institutions and its never-ending
the kind of lifetime security that most good and especially the poor have been attempts to silent dissent.(29)
private-sector workers have already abandoned under the regime of a market
lost."(25) Actually, what Christie leaves society that promotes a survival of the As Ellen Schrecker points out, "Today the
out of this form of ideological fittest economic doctrine. As Jeffrey Sachs entire enterprise of higher education, not
scapegoating is the fact that the economic points out, "Income inequality is at historic just its dissident professors, is under
sacrifices he calls for will not be shared by highs, but the rich claim they have no attack, both internally and externally."(30)
the rich. Not only has Christie vetoed a bill responsibility to the rest of society. They In England and the United States,
that would have raised taxes on the refuse to come to the aid of the destitute universities and businesses are forming
extremely wealthy, but he has actually and defend tax cuts at every opportunity. stronger ties, the humanities are being
lowered taxes for the top 2 percent of New Almost everybody complains, almost underfunded, student tuition is rising at
Jersey taxpayers. The cost in lost revenue everybody aggressively defends their own astronomical rates, knowledge is being
has been estimated at about $1 billion. The narrow, short-term interests and almost commodified and research is valued
real "welfare queens" are not public-sector everybody abandons any pretense of through the lens of an audit culture. In
workers, but new, Gilded Age rich who looking ahead or addressing the needs of England, the Browne Report has
are laughing all the way to the bank. What others."(27) Shared sacrifice and shared established modes of governance,
is clear here is that the attack is not on responsibilities now give way to shared financing and evaluation that, for all intent
public-sector workers because they are fears and a disdain for investing in the and purposes, makes higher education an
privileged, an obvious and bogus lie, but common good. Conservatives and liberals adjunct of corporate values and
because their work is in public service, alike seem to view public values, public interests.(31) Delivering improved
rather than in the for-profit marketplace. spheres and the notion of the common employability has reshaped the connection
good as either a hindrance to the profit- between knowledge and power, while
As the rich and powerful rewrite the script seeking goals of a market-driven society or rendering faculty and students as
of politics, they are largely assisted by a a drain on the market-driven social order, professional entrepreneurs and budding
number of Republican governors are not treated as a sign of weakness, if not customers. The notion of the university as
only breaking the backs of labor unions pathology, or even worse, dangerous.(28) a center of critique and democratic public
but are also firing police officers and fire sphere vitally necessary in providing the
fighters, curtailing benefits for the The War Against Higher Education knowledge, skills and values necessary for
unemployed, denying poor people access the production of a democratic polity is
to health services and "cutting medical, Public spheres that once offered at least giving way to a view of the university as a
rehabilitative, home care or other services the glimmer of progressive ideas, marketing machine essential to the
needed by low-income people who are enlightened social policies, non- production of neoliberal subjects.(32)
elderly or have disabilities or are commodified values and critical exchange
significantly increasing the cost of these have been increasingly commercialized or
8
The Browne Report's guiding assumptions are now viewed as CEOs, faculty as tenure-track faculty are being drastically
suggest that student choice, a consumer entrepreneurs and students as consumer. It depleted in the United States, furthering
model of pedagogy, an instrumental gets worse. In some universities, new the loss of faculty as stakeholders.
culture of auditing practices and market- college deans are shifting their focus Currently, only 27 percent of faculty are
driven values are at the heart of the outside of the campus in order to take "on either on a tenure track of have a full-time
neoliberal university. Like most neoliberal some of the fund-raising, strategic tenure position. As faculty are demoted to
models of education, higher education planning and partner-seeking duties that contingency forms of labor, they not only
matters to the extent that it drives were once the bailiwick of the university lose their power to influence the
economic growth, innovation, president."(36) Academic leadership is conditions of their work, but they are
transformation and promotes national now defined in part through one's ability to seeing their workloads increase, paid
prosperity.(33) Even though tuition will be raise funds, engage in strategic planning poorly, deprived of office space and
tripled in some cases, numerous schools and partner up with corporate donors. In supplies, refused travel money and subject
closed and higher education effectively fact, deans are increasingly viewed as the to policies that allow them to be fired at
remade according to the dictates of a head of complex businesses and their job will.(39) The latter is particularly
corporate culture, the conservative-liberal performance ratings are dependent on their egregious, because when coupled with an
government appears indifferent to the fund-raising performances. ongoing series of attacks by right-wing
devastating consequences its policies will ideologues against left-oriented and
produce. Simon Head has suggested that As business culture permeate higher progressive academics, many nontenured
the Browne's policies represent a severe education, all manner of school practices faculty censor themselves in their classes.
threat to academic freedom. In actuality, from food service and specific modes of At a time when critics within the academy
the neoliberal policies it embodies instruction to hiring temporary faculty are are often fired for their political beliefs,
represents a threat to one of the few now outsourced to private contractors. have their names posted on right-wing web
remaining institutions left in which Moreover, the most important value of sites, are forced to turn over their email
dissent, critical dialogue and social higher education is now tied to the need correspondence to right-wing groups,(40)
problems can be critically engaged.(34) for credentials. Disciplines and subjects and are harassed in the conservative press,
What is often lost in such criticisms is that that do not fall within the purview of it is all the more crucial that protections be
democracy demands a critical formative mathematical utility and economic put in place that safeguard faculty
culture and set of institutions in which rationality are now seen as positions and academics to exercise the
complicated ideas can be engaged, dispensable.(37) In the search for adopting rights of academic freedom.(41)
authority challenged, power held market values and cutting costs, classes
accountable and public intellectuals have ballooned in size, there is an What is clear is that the United States is in
produced. All of this is now threatened in increased emphasis on rote learning and a state of permanent war and that the
England and other countries pushing standardized testing, and tuition fees have casualties are not just on foreign soil. The
neoliberal reforms. Under this economic skyrocketed, making it impossible for war at home is being conducted by the
model, there is no talk of social justice, thousands of working-class youth to gain same people who benefit from wars
addressing social problems, promoting access to higher education. One of the abroad. Right-wing conservatives,
critical thinking, addressing matters of most serious consequences facing higher politicians and corporate billionaires who
social responsibility or engaging critically education in the United States under the engage in a full-fledged attack to destroy
non-commodified values that might reign of neoliberal austerity and higher education as a democratic public
challenge the neoliberal world view. disciplinary measures is the increased sphere exhibit not only an almost
Where the British differ from their casualization of academic labor and the pathological scorn for the social state,
American counterparts is that the labor ongoing attacks on tenure and academic trade unions and workers, but also for any
unions, workers, young people, students freedom. institution capable of producing "an
and members of the middle class are educated population [willing] to sustain a
protesting in huge numbers the attack on College presidents not only now align vibrant democracy and culture that
the social state and the university as a themselves with business values, but they provides a key component of the good
social good. willingly and openly associate themselves life."(42) Viewed as simply a training
with corporate interests. Moreover, as ground for the corporate order, higher
In the United States, this neoliberal model universities adopt models of corporate education has defaulted on its promise of a
takes a somewhat different form since governance, they are aggressively democratic future for young people. It has
states control the budgets for higher eliminating tenure positions, increasing also failed in its traditional call to invest in
education. Under the call for austerity, part-time and full-time positions without a social state capable of creating the
states have begun the process of massively the guarantee of tenure and attacking conditions in which it becomes possible
defunding public universities while they faculty unions. In a number of states such for young people to imagine another world
simultaneously provide massive tax breaks as Ohio and Utah, legislatures have passed outside of a permanent warfare state and
for corporations and the rich. At the same bills outlawing tenure, while in Wisconsin, its accompanying economic Darwinism
time, higher education in its search for the governor has abrogated the bargaining that now bears down on every aspect of
funding has "adopted the organizational rights of state university faculty.(38) At a their lives.
trappings of medium-sized or large time when higher education is becoming
corporations."(35) University presidents increasingly vocationalized, the ranks of
9
While the complexity of such struggles "Democracy Incorporated: Managed 12. David L. Clark, "Schelling's wartime:
cannot be exaggerated, it is time to Democracy and the Specter of Inverted philosophy and violence in the age of
develop a new political language and Totalitarianism," (Princeton University Napoleon," European Romantic Review,
broader social movements that connect the Press, 2008); Nick Turse, "The Complex: Vol. 19, No. 2, April 2008, p. 141.
dots between the war at home and abroad How the Military Invades our Everyday
and make visible that the current and Lives" (New York: Metropolitan books, 13. Steven Greenhouse, "Mural of Maine's
egregious war being waged on higher 2008); Chalmers Johnson, Nemesis: "The Workers Becomes Political Target," The
education is aimed not at solving budget Last Days of the American Republic" New York Times, (March 23, 2011), p.
deficits, but the destruction of any vestige (New York: Metropolitan books, 2008); A18.
of higher education as a public good and Andrew J. Bacevich, "Washington Rules:
democratic public sphere. Destroying America's Path To Permanent War," (New 14. Steven Greenhouse, "Mural of Maine's
education as a social good has serious York, NY: Metropolitan Books, Henry Workers Becomes Political Target," The
consequences for a democracy. And Hold and Company, 2010). New York Times, (March 23, 2011), p.18
questions we might want to ask are what
kind of society are we becoming and what 2. Home Research Database, "Recent 15. Peter Dreier, "Battle Over Censorship
is going to have to be done to stop the Trends in Military Expenditure," of Maine Murals Part of a Larger Struggle
arrogant and formidable assault on all Stockholm International Peace Institute for Basic Rights and Justice," Common
elements of democratic life now being (November 23, 2010). Online here [4]. Dreams (March 31, 2010). Online here [9].
waged by the financial elite, corporations,
Neanderthal conservatives, reactionary 3. Elisabeth Bumiller, "The War: A 16. This theme is taken up powerfully by a
think tanks, authoritarian politicians and a Trillion Can Be Cheap," The New York number of theorists. See C. Wright Mills,
right-wing media that eschews any vestige Times, (July 24, 2010) p. WK3. "The Sociological Imagination" (New
of decency, social responsibility and the York: Oxford University Press, 2000);
truth? One starting point is to make clear 4. Tom Engelhardt, "An American World Richard Sennett, "The Fall of Public Man"
to the American public that some War: What to Watch for in 2010," (New York: Norton, 1974); Zygmunt
institutions are simply not for sale and this Truthout, (January 03, 2010). Online here Bauman, "In Search of Politics" (Stanford:
is particularly true of higher education. [5]. Stanford University Press, 1999); and
Clearly, if higher education is responsible Henry A. Giroux, "Public Spaces, Private
for anything it is to teach students, in 5. Nicholas D. Kristof, "The Big (Military) Lives" (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield,
particular, that not everything can be Taboo," The New York Times (December 2001).
reduced to a cash nexus or the dictates of 25, 2010), p. WK16.
the bottom line. Hopefully, the emerging 17. Craig Calhoun, "Information
opposition to the new assault on social 6. Chalmers Johnson, "The Guns of Technology and the International Public
services, public service workers and higher August: Lowering the Flag on the Sphere," in "Shaping the Network Society:
education will be seen as part of a new American Century" Truthout, August 17, The New Role of Society in Cyberspace,"
kind of militaristic and ideological assault 2010. Online here [6]. ed. Douglas Schuler and Peter Day
on democracy itself. This is truly a war (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2004), p. 241.
over what kind of future we are willing to 7. William J. Astore, "The Face of War
give our children and what it means to (don't look)," Asia Times, (November 2, 18. Zaid Jilani, Faiz Shakir, Benjamin
reinvent America within rather than 2010), online here [7]. Armbruster, George Zornick, Alex Seitz-
outside of the ideals and promise of a Wald and Tanya Somanader, "Rewarding
democracy to come. There is more at stake 8. Andrew J. Bacevich, "Washington Corporations While Punishing Workers,"
in the current struggles than simply the Rules: America's Path To Permanent The Progress Report, (March 18, 2011).
abrogation of workers' bargaining rights War," (New York, N.Y.: Metropolitan Online here [10].
and a gratuitous increase in university Books, Henry Hold and Company, 2010)
tuition rates; there is the more urgent p. 22. 19. Ibid.
question of whether America can any
longer recognize itself as a struggling 9. Frank Rich, "Freedom is Just Another 20 . Jay Field, "Maine Lawmaker Proposes
democracy. Word," The New York Times (September to Loosen Limits on Teens' Work Hours,"
4, 2010), p. WK8. Maine Public Broadcasting Network
Footnotes: (March 9, 2011). Online here [11].
10. Editorial, "Teacher Layoffs and War,"
1. Some of the more important literature Rethinking Schools.org, (Fall 2010), 21. Ibid.
on this transformation includes: Catherine online here [8].
Lutz, "Making War at Home in the United 22. Ibid.
States: Militarization and the Current 11. See Henry A. Giroux, "The University
Crisis," American Anthropologist, (104:3, in Chains: Confronting the Military- 23. Ibid.
2002), pp. 723-735; Andrew J. Bacevich, Industrial-Academic Complex" (Boulder:
"The New American Militarism," (Oxford Paradigm, 2008).
University Press, 2005); Sheldon S. Wolin,
10
24 . Matt Bai, "How Chris Christie Did Universities," The New York Review of Chronicle of Higher Education, (March 6,
His Homework," The New York Times Books, (January 13, 2011), online here 2011) - accessed March 10, 2011, online
(February 24, 2011). Online here [12]. [14]; Anthony T. Grafton, "Britain: The here [20].
Disgrace of the Universities," The New
25 . Ibid. York Review of Books, (March 10, 2010), 37. There are a number of books that
p. 32; Nick Couldry, "Fighting for the Life address these issues. See, for example,
26. Bob Herbert, "A Terrible Divide," The of the English University in 2010," Henry A. Giroux and Susan Searls Giroux,
New York Times, (February 7, 2011), p. unpublished manuscript; Stefan Collini, "Take Back Higher Education" (New
A27. "Browne's Gamble," London Review of York: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2004) and
Books, Vol. 32 No. 21, (4 November Stanley Aronowitz, "Against Schooling:
27. Jeffrey Sachs, "America's Deepening 2010) pp. 23-25; Stanley Fish, "The Value For an Education That Matters," (Boulder,
Moral Crisis," The Guardian, (October 4, of Higher Education Made Literal," The CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2008).
2010), Online here [13]. New York Times, (December 13, 2010),
online here [15]; Aisha Labi, "British 38. Scott Jaschik, "New Tactic to Kill
28. Classic examples of this can be found Universities and Businesses Are Forming Faculty Unions," Inside Higher Ed,
in the work of Milton Friedman and the Stronger Research Ties," The Chronicle of (March 3, 2011), Online here [21].
fictional accounts of Ayn Rand. It is a Higher Education, (October 4, 2010),
position endlessly reproduced in online here [16], Terry Eagleton, "The 39. Ellen Schrecker, "The Lost Soul of
conservative foundations and institutes Death of Universities" Guardian, Higher Education," (New York, N.Y.: The
such as the American Enterprise Institute, (December 17, 2010), online here [17]. New Press, 2010), p. 206-215.
Heritage Foundation, Hudson Institute,
Manhattan Institute for Policy Research 32. Michael Collins, "Universities need 40. Evan McMorris-Santoro,
and the Hoover Institute. One particularly reform - but the market is not the answer," "Conservative Think Tank Seeks
influential book that shaped social policy openDemocracy, (November 23, 2010). Michigan Profs' Emails About Wisconsin
along these lines is Charles Murray, online here [18]. Union battle ... and Maddow," Talking
"Losing Ground" (New York: Basic, Points Memo (March 29, 2010). Paul
1994). 33. Stefan Collini, "Browne's Gamble," Krugman, "American Thought Police,"
London Review of Books, Vol. 32 No. 21, The New York Times, (March 27, 2011),
29. Jacques Rancière, "Hatred of (4 November 2010). Online here [19]. p. A27
Democracy" (Verso 2006). 34. Simon Head, "The Grim Threat to
British Universities," The New York 41. I take up these attacks in great detail in
30. Ellen Schrecker, "The Lost Soul of Review of Books, (January 13, 2011). Henry A. Giroux, "The University in
Higher Education," (New York, N.Y.: The Online here [14]..35. Stanley Aronowitz, Chains: Confronting the Military-
New Press, 2010), p. 3. "Introduction," "Against Schooling: For an Industrial-Academic Complex" (Boulder:
Education That Matters," (Boulder, CO: Paradigm, 2008).
31. A number of important critiques of the Paradigm Publishers, 2008), p. xv.
Browne Report and the conservative- 42. Stanley Aronowitz, "The Knowledge
liberal attack on higher education includes: 36. Kathryn Masterson, "Off Campus Is Factory," The Indypendent, (March 16,
Simon Head, "The Grim Threat to British Now the Place to Be for Deans," The 2011), Online here [22].

11
DoD Budget, the Sacred Cow
January 30, 2011
http://www.darkgovernment.com/news/dod-budget-the-sacred-cow/
In defense circles, ―cutting‖ the Pentagon other Iraqi city, splattering blood all over deficits, massive and mounting debt, and
budget has once again become a topic of the streets, testifies to the manifest domestic needs like education,
conversation. Americans should not absurdity of judging ―the surge‖ as the infrastructure, and employment crying out
confuse that talk with reality. Any cuts epic feat of arms celebrated by the for attention.
exacted will at most reduce the rate of Petraeus lobby.
growth. The essential facts remain: U.S. Yet the defense budget — a misnomer
military outlays today equal that of every The problems are strategic as well as since for Pentagon, Inc. defense per se
other nation on the planet combined, a operational. Old Cold War-era figures as an afterthought — remains a
situation without precedent in modern expectations that projecting U.S. power sacred cow. Why is that?
history. will enhance American clout and standing
no longer apply, especially in the Islamic The answer lies first in understanding the
The Pentagon presently spends more in world. There, American military activities defenses arrayed around that cow to ensure
constant dollars than it did at any time are instead fostering instability and that it remains untouched and untouchable.
during the Cold War — this despite the inciting anti-Americanism. For Exhibit B, Exemplifying what the military likes to
absence of anything remotely see the deepening morass that Washington call a ―defense in depth,‖ that protective
approximating what national security refers to as AfPak or the Afghanistan- shield consists of four distinct but
experts like to call a ―peer competitor.‖ Pakistan theater of operations. mutually supporting layers.
Evil Empire? It exists only in the fevered
imaginations of those who quiver at the Add to that the mountain of evidence Institutional Self-Interest: Victory in
prospect of China adding a rust-bucket showing that Pentagon, Inc. is a miserably World War II produced not peace, but an
Russian aircraft carrier to its fleet or who managed enterprise: hide-bound, bloated, atmosphere of permanent national security
take seriously the ravings of radical slow-moving, and prone to wasting crisis. As never before in U.S. history,
Islamists promising from deep inside their resources on a prodigious scale — threats to the nation‘s existence seemed
caves to unite the Umma in a new nowhere more so than in weapons omnipresent, an attitude first born in the
caliphate. procurement and the outsourcing of late 1940s that still persists today. In
previously military functions to Washington, fear — partly genuine, partly
What are Americans getting for their ―contractors.‖ When it comes to national contrived — triggered a powerful
money? Sadly, not much. Despite security, effectiveness (what works) response.
extraordinaryexpenditures (not to mention should rightly take precedence over
exertions and sacrifices by U.S. forces), efficiency (at what cost?) as the overriding One result was the emergence of the
the return on investment is, to be generous, measure of merit. Yet beyond a certain national security state, an array of
unimpressive. The chief lesson to emerge level, inefficiency undermines institutions that depended on (and
from the battlefields of the post-9/11 era is effectiveness, with the Pentagon therefore strove to perpetuate) this
this: the Pentagon possesses next to no stubbornly and habitually exceeding that atmosphere of crisis to justify their
ability to translate ―military supremacy‖ level. By comparison, Detroit‘s much- existence, status, prerogatives, and
into meaningful victory. maligned Big Three offer models of well- budgetary claims. In addition, a
run enterprises. permanent arms industry arose, which
Washington knows how to start wars and soon became a major source of jobs and
how to prolong them, but is clueless when Impregnable Defenses corporate profits. Politicians of both
it comes to ending them. Iraq, the latest parties were quick to identify the
addition to the roster of America‘s All of this takes place against the backdrop advantages of aligning with this ―military-
forgotten wars, stands as exhibit A. Each of mounting problems at home: stubbornly industrial complex,‖ as President
bomb that blows up in Baghdad or some high unemployment, trillion-dollar federal Eisenhower described it.
12
enhance the country‘s influence in the eyes authority to mandate military service.
Allied with (and feeding off of) this vast of friend and foe alike — this was the idea, GI‘s, the vast majority of them draftees,
apparatus that transformed tax dollars into at least. were the embodiment of American
appropriations, corporate profits, patriotism, risking life and limb to defend
campaign contributions, and votes was an In postwar Europe and postwar Japan, this the country.
intellectual axis of sorts — government- formula achieved considerable success.
supported laboratories, university research Elsewhere — notably in Korea, Vietnam, The GI of World War II had been an
institutes, publications, think tanks, and Latin America, and (especially after 1980) American Everyman. Those soldiers both
lobbying firms (many staffed by former or in the so-called Greater Middle East — it represented and reflected the values of the
would-be senior officials) — devoted to either produced mixed results or failed nation from which they came (a perception
identifying (or conjuring up) ostensible catastrophically. Certainly, the events of affirmed by the ironic fact that the military
national security challenges and alarms, the post-9/11 era provide little reason to adhered to prevailing standards of racial
always assumed to be serious and getting believe that this presence/power-projection segregation). It was ―our army‖ because
worse, and then devising responses to paradigm will provide an antidote to the that army was ―us.‖
them. threat posed by violent anti-Western
jihadism. If anything, adherence to it is With Vietnam, things became more
The upshot: within Washington, the voices exacerbating the problem by creating ever complicated. The war‘s supporters argued
carrying weight in any national security greater anti-American animus. that the World War II tradition still
―debate‖ all share a predisposition for applied: patriotism required deference to
sustaining very high levels of military One might think that the manifest the commands of the state. Opponents of
spending for reasons having increasingly shortcomings of the presence/power- the war, especially those facing the
little to do with the well-being of the projection approach — trillions expended prospect of conscription, insisted
country. in Iraq for what? — might stimulate otherwise. They revived the distinction,
present-day Washington to pose some formulated a generation earlier by the
Strategic Inertia: In a 1948 State first-order questions about basic U.S. radical journalist Randolph Bourne, that
Department document, diplomat George F. national security strategy. A certain distinguished between the country and the
Kennan offered this observation: ―We amount of introspection would seem to be state. Real patriots, the ones who most
have about 50 percent of the world‘s called for. Could, for example, the effort truly loved their country, were those who
wealth, but only 6.3 percent of its to sustain what remains of America‘s opposed state policies they regarded as
population.‖ The challenge facing privileged status benefit from another misguided, illegal, or immoral.
American policymakers, he continued, was approach?
―to devise a pattern of relationships that In many respects, the soldiers who fought
will permit us to maintain this disparity.‖ Yet there are few indications that our the Vietnam War found themselves caught
Here we have a description of American political leaders, the senior-most echelons uncomfortably in the center of this dispute.
purposes that is far more candid than all of of the officer corps, or those who shape Was the soldier who died in Vietnam a
the rhetoric about promoting freedom and opinion outside of government are capable martyr, a tragic figure, or a sap? Who
democracy, seeking world peace, or of seriously entertaining any such debate. deserved greater admiration: the soldier
exercising global leadership. Whether through ignorance, arrogance, or who fought bravely and uncomplainingly
a lack of imagination, the pre-existing or the one who served and then turned
The end of World War II found the United strategic paradigm stubbornly persists; so, against the war? Or was the war resister
States in a spectacularly privileged too, as if by default do the high levels of — the one who never served at all — the
position. Not for nothing do Americans military spending that the strategy entails. real hero?
remember the immediate postwar era as a
Golden Age of middle-class prosperity. Cultural Dissonance: The rise of the Tea War‘s end left these matters
Policymakers since Kennan‘s time have Party movement should disabuse any disconcertingly unresolved. President
sought to preserve that globally privileged American of the thought that the cleavages Richard Nixon‘s 1971 decision to kill the
position. The effort has been a largely produced by the ―culture wars‖ have draft in favor of an All-Volunteer Force,
futile one. healed. The cultural upheaval touched off predicated on the notion that the country
by the 1960s and centered on Vietnam might be better served with a military that
By 1950 at the latest, those policymakers remains unfinished business in this was no longer ―us,‖ only complicated
(with Kennan by then a notable dissenter) country. things further. So, too, did the trends in
had concluded that the possession and American politics where bona fide war
deployment of military power held the key Among other things, the sixties destroyed heroes (George H.W. Bush, Bob Dole,
to preserving America‘s exalted status. an American consensus, forged during John Kerry, and John McCain) routinely
The presence of U.S. forces abroad and a World War II, about the meaning of lost to opponents whose military
demonstrated willingness to intervene, patriotism. During the so-called Good credentials were non-existent or
whether overtly or covertly, just about War, love of country implied, even exceedingly slight (Bill Clinton, George
anywhere on the planet would promote required, deference to the state, shown W. Bush, and Barack Obama), yet who
stability, ensure U.S. access to markets most clearly in the willingness of demonstrated once in office a remarkable
and resources, and generally serve to individuals to accept the government‘s propensity for expending American blood
13
(none belonging to members of their own expression in a determination to protect Iran today — replays the debate finally
families) in places like Somalia, Iraq, and those troops from abuse, and so translate ended by the events of December 7, 1941.
Afghanistan. It was all more than a little into wariness about committing soldiers to To express skepticism about the necessity
unseemly. unnecessary or unnecessarily costly wars. and prudence of using military power is to
In practice, however, ―supporting the invite the charge of being an appeaser or
Patriotism, once a simple concept, had troops‖ has found expression in an an isolationist. Few politicians or
become both confusing and contentious. insistence upon providing the Pentagon individuals aspiring to power will risk the
What obligations, if any, did patriotism with open-ended drawing rights on the consequences of being tagged with that
impose? And if the answer was none — nation‘s treasury, thereby creating massive label.
the option Americans seemed increasingly barriers to any proposal to affect more
to prefer — then was patriotism itself still than symbolic reductions in military In this sense, American politics remains
a viable proposition? spending. stuck in the 1930s — always discovering a
new Hitler, always privileging
Wanting to answer that question in the Misremembered History: The duopoly of Churchillian rhetoric — even though the
affirmative — to distract attention from American politics no longer allows for a circumstances in which we live today bear
the fact that patriotism had become little principled anti-interventionist position. scant resemblance to that earlier time.
more than an excuse for fireworks displays Both parties are war parties. They differ There was only one Hitler and he‘s long
and taking the occasional day off from mainly in the rationale they devise to dead. As for Churchill, his achievements
work — people and politicians alike found argue for interventionism. The and legacy are far more mixed than his
a way to do so by exalting those Republicans tout liberty; the Democrats battalions of defenders are willing to
Americans actually choosing to serve in emphasize human rights. The results tend acknowledge. And if any one figure
uniform. The thinking went this way: to be the same: a penchant for activism deserves particular credit for demolishing
soldiers offer living proof that America is that sustains a never-ending demand for Hitler‘s Reich and winning World War II,
a place still worth dying for, that high levels of military outlays. it‘s Josef Stalin, a dictator as vile and
patriotism (at least in some quarters) murderous as Hitler himself.
remains alive and well; by common American politics once nourished a lively
consent, therefore, soldiers are the nation‘s anti-interventionist tradition. Leading Until Americans accept these facts, until
―best,‖ committed to ―something bigger proponents included luminaries such as they come to a more nuanced view of
than self‖ in a land otherwise increasingly George Washington and John Quincy World War II that takes fully into account
absorbed in pursuing a material and Adams. That tradition found its basis not the political and moral implications of the
narcissistic definition of self-fulfillment. in principled pacifism, a position that has U.S. alliance with the Soviet Union and
never attracted widespread support in this the U.S. campaign of obliteration bombing
In effect, soldiers offer much-needed country, but in pragmatic realism. What directed against Germany and Japan, the
assurance that old-fashioned values still happened to that realist tradition? Simply mythic version of ―the Good War‖ will
survive, even if confined to a small and put, World War II killed it — or at least continue to provide glib justifications for
unrepresentative segment of American discredited it. In the intense and divisive continuing to dodge that perennial
society. Rather than Everyman, today‘s debate that occurred in 1939-1941, the question: How much is enough?
warrior has ascended to the status of icon, anti-interventionists lost, their cause
deemed morally superior to the nation for thereafter tarred with the label Like concentric security barriers arrayed
which he or she fights, the repository of ―isolationism.‖ around the Pentagon, these four factors —
virtues that prop up, however precariously, institutional self-interest, strategic inertia,
the nation‘s increasingly sketchy claim to The passage of time has transformed cultural dissonance, and misremembered
singularity. World War II from a massive tragedy into history — insulate the military budget
a morality tale, one that casts opponents of from serious scrutiny. For advocates of a
Politically, therefore, ―supporting the intervention as blackguards. Whether militarized approach to policy, they
troops‖ has become a categorical explicitly or implicitly, the debate over provide invaluable assets, to be defended
imperative across the political spectrum. how the United States should respond to at all costs.
In theory, such support might find some ostensible threat — Iraq in 2003,

14
America's "Houdini Recovery" under IMF-Type
Austerity
March 19th, 2010
by Stephen Lendman
Stephen Lendman is a Research Associate of the Centre for Research on Globalization.
http://www.thepeoplesvoice.org/TPV3/Voices.php/2010/03/19/america-s-houdini-recovery-under-imf-typ
It's what economist David Rosenberg calls -- a federal deficit over 10% of GDP, "as lenders sit on a record $1.3 trillion in
recovery given plenty of supportive twice the 1930s ratio; cash;"
evidence, including:
--private capital growing at its slowest rate -- collapsed commercial and industrial
-- over five million homeowners behind on in nearly two decades; loans;
their mortgage payments;
-- 30% of manufacturing capacity idle; -- Falling Gross Domestic Income,
-- at record levels, foreclosures are approaching an annualized minus 4%
alarmingly high; moreover, "the -- 19 million vacant residential housing compared to the 1982 recessionary low of
foreclosure pipeline is enormous;" units - about 15% of the total; plus 4% and 2001 low of plus 2%; "the
discrepancy between the income and
-- "housing, the quintessential leading -- one in six Americans unemployed or spending accounts has never been so wide
indicator," turning lower again in starts, underemployed; as" today; and
sales and prices;
-- the adult male employment-to- -- unit labor costs down 4.7% in the past
-- instead of a normal 5 - 6 months home population ratio at a record low 67% year, meaning workers earn and spend
supply, the market has a 21 month compared to 73% when the recession less.
overhang, including shadow inventory began;
from the foreclosure pipeline; Conclusion - "the era of 'green shoots' is
-- at this stage of the economic cycle (two officially dead." Now you see them, now
-- mortgage applications for new home and a half years after Fed easing began), you don't because they never were there in
purchases down 13.9% on top of last employment typically expands at least the first place.
year's 29.4%; 150,000 per month; instead, it's still
contracting, the level is 8.4 million lower A recent issue of the Economist magazine
-- over six million Americans unemployed than before the recession began, and the asked "Why Is the recovery jobless?
for at least six months, "a record 40% of economy is 12 million jobs shy of full Maybe because it isn't a recovery," with no
the ranks of the joblessness;" employment, a gap that will take years of lack of supportive evidence. "In February,
sustainable growth to close; for the twenty-fifth time in 26 months, the
-- over 11 million full-time jobs lost since American economy shed jobs," and
late 2007, and well over four and a half -- commercial real estate values down 30% beneath the surface it's much worse.
million since Obama took office, despite in the past year and falling;
pledging to create them; The official 9.7% headline number (so-
-- the average American worker $100,000 called U-3; U-6, including discouraged
-- millions of jobs lost despite massive poorer (including loss of home equity), workers, is 16.8%) obscures the true
economic stimulus, and when it slows, even with the stock market rally; figure, what economist John Williams
watch out; calculates at 21.6%, minus the
-- bank credit contracting at an manipulated deception. The Economist
unprecedented 15% annual rate this year concludes that "the American economy
15
simply hasn't been doing as well as the Bailouts and massive borrowing are -- increasing the current 19% value added
output figures have suggested." crowding out the private sector, making it tax to 21%;
hard to impossible for most businesses and
Take GDP, for example. Rosenberg consumers to borrow. In his March 15 -- higher fuel, alcohol, tobacco, and luxury
explains that Q 4's 5.9% growth "came in commentary titled, "The Great Credit goods taxes; and it's only the beginning
two non-recurring items - inventories and Squeeze," financial expert and investor with more painful measures to come.
capital spending (the former a temporary safety advocate Martin Weiss explains the
alignment of stocks with sales and the dangers: IMF chief economist Olivier Blanchard
latter a late-year rush to take advantage of warns that high-debt countries like Greece
some tax goodies)." -- total government borrowing (federal, face budget squeezes for a decade or two,
state and local) at an annual pace of over requiring "painful sacrifices". Of concern
Those aside, the economy slowed to less $1 trillion; while is that spreading Greek troubles threaten a
than 1%, may be revised lower, and the very dicey situation in Europe, America,
two headline figures won't likely repeat, -- businesses reduced existing debts at a and elsewhere - the reason David
given a wealth of depressing data, near $1.1 trillion annual rate; and Rosenberg calls today's crisis:
including retail sales. The headline
February 0.3% (0.8% minus autos) rise -- consumers virtually shut out entirely "a depression because (post-WW II)
beat an expected 0.2% decline. from credit markets "cut(ting) their recessions were merely small backward
existing mortgages at the annual rate of steps in an inventory cycle but in the
However, the raw data paints a different $365.1 billion and their consumer credit at context of expanding credit. Whereas now,
picture - minus 1.6% month-over-month in the rate of $145.3 billion," totaling an we are in a prolonged period of credit
February (a month when rises usually annualized $510.4 billion cutback. contraction, especially as it relates to
occur) or four times as bad as the norm, households and small businesses."
and worst February in 12 years. Confirming the ongoing record bank credit
contraction, "credit (overall) is actually It's why financial expert Bob Chapman
This (says Rosenberg) in spite of "the being sucked out of the consumer and says America's financial system "is on the
greatest stimulus experience in seven corporate economy at a torrid pace." The edge of default," and public anger is
decades, and retail sales are still down 5% real economy is starved because of growing, a recent poll showing "92% of
from the pre-recession peak and on a per massive government borrowing fueling a those surveyed wanted to unseat their
capita basis 8%." They're lower than in potential sovereign debt crisis like in current representative or Senator....and
January 2006 despite a 4.3% larger Iceland, Greece, and Eastern Europe, and only 21% believe that government enjoyed
population, and adjusted for inflation, threatening Portugal, Ireland, Italy, Spain, the consent of the governed."
they're down to 1996 levels on a per capita the UK, and America.
basis. Given bipartisan criminality, a president
Author Niall Ferguson sees three possible beholden to power, a Congress long ago
Some recovery, and little wonder the latest Greek outcomes, potentially affecting all bought and paid for, and the notion of a
Conference Board consumer confidence heavily indebted countries: government of, by and for the people
survey showed only 6.2% of the public ludicrous, but not funny given growing
thinks business conditions are good - a -- "one of the most excruciating fiscal unaddressed human desperation - about to
record low. squeezes in modern European history; worsen when the full Obama package
becomes law, including worsening a
As a result, several presidential tracking --outright default; (or) dysfunctional healthcare system,
polls have Obama at from 44 - 49%, down destroying public education, putting the
from 68% in January 2009, and for -- some kind of bailout," but he omitted Fed (Wall Street) in charge of financial
Congress it's worse at around about 30%. the one chosen as a long-term fix - the reform and consumer protection, and
If conditions worsen, expect further imposition of IMF austerity, including imposing IMF-style austerity.
erosion, and if an economic storm erupts, deficit reduction through:
they may crash. IMF Austerity Arriving in America
-- large government layoffs;
Money Creation Madness It's not coming. It's here, being
-- a public sector 10% wage cut, including incrementally rolled out, including painful
Through September 2008, it took the Fed a 30% reduction in salary entitlements; structural adjustments - some legislated,
nearly 14 years to double bank reserves. others unavoidable like the possibility
Bernanke did it again in less than four -- a 20% cut in civil service bonuses; suggested in Jonathan Laing's March 15
months, swapping good assets for bad Bloomberg.com article, titled "The $2
ones, bank held toxic junk, but only a -- freezing pensions; Trillion Hole" in public-employee
small fraction of their total holdings, so the retirement plans.
big ones remain insolvent. -- a two-year increase in the average
retirement age; About 80% of them are defined benefit
plans, meaning monthly payments are
16
guaranteed, but can insolvent states and One calls structural adjustment programs harm, and police state measures to quell
municipalities comply, especially given (SAPs) "a series of economic policies dissent - the essence of tyranny showing
years of under-funding, fewer contributing designed to reduce the role of up in America and arriving at a fast clip.
workers at lower pay, and continuing large government," replacing its obligations
budget cuts, including mass layoffs and with market incentives - in other words, Barack Obama - Neoliberal Neocon
reduced benefits making a bad situation privatize.
worse. As a candidate, he promised change, a new
BusinessDictionary.com calls it "change course, sweeping government reforms,
Enough for University of Chicago finance effected in the basic framework of an addressing people needs, and "ensur(ing)
professor Robert Novy-Marx and economy by the impact of policy reforms, that the hopes and concerns of average
Northwestern University's Joshua Rauh to such as 'liberalization' of the economy by Americans speak louder in Washington
estimate a $3 trillion + pension funding reducing protectionism and state than the hallway whispers of high-priced
gap for states alone, and if economic intervention" - in other words, what lobbyists...."
conditions worsen, who knows how much government does, business does better so
higher, or if millions of retirees will, in let it. As president, he's for business as usual,
fact, get promised benefits, despite not the public. Besides unbridled
guarantees and taxpayers hit for the It's pure Chicago School fundamentalism, militarism, imperial wars, handouts to the
shortfall. Milton Friedman (1912 - 2006) its leading rich, shocking lawlessness, embracing
advocate for public wealth in private torture, political persecutions, illegal
Corporations renege on Defined Benefit hands, unrestrained accumulation of spying, and police state rule, he ignores
Pension Plans (DBPP) by cutting benefits, profits, abolition of corporate taxes, and growing poverty, joblessness,
switching to Defined Contribution Pension social services curtailed or ended. He homelessness, human despair, and budget-
Plans (DCPP), or going bankrupt and called economic freedom an end to itself; strapped states in favor of a discretionary
eliminating them entirely with the help of opposed minimum wages, unions and an spending freeze from 2011 through 2013,
obliging courts. So why not states and egalitarian society; supported a flat tax for amounting to one-sixth of the budget.
municipalities, especially given to how the rich; wanted Social Security and Defense, national security, and business
close to the edge they are, forcing once Medicare abolished; believed private needs remain unconstrained.
unthinkable actions with sweeping schools should replace public ones;
consequences. wanted everyone to be on their own "free That was his State of the Union message,
to choose;" and called profit-making the followed up by Executive Order (EO)
What's happening regionally and locally essence of democracy - a dark world view 13531 on February 18 titled, "National
arrived in America from reckless policies harmful to the majority and devastating to Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and
creating unsustainable rising debt levels - the poor and disadvantaged, characterized Reform." In other words, soak the poor.
"debt peonage" for economist Michael by SAP harshness. Enrich the wealthy, the way it always
Hudson that "can't be repaid." It's the core works, mostly in recent decades,
problem, and no evidence shows They benefit capital, not people, and the especially since 2000, and more than ever
"countries simply grow out of their debts," more severe, the greater the harm. They're under Obama - central casting's poster
according to University of Maryland a package of wage and benefit cuts, mass child for power.
Professor Carmen Reinhart and Harvard's layoffs, privatization of government
Kenneth Rogoff, or borrow their way out services, deregulation, de-unionization, His EO charges the Commission with
for Michael Hudson. When the going gets currency devaluation, free capital flows, "improv(ing) fiscal sustainability over the
tough, some default, others inflate, but market-based pricing, free (not fair) trade, long run (and) balanc(ing) the budget" by
most rely on spending cuts and higher environmental harm, and at least one other 2015, - impossible given trillion dollar +
taxes, making people pay for political few know about. annual deficits as far as the eye can see. Its
indiscretions - make that crimes. real aim is to dehumanize America, strip
A provision in the 2008 Farm Bill lets off its democratic veneer, and transform it
Washington may impose higher taxes and Washington withhold up to 15% of Social full-blown into Guatemala, Honduras, or
devalue the dollar, but mostly expect Security and disability benefits from occupied Iraq, Afghanistan, or Palestine
benefit cuts, the idea being to end core anyone with outstanding government through imposed austerity enforced by
ones including Medicare, Social Security, debts, no matter how old. It applies to farm militarized repression.
eventually Medicaid, plus others millions and small business loans, unpaid or
rely on but won't get if tough measures are disputed taxes, health care amounts As for "fiscal responsibility," financial
enacted. Expect them. Some are here. veterans owe, and other government debt, writer Ellen Brown calls it fear-mongering
Others are coming through the same potentially affecting millions late in life code language for:
structural adjustments imposed on when they can least afford it.
developing countries and just as painful "delivering public monies into private
and destructive. Overall, the effects are devastating, hands and raising taxes on the already-
including growing poverty, inequality, the squeezed middle class," not a measure "to
Definitions destruction of the middle class and unions, save the country from bankruptcy."
hunger, homelessless, environmental
17
She quoted Professor Carroll Quigley from privatization as a form of piracy - a pretext gainful inventiveness, and technologies;
his 1966-published "Tragedy and Hope: A to move government assets to private all the surplus value produced by human
History of the World in Our Time," investors at below-market prices and then labor; all the control positions of the state
saying: shift private liabilities back to government and other major institutions; all public
at no cost to the private liability holder." supports and subsidies, privileges and
Financial capitalism's "far-reaching aim immunities; all the protections of the law
(is) to create a world system of financial It's a government-business cabal to suck with none of the constraints; all the
control in private hands able to dominate wealth from the many to the few, and from services, comforts, luxuries, and
the political system of each country and the wreckage propose reform, meaning advantages of civil society with none of
(world) economy....This system (aims for sweeping austerity and greater than ever the taxes and costs. Every ruling class has
control) in a feudalist fashion by (world) top down control, in America and globally wanted only this: all the rewards and none
central banks....acting in concert, by secret - a cynical scheme using populist rhetoric of the burdens."
agreements arrived at in frequent private and "slow burn" tactics for what Michael
meetings and conferences." Parenti described in his 2002 "Global As their faithful servants, Barack Obama,
Rollback" article, saying: Congress, and the courts are delivering the
He was prescient, former high-level whole package, or, in other words, poverty
government and business insider, "Throughout history (ruling classes most for the many and unlimited wealth and
Catherine Austin Fitts revealing "a of all have wanted) all the choice lands, privilege for the power elite. When will
financial coup d'etat," including forests, game, herds, harvests, mineral enough concerned people act in their own
engineering a "fraudulent housing and debt deposits and precious metals of the earth; self interest to stop them?
bubble, illegally shift(ing) vast amounts of all the wealth, riches, and profitable
capital" offshore, and "us(ing) returns; all the productive facilities; all the

18
Half a million demonstrate in London against
austerity measures
By our reporters
28 March 2011
http://www.wsws.org/articles/2011/mar2011/tucd-m28.shtml
On Saturday, up to half a million people The huge demonstration snaked its way
took part in the London demonstration to across the capital—from the Embankment, For a significant proportion of people, it
protest against the Conservative-Liberal past the Houses of Parliament, along was their first-ever protest. Most
Democrat government‘s austerity Piccadilly to Hyde Park. Feeder marches noticeable were the large numbers of
measures—the largest since the 2003 from other starting points outside the city young people—teenagers, students and
demonstration against the Iraq war and the joined it along the route, one of which young workers made up a sizeable
second largest political protest in British pulled a giant model of a Trojan horse. It contingent, some of whom had already
history. took some people more than three hours to taken part in last year‘s protests against
walk the three-mile route, with marchers student fee rises and the end of the
The demonstration was even more still arriving in the park long after the Educational Maintenance Allowance.
remarkable, given that the Trades Union official rally had closed.
Congress (TUC) and the union The demonstration was good-natured, with
bureaucracy had restricted the mobilisation White, black and Asian people were thousands of homemade banners. Police
to the public sector. It is a sign of present, including every generation, reported that around 150 protesters,
enormous pent-up anger that has been sat accent, a host of nationalities and varied unconnected with the main march, had
on by the trade unions since the coalition social backgrounds. It was difficult to taken to smashing windows of high-profile
came to power last May. assess how many private sector workers shops and hotels in Piccadilly, including
were there, as the union banners were the Ritz. But eyewitnesses said that the
The size of the demonstration far exceeded predominantly from the public sector— most violent confrontations were
the expectations of the TUC, which with large contingents of teachers, health instigated by the police, who began
downplayed the numbers involved to care workers, council employees and kettling several thousand protesters
below those of the police, who notoriously firefighters. Hundreds of people in gathered in Trafalgar Square and
underestimate figures. wheelchairs were at the front of the march, represented by disparate groups, including
blowing whistles and carrying banners, the Socialist Workers Party, anarchists and
some of which called for a general strike. smaller protests groups.
19
struggle, as it has done for the past 10 persuaded to do so by a modicum of rank-
Many people made their way to Socialist months of the coalition and for 13 years and-file pressure.
Equality Party members, calling out the while Labour was in office.
slogans on the leaflet prepared for the day: The Socialist Workers Party stressed,
―Reject the TUC‘s ‗phoney war‘, No cuts The demand from the media following the ―Now we need trade union leaders to use
in public spending, No confidence in demonstration was unanimous. Having the spirit of the march to call hard-hitting
Labour and the unions, A socialist allowed workers to let off steam on their action that can bring down the
programme to fight the cuts, Build rank- ―March for an Alternative‖, the Labour government… We need coordinated
and-file Committees to lead the struggle!‖ Party and the TUC must now be tasked strikes—and we need a general strike.‖
with telling workers that there is in fact no
Other people came for further discussion, alternative to cuts and austerity. The Socialist Party took its usual ―realistic
pleased to see a real political alternative, stance‖. Not for them the bringing down of
after complaining about the official The liberal pro-Labour press was governments: ―It is clear that the
speeches, which reeled off lists of cuts, but indistinguishable from its pro-Tory government has no choice but to have a
offered no solution or a way forward. counterparts. The Observer, the Sunday plan B in reserve,‖ it wrote. ―In the face of
edition of the Guardian, editorialised, mass outrage, the Tory/Liberal coalition
The measure of the TUC‘s real intentions ―Protest is fine. Now for a proper debate‖: has already shown that it is capable of
in finally organising a demonstration was retreat.‖
the pride of place on the platform afforded ―Even in the most straitened
to Labour Party leader Ed Miliband. Amid circumstances, there is always a range of To secure such a retreat means demands
his rhetorical invocations of the options: who is taxed, who is spared, for a ―24-hour public sector general
suffragettes, the civil rights movement and which departments‘ budgets are protected, strike.‖
the anti-apartheid struggle in South Africa, which are not. In that sense, the marchers
Miliband stressed, to boos in the crowd, have self-evident truth on their side… But ―A public sector general strike, even a
―There is a need for difficult choices, and there is also an important truth in partial one, would do even more to raise
some cuts‖. [Conservative chancellor] Osborne‘s confidence and prepare the ground for an
position… there is no serious dispute all-out 24-hour general strike,‖ it adds.
―We are here today from all walks of life, about the need to bring the deficit down, ―While local action and action by
all classes, all backgrounds,‖ Miliband only about the best timetable.‖ individual trade unions cannot be delayed
claimed, in order to conceal the until we get generalised strike action, there
overwhelmingly working class ―Labour is being pushed into a stance of is no objective reason why trade union
composition of the protest. perpetual carping,‖ it warned. ―Ed leaders cannot discuss together in order to
Miliband is right to tap into anxiety that set a date on which everyone plans to
His emphasis on the need for ―some cuts‖ deficit reduction is happening too fast. But come out.‖
was concealed behind militant-sounding that view contains the tacit recognition that
speeches from whatever figures within the it must still happen at some stage.‖ For both groups, everything is left in the
trade unions still have a vestigial claim to hands of the trade union leaderships in
be ―left wing‖, including Unison General The Independent led with the observation, which their members, former members and
Secretary Dave Prentis, and Public and ―It is in the nature of protest marches that allies occupy a prominent place.
Commercial Services union General they tend to be a reaction to decisions that
Secretary Mark Serwotka, who declared, have already been taken and are most In its statement, ―Reject TUC‘s phoney
―Strike together to let the government unlikely to be reversed… There may be war‖, the SEP opposed this call for
know we won‘t accept it‖—a refrain he room for adjustment around the edges, but prostration before the union tops and their
has been spouting for years, but doing the basic plan has been decided and the Labour allies.
everything to prevent. alignment of forces behind it in the
Commons is unlikely to shift over the next ―The first step in opposing the austerity
Unite General Secretary Len McCluskey four years.‖ drive is a fight to bring down the
declared ridiculously, ―I have a message to government implementing it. Instead, the
the Labour Party. We need strong Columnist John Rentoul even wrote of trade unions hold out the possibility that
opposition. We need you on the barricades Miliband‘s ―fundamental error of the Liberal Democrats can be persuaded to
with us now… This is only the start. We judgement in agreeing to speak at abandon the Tories and form a coalition
need a plan of resistance including yesterday‘s TUC march.‖ with Labour,‖ we wrote.
coordinated strike action.‖
The fake left groups, for their part, ―Everything depends on working people
No such coordinated plan of strike action proceeded as if the TUC and its affiliated breaking from the Labour Party and trade
can be expected, let alone a manning of unions were merely reluctant to take the unions and building new democratic
barricades. The TUC will work with the next step in organising strike action organisations of working class struggle.‖
Labour Party to suppress the class against the government and could be

20
What happened to political ideology in America?
Staff at Corporate Welfare
"Other countries, unlike ours, have representative governments, or they certainly have more of an appearance of it. We
have a kind of corporate system. We have only one political party, which is the party of corporate America, and it has two
right wings, one called Republican, and one called Democratic." -Gore Vidal
http://www.corporatewelfare.org/articles/ideology.htm
Over the last one hundred years, the instituting control over foreign land over world debts may be more damaging than
ideological scale has moved so far to the the wishes of those in question might be helpful:
right, Americans are no longer capable of considered a right wing activity. Usually
combating the real issues anymore. True that which is considered a military We spend aid, and say we feel better about
ideological differences have been replaced dictatorship is one that has a right wing it, and it
with surface issues like abortion and death dictator. Today, the U.S. military We spend aid, and say we feel better about
penalty, and these have become the dominates our budget, our economy, and it, and it
determining factor for what passes for the lives of those around the world. In the ends up being spent the wrong way
right and left. American ideology has 2000 elections, during the second debate and there are some pretty egregious
strayed so far from history, and the world, of the Presidential candidates Al Gore and examples recently, one being russia
that ideologies such as Communist and George W. Bush, it was Bush who was where we had IMF loans that ended up in
socialist have become interchangeable concerned for American Might flexing its the pockets of
with each other; and interchangeable with muscles around the globe. He said powerful people, and didn't help the nation
the word liberal- which has in turn become (10/11/00):
synonymous with radical. The One might think liberals would be
Republicans and Democrats have moved one way for us to be viewed as the ugly concerned if such misguided actions where
further right than our founding fathers american true, yet Democrat Al Gore wanted to
could have imagined. Democrats can no is for us to go around the world saying increase the powers of the World Bank.
longer identify with the liberals they once we do it this way, so should you. While many Democrats in power agree
were, and Republicans are now fighting I think the united states must be humble with Al Gore, the true liberals are
for New Deal issues, the same issues we must be proud and confident of our protesting this in the streets. An op-ed
which Republicans built their party on values article in the Washington Times (11/2/00,
opposing. Cutting government down is but humble in the way we treat nations Page A23), a known conservative paper, is
also supposed to be a Republican major who are trying to figure out their own titled, "His own man in full; Nader is the
issue, yet the Republicans have been out course liberal Democrats once were." The author,
spending the Democrats on almost all Suzanne Fields, starts the article by saying,
budget bills throughout the 1990s. Neither The Democrat Al Gore, the one who might "Ralph Nader is the real McCoy. He's the
major party now acts with stability or be considered the "liberal", disagreed and liberal I was looking for in the old days
focus, other than their own preservation, wished to increase military action, and had when I was a liberal." Ralph Nader
and the preservation of the money powers. doubled Bush's military budget proposals. opposes NAFTA, and WTO, like any true
In addition, it was Presidential Candidiate liberal should, yet Democrats consider
Our founding fathers would never be in Pat Buchanan, the one considered too right Nader radical. Buchanan also opposes the
favor of our expanding military power, for most of America's right, who wrote the WTO, as any American concerned about
growing throughout the world like an book, "A Republic, Not an Empire" which democracy should, yet he is labeled a right
empire. Thomas Jefferson once said, explains what should be the liberal wing extremist. If Americans label
"Sometimes it is said that man cannot be proposal of retracting our military concerns for our democracy as radical or
trusted with the government of himself. intervention. extreme, then what is the ideology of
Can he, then, be trusted with the average Americans? According to USA
government of others? ... let history In the same debate, Bush also expressed Today, in a April 11, 2000 article titled
answer this question." Historically, concern about how the World Bank's third
21
"Buchanan to speak at WTO protests," Empire throughout the world. Thomas slavery. One out of every hundred
Buchanan is quoted as saying: Jefferson said, "I know no safe depository Americans are in jail, 25% of the worlds
of the ultimate powers of the society but prisoners are right here in America, and its
Where I agree with the sea turtles and the the people themselves..." Yet, today, few increasing. Another one percent of
porpoises and (consumer activist) Ralph are concerned that the wealth and power is Americans are homeless, and 22% of the
Nader and so concentrated in the few corporate elite. homeless are veterans of our own military.
(conservative) Howard Phillips and the Neither the Republicans nor Democrats The rich have become so tremendously
union guys will take these up as major issues. Our wealthy, that the top 1% practically owns
is, when you make a law in the United "liberal media" now sets the standard for half the world. There are problems in this
States of America, the left, and our media is about as country which are appalling and obscene
no international organization should have complacent to the concentration of power for such a rich nation, yet they are
the right as anybody on the right. censored, and ignored.
to tell us that we've got to alter or change
our laws. There are real issues, which aren't even In general, democratic western countries
I do believe in the full restoration of touched upon by our candidates or our have a variety of political ideologies on
America's lost media, because to do so would be too the debate floor. From these many
sovereignty and independence. And I do radical or liberal, so our own population is opposing ideologies, compromise is
not believe in brainwashed in a cycle of arguing non- reached. These ideologies always include a
surrendering authority to a World Trade issues. Corporate influence on our socialist left ideology, which is the
Organization. government, military influence around the strongest advocate of the lower class and
world, the enormous income gap, and labor class. Even this country had socialist
Thomas Friedman of the New York enormous power gap; these are issues representation, till we started hunting
Times, and member of the most elite which would strike at the heart of our socialists down like Nazis during the
organizations of the planet (Bilderberg, liberal forefathers. Now in America, they McCarthy era. Their presence has never
CFR, and Trilateral), explains American aren't even on the agenda. returned to the American scene in any sort
thought in a press club meeting of March of meaningful way, despite lasting
28, 1999: Thomas Jefferson once said, "a wise and representation in almost all other
frugal government... shall not take from democracies. One can assume that the
For globalization to work, America can't the mouth of labor the bread it has McCarthy mission was successful in
be afraid to act earned." Workers in America can't even permanently removing the freedom of
like the almighty superpower that it is. The pay the bills without working three jobs, 1 opposing ideologies to be heard in
hidden hand out of every 4 children go to bed hungry, America.
of the market will never work without a and these issues are ignored. Small
hidden fist. McDonald's farmers and small businesses are being With growing corruption and censorship,
cannot flourish without McDonald- forced out by huge corporations, mergers and disappearing freedoms to military
Douglas, the designer of the are concentrating their power, competition powers, one can compare the apparent
F-15, and the hidden fist that keeps the as we know it is threatened by mega- path of the American Empire to that of any
world safe for Silicon Valley's conglomerates, yet America is apathetic. great empire which has come and gone.
technology is called the United States The first Americans were businessmen, Our founding fathers' only warning was to
Army, Air Force, Navy who wanted free enterprise, but never at keep power in the hands of the people. We
and Marine Corps. the expense of the people, or the have moved so far right, that we don't even
Democracy. mind that the power has been lost to the
One wonders if the goal for our country is hands of the few.
to have a democratic nation-state, or to Prisons are a growing threat to our crime-
expand the reaches of the American breeding society, and is now the new

22
West Censoring East: The Use of Western
Technologies by Middle East Censors, 2010-2011
By Helmi Noman and Jillian C. York.
http://opennet.net/west-censoring-east-the-use-western-technologies-middle-east-censors-2010-2011
Executive Summary made tools for the purpose of blocking Foreword
social and political content, effectively
The OpenNet Initiative has documented blocking a total of over 20 million Internet Ronald Deibert, John Palfrey, Rafal
network filtering of the Internet by users from accessing such websites.1 The Rohozinski, Jonathan Zittrain
national governments in over forty authors analyze as well the increasing
countries worldwide. Countries use this opacity of the usage of Western-made Internet filtering can take place as parents
network filtering as one of many methods tools for filtering at the national level. and schools shield children from harmful
to control the flow of online content that is content, businesses enforce workplace
objectionable to the filtering governments Helmi Noman and Jillian C. York standards for employees, and governments
for social, political, and security reasons. authored this report. ONI principal seek to shape and control the flow of
Filtering is particularly appealing to investigators Ronald Deibert, John Palfrey, information to and from their citizens.
governments as it allows them to control Rafal Rohozinski, and Jonathan Zittrain Over a decade ago Lawrence Lessig
content not published within their national authored the foreword. warned of the ―vertical portability‖ of
borders. tools to manage and enforce such filtering:
Noman is a Senior Research Fellow at the ―This alternative is often praised as a
National governments use a variety of Munk School of Global Affairs, University ‗private‘ or ‗user-empowering‘ solution to
technical means to filter the Internet; in of Toronto, and is a Berkman Center the indecency problem. URL-blocking
this paper, we analyze the use of Research Affiliate. York is the coordinator software such as SurfWatch or Cybersitter,
American- and Canadian-made software for the OpenNet Initiative at the Berkman which works by restricting access to
for the purpose of government-level Center for Internet & Society. specific addresses, was the first version of
filtering in the Middle East and North this idea. More recently, in response to
Africa. The authors would like to thank James Tay cyberporn hysteria, the World Wide Web
of Citizen Lab for technical support and Consortium has developed a sophisticated
In this report, the authors find that nine test data analysis. technology called the Platform for Internet
countries in the region utilize Western- Content Selection, or PICS. Blocking
23
software is bad enough—but in my view, This report details just how popular Websense to implement filtering of
PICS is the devil.‖2 If care were not taken, Western filtering tools and services are political and social content.
technologies to protect children using a among authoritarian regimes. As Internet
handful of PCs could be readily controls grow worldwide, so too has the Saudi Arabia, UAE, Kuwait, Bahrain,
repurposed to engage in mass political and market for filtering tools and services. Oman and Tunisia have used American-
other censorship affecting millions of Their use is pervasive—even as it is made SmartFilter products now owned by
people. becoming more opaque. Users who were Intel. Intel‘s SmartFilter management does
formerly informed of the vendor not have a publically declared policy on
Today that portability is amply shown but prohibiting their access to a desired the use of its products by governments to
rarely discussed. Filtering technologies website are no longer told who is selecting implement censorship.
produced by companies, some Fortune what they can see and do online.
500, in the United States and Canada are ISPs using commercial filters are
currently being repurposed for state- We hope that this report can inform a increasingly obscuring that face as their
sanctioned censorship. This is not simply a genuine discussion of the ethics and citizens surf the Web and encounter
case of a general purpose, neutral tool practice of providing national censorship blocks. A few years ago, the blockpages
being used for an end not contemplated by technology and services, one that might from many countries‘ ISPs and their
its maker. The filtering products of today lead to guidelines consonant with the most corresponding html source files had
engage in regular communications with basic principles of freedom of expression. references to the commercial filters.
their makers, updating lists of millions of Recent ONI research found that now more
websites to block across dozens of content Key Findings ISPs attempt to leave in their blockpages
categories, including political opposition no attribution of the products in use.
and human rights. When McAfee At least nine Middle Eastern and North
Smartfilter or Websense do their utmost to African state censors use Western-built ONI and others have documented ongoing
maintain lists of non-profit and advocacy technologies to impede access to online mis-categorization of websites and
groups their efforts directly affect what content. ISPs in Bahrain, UAE, Qatar, overreach of lists.
citizens in some authoritarian regimes can Oman, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Yemen,
and cannot access online. Sudan, and Tunisia use the Western-built Introduction
automated filtering solutions to block mass
At least one company—Websense—has content, such as websites that provide Filtering technology built by Western
gone on record opposing the use of its skeptical views of Islam, secular and companies has been used by at least nine
software for the purposes of government atheist discourse, sex, GLBT, dating Middle Eastern and North African state
censorship, except for the protection of services, and proxy and anonymity tools. censors to impede access to and
minors from pornography. Our research These lists of sites are maintained by the engagement in free speech. These
indicates Websense appears to remain in Western company vendors. The ISPs also companies not only provide the
use for censorship at least as of August use these tools to add their own selected technology infrastructure but also provide
2010 despite those statements. Websense‘s URLs to the companies‘ black lists. ongoing access to lists that categorize
competitors have not articulated a policy millions of URLs for the purposes of
about censorship at all. At least three national ISPs—Qatar‘s Qtel, filtering. Often pitched in the first instance
UAE‘s du, and Yemen‘s YemenNet— for use by parents, schools, and
Censorship of search engine results at the currently employ the Canadian-made workplaces, these technologies can also be
behest of national governments by commercial filter Netsweeper. Netsweeper sold to make filtering easy for entire
companies like MSN and Google has Inc. does not seem to take issue with countries: Once the underlying
proven controversial, even as there the governments implementing political and infrastructure is set up, the censors need
firms could point out that the purpose of a religious censorship using their tools, and only activate the tool and select the
search engine is to provide access to acknowledges working with telecom categories they wish to censor. The
information. They have, at various times, operators in Qatar, UAE, Yemen, India, companies that produce these tools often
made the case that access to 99% of a and Canada. The company says its product bundle them with solutions that are meant
corpus is more meaningful for freedom of can be used to block inappropriate content to protect computer networks from
expression than a failure to provide access to meet government rules and regulations malicious software such as viruses and
to the remaining 1%. There is no ―based on social, religious or political malware; this is a potentially dangerous
counterpart argument for tools whose sole ideals.‖3 proximity between two different concepts
purpose is to filter—to privatize the that can have a serious impact on free
censorship function, creating an assembly Contrary to Netsweeper, Websense offers speech.
line of content that could be found a stated policy that it does not provide
objectionable by anyone, globally governments with mass filtering tools Regulations and accountability related to
blockable by a government that need only except in cases where government policy the use of commercial filters and services
check boxes to determine what to withhold required filtering of pornography. for state censorship are typically non-
from its citizens. However, ONI found that Yemen‘s existent, and there is no or little oversight
government-run ISP YemenNet has used from civil society and free speech
advocacy groups on the role Western
24
technology companies play in restricting database with over 25 million websites
access to content online. that can be blocked in over 90 categories.

Regimes rely on such software to censor ISPs can also easily create user-defined
content they deem objectionable, though categories that allow them to block
what a regime sees as objectionable can— websites not included in the provided
and often does—fall within the range of database.
speech protected by international
frameworks such as Article 19 of the McAfee SmartFilter‘s categories are
Universal Declaration of Human Rights.5 comprehensive. They are:
Websites promoting nonviolent dissension,
as well as social networking sites, are
among those often censored by the
regimes using such software.

Furthermore, the filtering companies


typically rely on error-prone methods to
categorize websites. Though some
companies enable the public to check how
a given URL is categorized within their
respective databases, and some allow users
to suggest alternative categorizations, this
seemingly participatory approach is fragile
if not run by professionals versed in world
languages who can prevent orchestrated
efforts to abuse the system.

By relying upon out-of-the-box filtering


systems, states have outsourced the task of
deciding what is or is not acceptable
speech. In addition, filtering software
enables state censors to overlay their own
censorship decisions on top of that of the
vendors. This paper highlights how
filtering solutions produced in the West
have a tangible impact on the flow of
information in non-Western countries,
especially those in the Middle East and
North Africa region.

Mass Filtering

Since 2002, ONI has found evidence of the


use of automated filtering solutions used to
block mass content across various
categories.6 In the Middle East and North
Africa, several state-run ISPs have been
found to use such software to block topics
related to sexual content, nudity, LGBT
content, dating sites, and privacy tools and
anonymizers.

The mass blocking of such sites has been


supported in many countries through the
use of Western commercial products,
which provide both the software and
continuously updated content known as In addition to category-based filtering,
category-based filtering. For example, McAfee SmartFilter also provides
McAfee SmartFilterii maintains an online reputation-based filtering based on data
collected by McAfee that determine
25
reputation scores and category placement
on potentially malicious behavior of
websites that could expose a computer
network to viruses, malware, and other
security risks.

Websense also has a comprehensive


database of over 26 million websites, in
over 90 URL categories, representing
more than 50 languages. Websense‘s URL
classification relies on human inspection
in addition to proprietary classification
software.

Websense‘s URL categories are:

ISPs and the governments to whom they


answer use the same software to add
websites manually to vendor-updated
block lists. These manually-added sites
include country-specific or general
oppositional content, especially those in
local languages. We have found that state
ISPs do in fact block local political
oppositional content that has not been
picked up by the commercial filters‘
databases. This content includes local and
country-specific forums, blogs, and
websites. Moreover, we have found that
the commercial filters do not pick up
Arabic content as comprehensively as
content in English.9

Our previously published research10


found that, to one degree or another, Saudi
Arabia, UAE, Kuwait, Bahrain, and Oman
use SmartFilter technology to block
content across content categories such as
websites that provide critical views of
Islam, secular and atheist discourse, sex,
GLBT, dating services, and proxy and
26
anonymity tools. Tunisia also blocked known as Videsh Sanchar Nigam,15 http://94.201.251.238/webadmin/start/,
content in these categories until January announced in 2007 the launch of Tata which is the link to the Netsweeper
2011, when an uprising led to Indicom's Web Protect, which in management interface. Similarly, Qatar‘s
diminishment of the country‘s filtering collaboration with Netsweeper ―enables Qtel, had the same reference page on its
regime. ONI tests conducted after January users to block access to specific websites, own blockpage,
2011 showed that the authorities there no chat rooms or any other unwanted http://82.148.98.52:8080/webadmin/deny/i
longer block political websites; however content.‖16 ONI test however has found ndex.html.
they continue to conduct filtering of social no evidence that Netsweeper is being used
sites. In fact, a January 22, 2011 statement to enforce mandatory censorship. Though Yemen‘s YemenNet no longer
from the Secretariat of State for shows in its blockpage the name of the
Information Technologies said that access The other Indian telecom provider, BSNL commercial filter, our examination of the
to all websites had been restored except (Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd.), ―uses the blockpage source code found a clue that
for ―sites with indecent content, Netsweeper Enterprise Filter as the enabled us to generate the Netsweeper
comprising violent elements or inciting interceptor, with all the network traffic … management page installed in the local
hatred.‖11 going through the filter,‖ according to a servers (See figure 1).
BSNL Case Study produced by
Also, to varying degrees, these states have Netsweeper.17 The case study says that Moreover, some ISPs‘ blockpages used to
also been found to block political content ―[g]overnments are cracking down on have the logo or the name of commercial
and oppositional websites. illegal content on web sites. BSNL, India‘s filter they used. Saudi Arabia‘s Saudi
largest telco, selected Netsweeper as the Telecom‘s blockpage in 2009 printed the
Using Websense, Yemen‘s main ISP was technology to meet Federal content name and logo of SmartFilter for some
found to block the same content regulations.‖ objectionable websites. (See figure 2).
categories, and at some point also blocked
the use of the keywords ―sex‖ and ―porn‖, Other Western-built filtering solutions The Saudi authorities then announced a
along with other suggestive terms in have also been deployed by national ISPs new standard blockpage after supervision
search strings. Using McAfee‘s in the region, but ONI cannot determine to of Internet filtering in the country was
SmartFilter, the UAE continues to prevent what extend these systems are being used transferred from King Abdul Aziz City for
the use of keywords that can potentially for filtering. For example, Saudi Arabia‘s Science and Technology (KACST) to the
render explicit content. Internet gateway—Internet Services Unit state Communications and Information
(ISU) at King Abdulaziz city for Science Technology Commission (CITC). The
Testing in January 2011 indicated that & Technology (KACST)—has used blockpage announced by the authorities21
Yemen‘s ISP YemenNet, Qatar‘s Qtel, and America-made Blue Coat ProxySG had no reference as to what software the
the UAE‘s du, have been using the appliances to protect against malicious ISPs use (See figure 3).
commercial Web filter Netsweeper. Earlier content and provide a ―productive Internet
research showed that Qtel has used experience,‖ according to a case study Other countries such as Libya, Morocco,
SmartFilter and YemenNet has used published by Blue Coat.18 Blue Coat and Jordan also implement Internet
Websense. We are, however, unable to products support content filtering censorship to various degrees, but we have
technically verify if du has used a different providers including SmartFilter,19 the not determined whether any of these
solution in the past. UAE‘s other ISP, solution used by Saudi Arabia‘s Internet countries use the software highlighted in
Etisalat, has been found to use gateway. ONI previously published this paper. In Syria, we found that ISPs
SmartFilter.12 research found that Yemen‘s ISP such as Inet, Teranet, and Zad have used
YemenNet has used a Blue Coat integrated Squid as a proxy tool to block access to
Netsweeper does not seem to take issue cache/filter appliance to run Websense.20 objectionable websites that included
with governments implementing political oppositional Web content. Squid is a free
and religious censorship using their tools. The mass use of commercial filters: software package released under the GNU
The company says that its product can be Leave no traces General Public License that was funded by
used to ―block inappropriate content using the National Science Foundation.22 It is a
[sic] preestablished list of 90+ categories ISPs using commercial filters are caching proxy that is built to reduce
to meet government rules and increasingly obscuring that fact. A few bandwidth and improve response times by
regulations—based on social, religious or years ago, blockpages and their caching and reusing frequently-requested
political ideals.‖13 The company corresponding html source code had Web pages, however, ISPs in Syria have
acknowledges that its product is being references to the commercial filter being repurposed it for Internet censorship.
used by telecom providers in countries used. We have since found that more ISPs
known for pervasive censorship practices have cleansed such references from the It is important to note that due to the fact
such as Qatar, Yemen, and the United Web surfing experience. that some ISPs have switched commercial
Arab Emirates.14 filters and now attempt to leave no
For example, UAE ISP du‘s blockpage indication of what commercial filters are
At least two major telecom providers in source code had earlier in 2010 a hint as to being used, ONI can only verify that the
India also use Netsweeper for Internet the commercial filter. The blockpage commercial filtering solutions mentioned
filtering. Tata Communications, formerly source code included the URL
27
above have at one time been used by the participate in. Websense, however, does accessible from Yemen. From this we may
respective ISPs. not engage in any arrangements with infer, but not definitively establish, that
foreign governments (or government- Websense categorizations were still being
URL Mis-Categorization and Websense imposed arrangements) that could be received and updated in Yemen as of
viewed as oppressive of rights. August 2010.
Websense, US-based filtering software
used by Yemen‘s primary ISP YemenNet When we contacted Websense about the We also learned that the personal website
to filter the Internet, sells not only the use of its tools in Yemen for broader of this report‘s co-author Jillian York was
software but also ongoing access to a filtering, we were told:25 blocked in Yemen shortly after a post
database of millions of URLs in over 90 entitled ―Filtering Sex in the Arab
categories. As is inevitable with any mass Since we were informed about the World‖26 that referred to an earlier ONI
filtering software applied to a huge and potential use of our products by Yemeni paper entitled ―Sex, Social Mores, and
rapidly changing universe of websites, the ISPs based on government-imposed Keyword Filtering: Microsoft Bing in
company has made erroneous and Internet restrictions in Yemen, we have ‗Arabian Countries,‘‖ which analyzed
inaccurate URL categorizations. As a investigated this potential non-compliance keyword filtering by Microsoft‘s Bing
result, and on top of government-level with our anti-censorship policy. Because search engine.27 The post contained the
intentional filtering, users in countries our product operates based on a database terms ―sex‖ and ―LGBT‖. The ISP‘s
where censorship is prevalent are often system, we are able to block updated blockpage reads, ―Your request was
prevented from accessing content that was database downloads to locations and to denied because of its content
not intentionally filtered. end users where the use of our product categorization: Pornography‖.
would violate law or our corporate
In 2009, the ONI reported that Yemen was policies. We believe that we have We checked how Websense categorizes
using filtering software from US –based identified the specific product the URL of Jillian‘s website using the IT
company Websense to filter websites subscriptions that are being used for Web Toolbox
across several categories, including filtering by ISPs in Yemen, and in (https://toolbox.richland2.org/r2apps/r2we
pornography, sex education materials, and accordance with our policy against bsense), which provides an interface to
anonymizing and privacy tools.23 government-imposed censorship Websense URL Lookup. We found out
http://www.websense.com/content/censors that York‘s website has been categorized
However, Websense‘s stated policy is to hip-policy.aspx, we have taken action to as a ―Sex‖ website.
not provide governments with censorship discontinue the database downloads to the
tools and services except in the limited Yemeni ISPs. The site without the www prefix
case where government policy requires (http://jilliancyork.com) is not categorized
filtering of pornography.24 Its policy Despite Websense‘s response, in August by Websense. We checked the URL
states: 2010 the ONI found that its website at without the ―www‖ using Yemen‘s ISP
http://opennet.net was blocked by YemenNet and found out that the URL is
Websense does not sell to governments or Yemen‘s primary ISP, the state-run not blocked. This contributes to the
Internet Service Providers (ISPs) that are YemenNet. The blockpage served by the inference that Websense tools and services
engaged in any sort of government- ISP read: ―Your request was denied remain in use in Yemen.
imposed censorship. Any government- because of its content categorization:
mandated censorship projects will not be Proxy Anonymizer.‖ McAfee’s SmartFilter
engaged by Websense. If Websense does
win a business and later discovers that the To be sure, ONI is not a proxy tool service In 2006, ONI found that another filtering
government is requiring all of its national and does not offer the use of tool, SmartFilter, was being used by the
ISPs to engage in censorship of the Web circumvention tools. Rather, it is an governments of Saudi Arabia, the United
and Web content, we will remove our academic research organization that Arab Emirates, and Iran to block various
technology and capabilities from the investigates, exposes and analyzes Internet types of content.28 SmartFilter was
project. Websense does however, provide filtering and surveillance practices in a developed by Secure Computing, a US-
filtering services in response to "global credible and non-partisan fashion. based company that has since been
filtering" projects where the government acquired by McAfee.29
mandated policy (1) prohibits minors from ONI investigated the blocking incident and
accessing pornography and/or (2) prohibits found out that Websense had indeed In 2005, ONI found that the government of
child pornography. With the above categorized ONI as a ―Proxy Avoidance‖ Iran was using SmartFilter to filter a
guidelines in place an example scenario website. See Appendix I for ONI‘s variety of websites across different
would be if a government wants to prevent interrogation of Websense database. categories, a discovery that the
minors from seeing pornography at the ISP government of Iran confirmed.30 Secure
level. If that government then requires all Approximately 10 days after confirming Computing, owner of SmartFilter
ISPs to block adult content from all users, that http://opennet.net was blocked in responded:
but permits an adult user to gain access to Yemen, the URL was re-categorized by
that content after providing proof of age, Websense as an ―Educational Institution.‖ Secure Computing has sold no licenses to
then this is a project that Websense can Shortly thereafter, the ONI site became any entity in Iran, and any use of Secure's
28
software by an ISP in Iran has been microblogging service and the free flow of information in heavily
without Secure Computing's consent and is http://www.twitter.com, the Internet Radio censored countries, but we have yet to see
in violation of Secure Computing's End website http://www.last.fm/, and the concrete initiatives from these
User License Agreement. We have been blogging platform governments to address how Western
made aware of ISPs in Iran making illegal http://www.livejournal.com. All of these companies are directly collaborating
and unauthorized attempts to use of our websites were categorized by SmartFilter with—and perhaps profiting from—the
software. Secure Computing is actively database as ―dating‖ websites. As a result, government censors.
taking steps to stop this illegal use of our they were made inaccessible in some
products. Secure Computing Corporation countries in the Middle East and North Western companies are playing a role in
is fully committed to complying with the Africa (e.g., the United Arab Emirates) the national politics of many countries
export laws, policies and regulations of the which block dating websites. around the world. By making their
United States. It is Secure Computing's software available to the regimes, they are
policy that strict compliance with all laws In January 2011, Amira al-Hussaini, potentially taking sides against citizens
and regulations concerning the export and Global Voices Online Middle East and and activists who are prevented from
re-export of our products and/or technical North Africa Editor reported that her blog, accessing and disseminating content
information is required. Unless authorized ―Silly Bahraini Girl,‖ had been blocked in thanks in part to filtering software.
by the US Government, Secure Computing Bahrain.37 ONI investigation found that
Corporation prohibits export and reexport the site has indeed been blocked not only Moreover, the commercial filters place
of Secure products, software, services, and in Bahrain but also in the UAE and content filtering too close to conceptually
technology to Iran and destinations subject Kuwait. All three countries use SmartFilter different computer network security
to US embargoes or trade sanctions.31 to block websites across a variety of solutions. Bundling category-based
categories. Further examination revealed content censorship with anti-virus and
In 2005, Secure Computing responded to that in fact the site has been mis- anti-malware network protection tools
the ONI‘s observations that its products categorized by the filtering software as poses a risk to the future of free speech.
were being used in Iran by stating that it ―pornography,‖ a category that is blocked This close proximity of two different
had not sold SmartFilter to the Iranian by the three countries, as well as other solutions in one package invites content
government—something that would be regimes in the region. services provides and Internet service
prohibited by US export control policy32-- providers who seek to protect their
but that the company does sell to foreign Conclusion computer networks from malicious
ISPs as the law allows.33 software to also consider content-based
Despite documentation by the ONI and censorship.
ONI also determined that Sudan, Oman, other research and advocacy organizations,
and Tunisia were using SmartFilter.34 little discussion has taken place in the Though the above represents three
public sphere on the use of Western disparate problems, the optimal solution
Unlike Websense, SmartFilter does not technologies for government-level lies with the leadership of companies that
publish a policy on its use at the filtering. produce filtering software. Such
government level. McAfee‘s Code of companies must recognize the role their
Business Conduct and Ethics does not While Websense has publicly stated that tools play in the international landscape
mention government use of filtering its software is not meant for use by and set forth policies that protect Internet
products.35 governments, such use may be taking users‘ right to free expression—or at least
URL Mis-Categorization in McAfee place, and other companies appear to have put them on record about the role that they
SmartFilter done little to curb the use of their tools—if play.
not offering them outright for that
Like Websense, McAfee‘s SmartFilter purpose—for government-level Notes
relies on artificial intelligence techniques censorship. These companies seem not to 1. 20 million is the number of Internet
that include content analysis as part of the have adopted policies and procedures to users in Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar,
URL categorization process. safeguard freedom of expression in the Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Tunisia, the United
event that states rather than parents and Arab Emirates, and Yemen, as estimated
According to McAfee, ―The categorization schools use their tools, as their products by the World Bank.
of a particular URL is a defined process are being openly used by several state-run 2. Lawrence Lessig, Tyranny in the
using objective standards and definitions. ISPs to limit what citizens can and cannot Infrastructure, Wired, July 1997
To gather and rate potential websites, access online. That Netsweeper publically http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/5.07/
McAfee uses various technologies, declares that it offers its software for use cyber_rights.html.
artificial intelligence techniques, such as to implement government censorship on 3. Netsweeper, Netsweeper Overview For
link crawlers, security forensics, honey pot political and religious grounds highlights Telcos
networks, sophisticated auto-rating tools, the fact that there is currently no effective http://www.netsweeper.com/site/index.php
and customer logs.‖36 accountability system on the practices of ?page=downloads&type=entry&id=51....
the commercial software companies vis-à- 4. See for example ―Censorware makers
ONI has documented mis-categorization of vis human rights. Western government behind SmartFilter block Daily Kos,‖
high-profile URLs such as the leaders have advocated for human rights BoingBoing, October 4, 2006,
29
http://www.boingboing.net/2006/10/04/ce http://www.bluecoat.com/document/case- control and the demarcation of borders in
nsorware_makers_be.html. study-kacst. cyberspace,‖ First Monday 11:1-2 (2006),
5. The Universal Declaration of Human 19. Blue Coat Systems, Blue Coat http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/oj
Rights, Introduces ProxySG™ — Secure Proxy s/index.php/fm/article/view/1307/1227.
http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/ind Appliances Control User Communications 29. Secure Computing, ―McAfee, Inc.
ex.shtml. Over the Web, September 8, 2003, Agrees to Acquire Secure Computing,‖
6. See ONI country studies at http://www.bluecoat.com/news/pr/109. September 22, 2008, accessed November
http://www.opennet.net. 20. OpenNet Initiative, ―Country Profile: 17, 2010,
7. McAfee SmartFilter Data Sheet, Yemen,‖ August 7, 2009, accessed http://www.securecomputing.com/news_di
http://www.mcafee.com/us/resources/data- November 17, 2010, splay.cfm?nid=1549.
sheets/ds-smartfilter.pdf. http://opennet.net/research/profiles/yemen. 30. OpenNet Initiative, ―Internet Filtering
8. Websense, URL Categories, 21. Communications and Information in Iran 2004-2005: A Country Study,‖
http://www.websense.com/content/urlcate Technology Commission, New block 2005, http://opennet.net/studies/iran.
gories.aspx. page, 31. Ibid.
9. Helmi Noman, ―Regional Overview of http://www.internet.gov.sa/news/new- 32. Bureau of Industry and Security, U.S.
Filtering Practices in the Middle East and block-page/view?set_language=en. Department of Commerce, ―Introduction
North Africa,‖ OpenNet Initiative, August 22. See info about Squid, to Commerce Department Export
7, 2009, http://www.squid-cache.org/Intro/. Controls,‖ accessed November 17, 2010,
http://opennet.net/research/regions/mena. 23. OpenNet Initiative, ―Country Profile: http://www.bis.doc.gov/licensing/exportin
10. See ONI country studies at Yemen,‖ August 7, 2009, accessed gbasics.htm; United States Department of
http://www.opennet.net. November 17, 2010, Treasury, ―Iran Sanctions,‖ accessed
11. Tunisian News Agency, ―Free access http://opennet.net/research/profiles/yemen. November 17, 2010,
to all websites except indecent ones,‖ 24. Websense Policy on Government- http://www.ustreas.gov/offices/enforceme
January 22, 2011, Imposed Censorship, accessed August 12, nt/ofac/programs/iran/iran.shtml.
http://www.tap.info.tn/en/index2.php?opti 2009, 33. BoingBoing, ―ISPs in Iran, Tunisia
on=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=14258. http://www.websense.com/content/censors also use SmartFilter (which blocks
12. See 2009 ONI countries studies at hip-policy.aspx. BoingBoing as ‗nudity‘),‖ February 27,
http://www.opennet.net. 25. Jillian C. York, ―Websense Bars 2006, accessed November 17, 2010,
13. Netsweeper, Netsweeper Overview For Yemen‘s Government from Further http://boingboing.net/2006/02/27/isps_in_i
Telcos, Software Updates,‖ OpenNet Initiative ran_tunisia.html.
http://www.netsweeper.com/site/index.php Blog, August 12, 2009, accessed 34. Ron Deibert et al., Access Denied: The
?page=downloads&type=entry&id=51&ro November 17, 2010, Practice and Policy of Global Internet
ot=1&keep_session=1986028676. http://opennet.net/blog/2009/08/websense- Filtering, (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2008),
14. Ibid. bars-yemens-government-further- 15
15. Tata, VSNL renamed as Tata software-updates. 35. McAfee Inc., ―Code of Business
Communications, December 15, 2007, 26. Jillian C. York, ―Filtering Sex in the Conduct and Ethics,‖ March 4, 2004,
http://www.tata.com/article.aspx?artid=JSs Arab World,‖ May 3, 2010, http://www.mcafee.com/us/local_content/
SkB13v9Q. http://jilliancyork.com/2010/03/05/filterin media/mcafee_standards_of_conduct.pdf.
16. Tata, VSNL launches Tata Indicom g-sex-in-the-arab-world/. 36. McAfee® TrustedSource™ Web
Web Protect, July 20, 2007, 27. Helmi Noman, OpenNet Initiative, Database, Reference Guide.
http://www.tata.com/article.aspx?artid=0y ―Sex, Social Mores, and Keyword 37. Amira Al Hussaini, ―My Blog is
3l14QUBqQ. Filtering: Microsoft Bing in the ‗Arabian Blocked in Bahrain,‖ Silly Bahraini Girl,
17. Netweeper Inc., BSNL Case Study, Countries,‘‖ March 4, 2010, January 4, 2011,
http://www.netsweeper.com/site/index.php http://opennet.net/sex-social-mores-and- http://sillybahrainigirl.blogspot.com/2011/
?page=downloads&type=entry&id=5&roo keyword-filtering-microsoft-bing-arabian- 01/my-blog-is-blocked-in-bahrain.html
t=1. countries.
18. Blue Coat Systems, Case Study – 28. Nart Villeneuve, ―The filtering matrix:
KACST, Integrated mechanisms of information

30
Liberation Theology and Social Justice
By Matthew L. Lamb
Matthew L. Lamb is Associate Professor of Systematic Theology at Boston College. The following article appeared in Process Studies, pp. 102-122,
Vol. 14, Number 2, Summer, 1985. Process Studies is published quarterly by the Center for Process Studies, 1325 N. College Ave., Claremont, CA
91711. Used by permission. This material was prepared for Religion Online by Ted and Winnie Brock.

http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=2570
EDITORS NOTE: The Following Lecture does not represent the views of this magazine (however I do find the context interesting).
Introduction What are the social justice issues to which women, in all patriarchical societies
this conference is addressing itself? around the globe whereby women and
In inviting me to participate, Professor Justice, Thomas Aquinas remarks, is of its their dependents are dehumanized and
Joseph Bracken asked that I present some very nature social since it is defined by depersonalized by the androcentric fears
of the foundational elements in egalitarian relations towards others.1 and aggressions of males (sexism).
contemporary Christian liberation Briefly, I would list the major social Feminist liberation theologies are
theologies relative to the issues of social justice issues as fivefold, corresponding to addressing these systemic sexist injustices
justice. In this lecture I shall first outline the five major areas in which egalitarian by intellectually and religiously supporting
the major social justice issues to which relations towards others are repressed or and fostering genuinely egalitarian
various forms of liberation theology are denied. The fivefold differentiation also feminist communities of women and men
responding. Then I shall sketch, in an delineates the major forms of liberation committed to the dismantling of
historical retrospect, the dead-ends of theology. patriarchal and androcentric injustices
classical sacralism and of modern (LT).
secularism. This is important, I believe, in There is the unjust distribution of goods
order to contextualize the real import of and services whereby a relative minority There is the repression of millions of
liberation theology as calling for a new of wealthy groups and ruling classes use humans belonging to races and ethnic
realization of social justice in dialectical their power and influence to perpetuate groups other than those races or ethnic
contradiction to conservatism and macroeconomic and political structures groups dominant in societies (racism,
liberalism. Such a context is also relevant, which exploit the labor and lives of the ethnocentrism, antisemitism directed
I believe, to understanding the different vast majority of the planet‘s populations. against Jews and/or Arabs). Black, Native
emphases of process theologies and The issue of social justice here is the American, Latino-American, and other
liberation theologies. Third, the lecture eradication of exploitive and oppressive liberation theologies are addressing these
will deal with a few of the methodological structures of class oppression (classism). systemic racial and ethnic injustices by
issues in the advocacy scholarship of Liberation theologies in Third and Fourth intellectually and religiously supporting
liberation theologies and how this World countries, as well as political and nurturing egalitarian racial and ethnic
scholarship corresponds with the turn to theology in First and Second World communities (CLT, PD).
dialectics and praxis in contemporary countries, are addressing these systemic
philosophical reflections on science. class injustices by intellectually and There is the unjust exploitation of
Finally, I shall offer some reflections on religiously supporting and fostering physical, chemical, biological, and
liberation theology and social justice egalitarian communities committed to zoological nature, the ecology in which
beyond sacralism and secularism. more just economic and political orders human nature is embedded, by industrial
(CBCC, CLT, LT, FSUW). and technocratic production processes of
Central Social Justice Issues and "megamachines" (L. Mumford) polluting
Liberation Theology There is the deep and widespread and destroying environment after
oppression of women, along with the environment. Technocentrism will be used
elderly and children dependent upon here to designate this injustice rather than

31
the too generic designations of better concepts of God, Christ, Salvation, I would suggest another interpretive
"anthropocentrism" or "homocentrism." Sacraments, etc. Liberation theologies as a framework. Liberation theologies are the
These are too generic since technocentrism movement -- and I should emphasize that theological counterpart of a widespread
is the ecological form of androcentrism these theologies are aspects of a recognition that we must collaborate
(LT 115ff.). Process and other ecological movement, not some closed concretely to transform the world. In
liberation theologies are addressing these conceptualistic system -- have tended to solidarity with the many victims of both
systemic technocentric injustices by avoid such intramural debates. Instead, premodern classical sacralist cultures and
intellectually and religiously supporting liberation theologies have arisen as modern secularist cultures, liberation
and fostering egalitarian ecological intellectual and religious responses to very theologies are collaborating with others in
communities (LL). concrete struggles for justice and love on an epochal transformation of
the part of those committed to overcoming contemporary cultures into a new world
Finally, there is the injustice of an ever- the dehumanizations and order (PPH 213). Since the first centuries
expanding and necrophilic militarism as depersonalizations resulting from classism, of our Common Era when Christian
violent uses of power and force whereby sexism, racism, technocentrism, and theologians were forging the categories of
nonegalitarian relationships are defended, militarism. As intellectual and religious a new religion in an old world, and since
whether internally through various forms responses to such massive human failures, the Reformations of the 16th and 17th
of police and surveillance force, or liberation theologies have continuously centuries when Christian theologians were
externally through massive military and challenged concepts of God, Christ, dismantling the religious legitimations of a
espionage forces. Since World War II, Salvation, Sacraments, etc. which are decadent Christendom, liberation
when War Departments all over the globe judged inadequate or false relative to the theologians are not arriving, a little
became Defense Departments, this values of liberating us from the systemic breathless and a little late, at deep cultural
militarism has reached its apotheosis in the injustices destroying so many billions of transformations which have already
nuclear arms race. A recent comparative human lives and the very environment in occurred. Instead they are collaborating in
study of worldwide military and social which we live. But where some other the elaboration of a vast new cultural
spending indicated how at present 1.3 forms of theology might consider their transformation which is calling us to
million dollars per minute on average are task accomplished when new concepts are collaborate towards a new future --
spent for military purposes; during the forged, liberation theologies insist that provided, of course, that the weapons of
same minute 30 children die for lack of only a liberative and transformative praxis modernity do not blast our planet into
food or simple vaccines (WMSE). actually converting or changing our oblivion.
Concretely, during the next hour, an contemporary world (and churches within
average of 78 millions will be spent for that world) provides criteria for whatever Elsewhere I have analyzed some of the
military purposes while some 1,800 adequacy and truth theological concepts major elements of these three cultural
children will die for lack of food or may have. epochs -- classical, modern, and
elementary vaccinations. Various nuclear- contemporary (SV 107-15, LW 257-307,
pacifist and pacifist liberation theologies An Historical Retrospect: The Dead- compare with SAL 3-20). Here I shall
are addressing the systemic injustices of Ends of Classical Sacralism and summarize that analysis as it
militarism by intellectually and religiously Modern Secularism contextualizes the contemporary cultural
supporting egalitarian communities significance of liberation theologies.
committed to halting the arms race and Philosophically, liberation theologies are Taking a first cue from Whitehead and
developing nonviolent forms of legitimate sometimes portrayed as more or less naive others, these three cultural epochs can be
defense. popular movements drawing upon now defined with reference to the notions of
outdated 19th century notions of divergent science which underpin the cultural
In a very schematic way, I believe these vintages: Marxist (Third World), social achievements, as well as reflecting the
are central social justice issues which any gospel (First World), suffragette social conflicts, characterizing the three
theology must address if it is to mediate (Feminist), black nationalism (Black), epochs (SMW 1-24, 258-60, AI). A
responsibly the significance and value of agrarian pastoralism (Environmentalist), or second cue is taken from Bernard
its religious tradition to the social and romantic pacifism (Nuclear Pacifist). Lonergan‘s understanding of a dialectic
cultural matrices of our contemporary These portrayals cast liberation theologies between communal experience and
world. A common basic element in all five in the guise of populist discontents futilely communal expression. This dialectic
of these forms of social injustice is raging against the progressive provides categories, within our
domination by which egalitarian relations organizational developments of modern, contemporary context, for discerning how
towards others are denied and oppressed. 20th century industrialized societies. communal expressions, when they are cut
Theologically, liberation theologies are off from transformative communal
Christian theologies have sometimes been sometimes portrayed as neoconservative experiences, become "objective" and
highly introspective examinations of reactions to the advances of theological "institutionalized" in ways which
debates going on "intramurally" among liberalism, as though liberation theologies dichotomize subjects and objects,
and within various ecclesial and were ducking the stringent critiques liberal experiences and expressions. Insofar as
theological traditions. A conceptualistic theologies posed to traditional doctrinal this occurs, community as the dynamic of
narcissism has not been absent from such symbol systems. active intersubjective agents is difficult, if
intramural debates about who has the not impossible. Human beings are reduced
32
to more or less passive, manipulated dominant myths legitimating governance election as Exodus from slavery, sealing
objects. Subjects and experience become by untransformed rulers (witness the death Israel‘s identity in fidelity to Torah and
"privatized," and social integration is of Socrates). Yet politically and culturally messianic expectation. The prophets
reduced to forms of hierarchic and/or this seed of a transformative experience of recalled this time and again when Israel
bureaucratic institutionalization. The reason fell on very stony ground. tried to mimic the monarchical ambition of
dynamics of nature and of history, Expressed in theoria as a quest for certain surrounding polities, failing to keep alive
contrary to all forms of domination, can be knowledge through necessary causes, the the transformative Passover experience of
understood as the massive movements cosmological myths were not so much liberative election. As a reform movement
from intersubjective to interpersonal overcome as they were "scientized" into a within Judaism, the communal praxis of
communities; or, adapting Whitehead‘s philosophical cosmology of necessary and inclusive wholeness and the Basileia
categories, from spontaneous origination certain orders of the universe, which vision of Jesus both transformed
through solidarity to ever more perfect "projections" were then androcentrically apocalyptic messianism and led those he
actuality (CTSA 134-36, PR 532, AI "injected" to legitimate dominative converted into a paschal-metanoetic
177ff., LL). "natural and necessary orders of egalitarian discipleship wherein faith in his
patriarchal societies and "natural and resurrection would open the Covenant of
Nevertheless, as Johann B. Metz necessary" orderings of faculties in the God to the "lowly" of all nations. This is
emphasizes, the dialectic of worldwide soul. Cut off from the classical experience what inspired the early Christian
solidarity "interrupts" the unilinear of reason, the classical expression severed missionary movements, fostering faith-
dominance of progressivist modernity. Theoria from Bios. Just as androcentric communities whose knowledge was born
This should caution us against reading competition in the polis had the dark of the Spirit of Love (Agape), rather than a
"di~dectics" into natural, nonhuman, underside of classist, racist, and sexist certain knowledge of necessary causes, or
dynamics (CCC 149-60, 204-11, PTPT repressions of women-slaves-children, so an elitist knowledge engendered by fear of
111-34, M 60-73). The dialectic of Greco-Roman cultures and politics came competition and oppression (IMH, BFM).
communal experience and expression is to renounce even their limited democratic
foundational to all forms of liberation ideals and practices in the pursuit of the Regarding classical cultures as a dialectic
theology. Hence, the importance I gave to certainties and necessities of militaristic of Christian theology and theoria, much
the communal contexts in outlining the imperialism. An egalitarian noetic work remains to be done in recovering the
quests for social justice, to the transformation was systemically blocked. egalitarian and anti-imperialistic
"movement" character of liberations, and Metaphysics and ethics, rather than communities of reform-minded Christians,
to how liberation theologies are questioning authority, became how their orthopraxis in communal
organically related to these movements as authoritarian and legitimative of experiences of repentance and inclusive
their religious and intellectual coworkers. dominative power. wholeness envisaged an orthodoxy
To understand why and how we must expressive of solidarity with the poor and
collaborate for a new cultural and world The trajectory of these deformations is outcast. Martyrdom, and then
era, it is important to contrast our well illustrated in the centuries between monasticism, carried forward a communal
contemporary situation with both the Socrates and Plutarch, who, in his Fortune solidarity in conflict with Roman
classical and modern periods. and Virtue of Alexander, describes how Imperialism and the domination of
the imperial ruler is "above" the imperial cities over the peasant
Classical cultural contexts are defined in philosopher since the ruler realizes in countryside (CSAGW 9-19, 120-32,208-
terms of the notion of science as classical dominative power-actions what the 26, 267-69, 425-52, 474-503; nowhere
theoria: the ideal of certain knowledge of philosopher only dreams and lectures does CSACW treat of monasticism as a
necessary causes (SC 1-9, 43-67, 193- about. In this deformed classical context, solidarity movement, cf. OECT).
208). This ideal of epistemic science the theoria of the philosopher is a Theologians divided. An Athanasius,
originated in the classical experience of conceptual legitimation of imperial inspired by a genuinely Christian
reason associated with Socrates and his domination by the ruling elites and the monasticism, not only had a more
disciples, especially those who gathered historical victors. As Karl Marx pointed (comparative to his times) wholesome
about Plato and Aristotle. Eric Voegelin out, the Greeks and Romans soon understanding of human sexuality and
and others have called attention to the repressed the insights of Aristotle into the marriage, as well as women s ministerial
classical experience of reason -- the destructive class oppressions by the rich of roles in the church, but also struggled (to
transformative perigoge or "conversio" -- the poor in antiquity (CSAGW 23-111, the point of being expelled from his
expressed in the ideal of theoria.2 The 300-26, 518-37). diocese five times by those supporting the
expression, however, was ambiguous at imperium) for an orthodoxy which would
best (as Heidegger realized) and Judaism and Christianity greatly confess the God revealed in Christ as a
dangerously imperialistic at worst (as intensified the dialectic of communal community of consubstantial Persons. The
Alvin Gouldner and Enrique Dussel experience and communal expression with Trinitarian and Christological Councils
realized).3 their revelations of the Divine Mystery‘s doctrinally broke with the authoritarian
covenanted choice and partiality with the metaphysical ideology of the Imperium,
The classical experience of reason, as the poor, the enslaved, the outcast victims of with its syncretic amalgam of monist
dynamic of questioning, was politically history (BL). Briefly, the communal monarchy (One Supreme God, One
subversive, calling into question the Passover experience recalled the Divine Emperor, One Ecumene) and dualist
33
anarchy (subordinate polytheistic cults, so that knowledge was misunderstood as emergent bourgeoisie, making scientific
rival regional imperial representatives, an intuition of nexi between concepts. As breakthroughs in the 17th and 18th
tolerance of indigenous cultures if they did subsequent Dominican and Franciscan centuries. As the Christian household
not threaten monist monarchy) (MPP, theologians joined the inquisition, so their churches eventually were institutionalized
CSAGW 278-408, ERW, AB). theologies became sacralist legitimations in early Catholicism, so, mused Comte, it
of papal and monarchist power politics to was time in the 19th century to
But the emperors had their court shore up a decadent Christendom, institutionalize modern science in a
theologians, like Eusebius of Caesarea and portraying God as the all powerful rationally secularist alliance between
his disciples, who would promote an monarch of the universe. science, state, and industry which would
ecclesial history of the victors and a wed universities, governments ,and
sacralist ideology wherein Christian The Protestant reformers sought to recover business enterprises in the campaign for
symbols were used to legitimate the egalitarian and communal biblical faith unlimited technological progress. If, for
imperialistic political domination (CE). experience as a reforming antidote to this David Hume, "reason or science is nothing
poisonous sacralism (CSP 159-222). but the comparing of ideas and the
The breakthroughs of communal paschal- Luther, for instance, rightly railed against discovery of their relations" (THN 10-15,
metanoetic Christian experience, and the the deadening conceptualism of the 466), for Comte it was clear that the
reformations they engendered, were decadent speculative theologies of his day. "ideas" were no longer theological, nor
increasingly outnumbered by the But the reformers had their efforts so often metaphysical, but the positive ideas of
deformative breakdowns into sacralism. coopted by the dominative power politics empirically discovering the mechanical
Over centuries Christianity became of the emerging nation-states. In short, the laws of nature and society by the scientific
Christendom, the Roman Empire became a classical contexts of Christian theologies and industrial elites. Politicians were
feudal "Holy" Roman Empire. Monastic and theoria historically witnessed the assigned the task of promulgating these
missionaries, both women and men, would recurrent betrayals of the Cross by the laws to the masses (CPP, CP).
live among and educate the so-called sword, Christianity by Christendom, as
"barbarians," only later to give in to the colonizations brought new peoples and The point about Comte‘s views on
tactics of a Charlemagne pressing the lands into the orbit of the dehumanizing modernity is how unexceptional they were.
monasteries into strategies of Western power games of Europe‘s so-called Although his prescriptions were regarded
empire-building, which, in turn, evoked Christian cultures and nations. By the as odd, his descriptions of the new age as
ongoing reforms as wealth dulled and seventeenth century the West began to informed with secular beliefs in progress
darkened a genuine Christian discipleship have its fill of the pogroms, crusades, through the rational, scientific
(CSP 1-43). inquisitions, wars of religion, and all the organization of societies, for the purpose
other excesses and repressions of Christian of ever increasing industrialization and
The thirteenth century beggar or sacralisms. ever new technologies of control, was very
mendicant reforms initiated by Dominic typical of modernity. European and
Francis of Assisi, and Clare revitalized a Modern Western cultures emerged as an Western in origin, modern science and
Christian spirituality of egalitarian Enlightenment. Small groups of technology were seen as universal in
communities and solidarity with the poor. philosophers, scientists, scholars, and men scope. As Whitehead put it: "More and
It was in this context that Bonaventure and of letters were increasingly convinced that more it is becoming evident that what the
Thomas Aquinas fulfilled their intellectual the rising merchant and bourgeois class West can most readily give to the East is
apostolates within the newly emergent, were destined by "the laws of nature and its science and its scientific outlook. This
and democratic, universities. They history" to replace the aristocrats of the old is transferable from country to country,
recovered the classical experience of feudal order. This class solidarity was and from race to race, wherever there is a
reason as the potential infinity of human linked to a fundamental belief in the newly rational society" (SMW 4). But what
questions, showing how this dynamic emerging science and technology to assure precisely is a "rational society"?
"ratio" as a desire for understanding is progress. The historical fatalism of the Modernity underwent the dialectic of
healed and transformed by the paschal- Renaissance was broken (ESF 6-10, 45-51, communal experience and communal
metanoetic experience of faith in the 123-25, 163-66). This conjunction of expression in the form of what Peter Cay
Sophia-Cod of compassion and love.4 socioeconomic restructuring and the calls "the logic of enlightenment and
Aquinas, for example, understood God as modern scientific revolution "outshines Theodor Adorno with Max Horkheimer
"intimately present within everything that everything since the rise of Christianity call "the dialectic of scientific
exists since God is existence" and that and reduces the Renaissance and enlightenment" (ESF 497ff., DE). Briefly
Cod‘s omnipotence -- Aquinas wrote very Reformation to the rank of mere episodes, stated, this logic or dialectic was the tragic
little about it -- regards not actualities but mere internal displacements, within the transition from the notion of science as
possibilities, and is best manifested in system of medieval Christendom" (OMS theoria (certain knowledge of necessary
forgiveness and compassionate mercy.5 vii, SMW 1-4). causes) to the notion of science as
technique (verifiable knowledge of
By the next century, however, the dialectic Auguste Comte would later draw parallels mechanistic causes). The transition is
of classical theoria was evident in the between the early communal groups of tragic because the moderns failed to
scholastic conceptualism which put Christians and the small communities of understand, just as the originators of
concepts and logic before understanding, intellectual elites, in solidarity with the classical cultures had, how the liberative
34
potential of reason as the human ability to Lisbon earthquake), then fear of the common good in the republics of
raise ever further relevant questions is contingencies of physical life and death, representative democracies except through
alienated and frustrated in authoritarian and finally fear of other human beings and "pressure politics" relative to the social
societies deeply marked by classism, societies. Science and technology became contract (Jean-Jacques Rousseau). Max
sexism, racism, technocentrism, and weapons in the struggle for dominative Weber saw how the claims and counter-
militarism. Thus the transition from the power. Such deformations need not have claims of competing private religions,
system of a declining medieval occurred. As in the classical contexts, so in private moralities, and private businesses
Christendom to modernity was a tragic the modern, there were many efforts to would be at best only adjudicated by
transition from sacralist hierarchic address the increasing injustices arising bureaucratic techniques. The underlying
authoritarianisms to secularist bureaucratic from classism, sexism, racism, social Darwinism -- survival of the
authoritarianisms. technocentrism, and militarism. But such strongest -- seemed to assure that modern
reform movements, as efforts to recover liberal republics would trace again the
We have seen how the classical experience the genuine and liberative orientations of trajectory of Rome from a republic to an
of reason was a release of the questioning the modern experience of reason, were empire. For, as both Marx and Weber
dynamism of human understanding and either ignored by the dominant modern surmised in different ways, the demands of
how this dynamism was restricted and cultures or, when they succeeded, they did capitalist accumulation, industrialization,
deformed by authoritarian social structures so only because they adapted the and professionalization would increasingly
time and again. The modern experience of dominative power techniques of contradict and constrain genuine
reason released this dynamism, orienting it manipulation and control typical of the democracy (CMST 169-84). The nation-
in ever more sophisticated methods of social orders and cultures against which states, even those born in the desire for
empirical observation, hypothesis they initially protested. Thus in independence and self-determination,
formation, verification or falsification, and Communism, as John McMurtry and became engaged in aggressive empire-
technological applications. Yet, just as others have shown, the unjust structures of building and militaristic nationalisms.
classical theoria was deformed by ideas of class oppression have not been These mocked the dictates of private
knowing as "seeing" or "looking at" transcended, as Marx hoped, but only conscience in their overriding national
naturally necessary causal substances transmuted into party-bureaucratic class security needs for bureaucratically
(cosmology) and then "injecting" this oppression (SMWV, AEE, CSCP). organizing vast economic and military
looking at supposedly "natural and exploits (I 225-44, KP, OT, EWL).
necessary" unjust social structures, so Socially and politically, modern
modern technique was deformed by ideas secularism has in our time ended up a Modernity has dead-ended in the World
of knowing as verified in "making" or ghastly reflection of the classical sacralism Wars, the Holocaust, the countless
"producing" naturally mechanistic it initially rejected. Instead of an genocides, the exploitation of Third-World
substances (mechanics, physics, authoritarian Holy Roman Empire we now countries, the increasing pollution of the
chemistry) and then "injecting" this live in world of nuclear Superpowers earth‘s environment, and the terrible
making into necessarily mechanistic which justify their divergent forms of spectre of nuclear omnicide. "Progress
reorganizations of human societies which authoritarianism by appeals to national through technology" sounds like the empty
bureaucratically maintained unjust social security. The disintegration of a divided gong of a clanging funeral bell. Our
structures. Modern expressions of reason Christendom had led reformers and modern and enlightened 20th century has
were deformed into either an extrinsicism counter-reformers to dismantle ecclesial witnessed the slaughter of more human
(positivism) or an immanentism (idealism) unity but to keep the notion of revealed beings by their fellows than any other. I
in which nature and history, science and religion. When these competing sacralisms ask you to recollect in some dark
morality, fact and value, bureaucracy and spawned the wars of religion, the modern phantasm the millions upon millions of
community, knowing and feeling, were (1) quest for "pure reason" led the rationalists dead and broken men, women, children,
either sundered from one another in to reject revealed religion and enthrone in animals which the wars and oppressions of
various forms of dualism, e.g., its place first a natural religiosity and then the last eighty-three years have sacrificed
mechanism-vitalism, scientism-emotivisrn, a secularist supremacy of reason. But the on the altar of modern ideologies of
etc., (2) or were conflated into various dialectic of this enlightenment was that progress. Through the shadows of such a
forms of monism, e.g., materialism, liberal, egalitarian rational discourse and ghastly phantasm listen to the words of
idealism, etc. (LL 66-79, 146-53, 213-19, decision-making could hardly be realized Joseph Priestly, a clergyman, chemist, and
245-64, 285-94, SV 1-60). in societies distorted by the social liberal reformer, writing on the glories of
injustices of classism, sexism, racism, modern technology from his vantage of the
The modern scientific revolution was technocentrism, and militarism. eighteenth century:
quickly coopted by the modern industrial
1evolution. Science became identified The consequence was that modern Men [sic] . . . will grow daily more happy
with techniques of control and secularist liberalism eventually despaired and more able to communicate happiness
manipulation of both the natural and social of rational agreement, yet insisted on to others. Thus whatever was the
environments. Knowledge was power, and maintaining respect for individual beginning of this modern world, the end
the quest for this cognitive power was conscience. Conscience, however, was so will be glorious and paradisiacal beyond
fueled by fear. Fear, first of all, of the privatized that religious, moral, and what our imagination can now conceive.
natural environment (viz., Voltaire on the economic values could not sustain the (WPSP 198)
35
the victims of modernity, have no illusions the victims of history and the "making" of
Advocacy Scholarship and Intellectual about modernity‘s quest for "pure reason," history; as if history could be "made" or
Praxis we are just as disillusioned about the quest "produced" like an object (HMT 341-56,
for "pure religion" in classical sacralisms. 422-56).
The dead-ends of both Medieval sacralism Against sacralism, liberation theologians
and Modern secularism indicate, I believe, point to the many ideological distortions of The advocacy scholarship of liberation
the radical contradiction which liberation Christian faith to legitimate dominative theologies corresponds and contributes to
theologies pose to both conservative and power-complexes and value-conflicts in the hermeneutical and dialectical shifts
liberal theologies (and their many "neo" which that faith is used to victimize the toward praxis now Occurring in what are
varieties). Classism, sexism, racism, poor, women, non-European races, the called post-empiricist philosophies of
technocentrism, and militarism were environment, and the defenseless. Against science (BOR, TKH). Elsewhere I have
rampant in the societies and cultures of secularism, the same theologians point to attempted to spell out in greater detail
both classical and modern societies. the many ideological distortions of science these developments in contemporary
Modernity is still very much with us. As and technology in which scientific reason philosophical reflections on the praxis of
Nietzsche remarked, it will take time for is used to dominate and victimize the same reason in sciences and scholarly
the death of modernity to reach the groups of persons and nature. Modernity, disciplines, indicating how they support
awareness of those it favors. There is still with its enthronement of "progress through the intellectual performance of liberation
a strong secularist belief in technological technology" is, however, the concrete theologians (TW 103-47). Briefly,
progress. Modern secularism seems to be economic, social, political, cultural, and contemporary post-empiricist philosophies
flourishing to many -- just as classical ecclesial orders against which liberation of science call attention to the fundamental
sacralisms did to generations of theologies direct their intellectual and importance, neither of theoria nor of
politicians, philosophers, and theologians religious dialectics. Nor are they alone. technique, but of the concrete praxis of
during the twilight of Christendom. performance of reason constituted by the
Intellectually, there are growing numbers raising of ever further relevant questions
But the victims of modernity, and those of of scientists, technicians, philosophers, within communities of inquiry (SAFT).
us in solidarity with them, contradict the and scholars who practice an "advocacy
hopes of those who would manage the science and scholarship" which challenges This directs attention to the concrete
ever increasing crises of modernity head-on conceptions of science, subjects doing science or scholarship, as
through more adroit use of the techniques technology, and scholarship as value well as the life-worlds of everyday living
of social engineering and bureaucratic neutral activities of pure and disinterested and the social institutions within which
professionalism. The central problem is elites. But the challenge is not an abstract those subjects do science and scholarship.
how to bring about more just and good conceptual claim, as though it held that Hermeneutics, with its emphasis upon
societies, for only such social "the essences" of science, technology and tradition and narrative, is central to the
transformation will avert the mounting scholarship are classist, sexist, racist, philosophy of science now cognizant of
probabilities of ecological and/or nuclear technocentric, and militaristic. Such the false dichotomies between objectivity
devastation. Whitehead saw the problem abstract conceptualism misunderstands and subjectivity, science and ideology,
when he remarked how bureaucratic such intellectual advocacy in terms of engendered by the modern Enlightenment.
professionalism in modernity is mated classical theoria, as if we were claiming Just as sciences, technologies and
with the notion of progress, so that "the that we had certain knowledge of scholarly disciplines arise out of and return
world is now faced with a self-evolving necessary causal relations between to the life-worlds of everyday living and
system, which it cannot stop." Private science-technology-scholarship and these dying, so the logical and theoretical
conscience or individually great persons social injustices. Nor do such claims seek methods of argumentative discourse arise
are insufficient to counteract the social an a priori and abstract conjunction out of and return to participatory "fusions
injustices intensified by the technological between "liberation" and "theology," as if of horizon" in the "mutual agreements" of
and bureaucratic power of modernity all "liberation" is "of its very essence" historical narrative praxis (BOR 144ff,
(SMW 255, CPST 234-59). theological, or all "theology" is "of its very TW 113ff). Yet the hermeneutical
essence" liberative. This would be a dimensions of rationality are insufficient
Liberation theologies concentrate on similar misconstrual of liberation theology to raise all the relevant questions posed
precisely this central problem insofar as in terms of theoria (FF). Similarly, the within them. There is a series of sublations
they focus, in solidarity, on those advocacy of solidarity with the poor, operative between empirical science,
communities concretely striving to women, nonwhite races, environments, hermeneutics, and dialectics. Just as it is
transcend classism, sexism, racism, and the defenseless is not an exclusionary important, in order to do justice to the
technocentrism, and militarism. This technique or strategy whereby these praxis of reason operative in the empirical
concentration acknowledges the futility of masses are armed with a secret knowledge sciences, to complement their
either theoria or technique to transcend only they enjoy, and by which they can act observational and explanatory heuristics
adequately these social injustices. to overthrow their oppressors. Such a view with hermeneutical and historical analyses,
Simultaneously, however, this misconstrues advocacy scholarship in so it is important, in order to do justice to
contemporary stance is not a terms of modern technique, as though we the praxis of reason operative in
neoconservative antimodernity. If claimed an exclusive knowledge verified hermeneutics and historical
liberation theologians, in solidarity with in mechanistic causal relations between reconstructions, to complement their
36
interpretive and reconstructive heuristics whereby the active praxis or doings of expressions of theoria), or concepts are
with dialectics (BOR 150ff, TW 117ff.). subjects distance and deligitimate mechanically produced in the brain and
dominative power (CPST 131-64). Such understanding is intuiting the verifiable or
A dialectics without hermeneutics can be, an analysis indicates the foundational falsifiable relations between them (modern
and has been, ideologically distorted into a importance of liberative communities expressions of technique) (KHI 301-17,
universalizing or totalizing of particular empowering subjects in their praxis of SC 69-86). I believe that similar insights
discoveries as though they were the transcending social injustice. are conveyed by Whitehead when he
answer to all further relevant questions Contradictions are embedded in argues against understanding the
(HU 384-97, MFL). But a hermeneutics dominative power structures whereby it is relationship between subject and object as
without dialectics cannot engage in the impossible to negate fully human subjects only that between knower and known in a
heuristic and critical questioning of latent as knowers and active agents (CPST 76- Cartesian conceptualism (Al 117ff.). A
value-conflicts and power-complexes 95). No matter how alienating past and key issue in comparing process theology
whereby the very raising of further present social structures were or are, and liberation theology would be the
relevant questions itself is socially countervailing transformative trends can fundamental import of contextualization in
repressed or oppressed. As the work of be nurtured and, in the case of past liberation theology. If understanding
Paulo Freire abundantly documents, it is histories, discerned. precedes and grounds conceptual
precisely such further relevant questions expressions, then the primary concern
which the oppressed victims of injustice In dialectically articulating our solidarity must be to attend intelligently and
are kept from raising (P0, PP). Social with the victims of injustice, liberation responsibly to the concrete contexts in
justice as egalitarian relations towards theologians provide the theological which conceptual expressions are
others is intrinsic to the realization of dimensions of a much larger contemporary elaborated. John Cobb‘s Process Theology
reason‘s truth and freedom in history. n7lOvement among scientists, as Political Theology and Delwin Brown‘s
Science, technology, and scholarship are technologists and scholars. This movement To Set at Liberty indicate the fruitfulness
ideologically and systematically distorted is assembling the elements for a radical of this contextualization in the emerging
to the degree that the subjects doing or paradigm shift in science, technology, and dialogue between process and political or
practicing them, and the institutions in scholarship. This paradigm shift is liberation theologies. I believe such a
which the practice occurs, repress or transforming or "converting" these contextual attentiveness is also needed in
oppose this intrinsic orientation to social activities away from modern ideological dealing with past theological expressions,
justice (CPST, TKH, CIR). distortions which dichotomized objectivity e.g., those of classical theism.
and subjectivity, facts and values, science
Contemporary social science is also and morality, industry and environment, Genuine knowledge is not power to
calling into question the long-standing system and life-world, bureaucracy and dominate, manipulate, or control what is
modern dichotomies between autonomy, analysis and narrative, known, making the latter fit into necessary
Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (Tönnies), technology and art, truth and freedom and/or mechanistic concepts. Rather,
along with Max Weber‘s highly influential (TW, LL, SAFT, SL). genuine knowledge is a performative
subsequent dichotomies between Zweck- questioning of the multiple environments
and Wertrationalität, bureaucracy and The liberative praxis of reason stresses and ecologies of data, empowering the
charisma, which had an impact on the imaginative insight and understanding as knower to participate creatively and
derivative Troeltschian distinctions generative of concepts of ideas, the responsibly in life. As Whitehead and
between church and sect (TKH, CPST). intrinsic relational conditions constitutive Lonergan, among others, emphasize, our
These dichotomies tended to of true knowledge, as well as the ongoing creative conscious participation in reality
institutionalize or bureaucratize dynamism of raising ever further relevant and life generates the concerns and
domination, which, as mentioned, is the questions and the need to take emphases of our questioning.6 The
common core of the social injustices of responsibility in freedom for the values of heuristics of such a participatory and
classism, sexism, racism, technocentrism, reason. The values of reason are not cut empowerment notion of understanding and
and militarism. Weber‘s distinctions off from the values of life, and values are scientific performance correlate with an
between three "pure types" of authority mediated imaginatively and emotively, as understanding of reality as an ecologically
(rational-bureaucratic, traditional, and well as conceptually. This intellectual inclusive wholeness, the emergent
charismatic) are termed by Weber forms of praxis is very different from the probability of which is oriented towards
"legitimate domination" (Herrschaft). conceptualism which, as Habermas and ever greater freedom and justice (LL 79-
These "pure types" give the primacy to others indicate, derailed both classical 109, I 115-39).
extrinsic bureaucratic control techniques science as theoria and modern science as
as eminently "rational" (ES 212ff.). Yet, as technique. For these expressions of the Knowledge as empowerment towards
Giddens remarks, they have intensified, in scientific and rational ideals do not attend participation in the emergent probability of
the social sciences, the subject/object to the actual performance of imaginatively ecologically inclusive wholeness indicates
dualisms which have dogged most areas of understanding; instead concepts are both the importance of communal
social analysis (CPST 96-130). For all "mysteriously" produced and solidarity in life-worlds and the intrinsic
forms of social production and understanding and/or explanation consist relationship between genuine intelligence
reproduction are constituted by the in intuiting the necessary and certain and social justice. Classism, sexism,
dialectics of structuration and agency relations or nexi between them (classical racism, technocentrism, and militarism are
37
not only moral outrages, they are domination and liberation "tertium vel via idea-system, or social-system becomes
stultifying and irrational alienations from media non dantur." ideological to the degree that those
the creative praxis of reason. They are systems legitimate domination (CPST
social surds having no intrinsic Liberation Theology Beyond Sacralism 165ff., 184-93, TWI). Neither faith
intelligibility and so can be adequately and Secularism systems nor science systems provide any
understood only in the dialectical efforts to guarantee against ideology. But, by the
transcend their destructive necromorphic Modern agnostic and/or atheistic same token, neither faith nor science are
alienation (I 229-32, 628-29, 689-90). This secularism was not the consistent "necessarily" ideologies of domination.
understanding of injustice as social surd is consequence of a syllogism. Freud and The dialectical tasks of liberation
crucial for breaking through the classical Marx were no logicians or metaphysicians theologies, therefore, make imperative
and modern deformation of reason and of wrestling with third degree abstractions critical collaboration among the various
faith. The only intelligibility within the about God. They were dealing with liberation theologies dealing with the
injustices of classism, sexism, racism, personal pathologies and social alienations diverse forms of domination in classism,
technocentrism, militarism is the which were not infrequently related to sexism, racism, technocentrism, and
intelligibility of concretely striving to sacralist deformation of religion, and militarism (CLT).
transcend dialectically their irrationality. specifically of Christianity. For them, and
for modern secularism generally, the Imperative as well is collaboration with
Charges of "reverse" classism, sexism, conjunction of "liberation" and "theology" other religious traditions and all
racism, technocentrism or militarism are would be a contradiction in terms. movements of solidarity with the victims
typically modern, conceptualist distortions Sacralism, we saw, is the religious of domination. Such an "ecumenism from
of the intellectual praxis of liberation. legitimation of domination; and below" does not mean that any of these
Each concept has a possible and necessary domination is the common denominator in liberationist orientations must give up their
opposite, and the liberal, open-minded classism, sexism, racism, technocentrism, own particular concerns and values for the
approach is to leave it up to the "free and militarism. Modern secularism sake of a common lowest denominator.
market" of history to see which prevails. rejected this sacralism, and with it For the intrinsic relations between reason
Alasdair MacIntyre has exposed the Christianity, often out of the best of and justice, the praxis of reason with its
profound failures of this modern, value- intentions. priority of contextual understanding over
neutral conceptualism; and Gustavo conceptual expression, means that the
Gutierrez has uncovered how such Yet, as we have seen, the performance of universality of solidarity, or inclusive
conceptualism cloaks the massive modernity hardly measured up to its wholeness, is a universality that is
exploitation occurring on the "underside" promise. A conceptualist theoria was mediated through the particularity of local
of modern, liberal history (AV 49-102, transmuted into an empiricist technique and communal struggles to transcend
238-45, PPH 169-234). What such charges which put the products of its knowledge as injustice. It dialectically rejects the
of "reverse bias" fail to understand is how power at the service of new masters. Only classical and modern "imperial" efforts to
these communal movements are seeking to some human beings of particular classes, first elaborate a conceptualist
transcend classism, sexism, racism, races, and sex have been systemically "universality" and then impose it from the
technocentrism, militarism; how their permitted to grow and be themselves. top down" on all local and communal
liberation intrinsically involves the Moreover, this growth has often entailed particularities. Basic Christian
liberation of the oppressor groups; how vast industrialization and capitalist communities are misunderstood if they are
freedom is not value-neutral but accumulation which have trapped millions taken as "techniques of organizing
profoundly oriented to the values of of human beings in grinding cycles of pressure groups" to make or produce
responsibility for egalitarian relationships poverty and exploitable cheap labor, as social changes "external" to the
with others; and how human history can well as ravishing and poisoning communities. These communities can only
only be understood adequately in the environment after environment. The adequately be understood as a "praxis"
contexts of such immanent struggles for concrete social contradictions are so rather than a "technique." Their good is
transcending the moral evils which twist intense that a massive militarism is relied internal to their own communal efforts at
and torment it into histories of domination upon to "stabilize and pacify" spheres of transcending social injustices (AV 171ff.,
and oppression. These histories of domination. The liberal secularism CBCC, EC).
domination and oppression cannot be (freedom of religion) and the Marxist
determined in apriori, necessary, or secularism (freedom from religion) are Such liberationist collaboration is already
mechanical manners, but only through the techniques which overlooked the need for beginning to emerge among the various
attentive and intelligent aposteriori praxis a dialectics which would uncover the types of liberation theologies. Third World
of reason committed to the values of concrete forms of domination distorting liberation theologies have continually
justice, truth, and freedom. Theoria and both sacralism and secularism. striven to promote such a dialectical
technique seek to avoid the commitments collaboration among the diverse regional
of this praxis of reason. Whenever The theological critiques of sacralism and perspectives among South American,
conscience is repressed from secularism by liberationists are dialectical. African, and Asian contexts. There has
consciousness, consciousness itself In solidarity with the dead as well as the also been an ongoing collaboration
constricts or atrophies. Between living victims of domination, they between First and Third World
acknowledge how any symbol-system, theologians. There could be a long
38
recitation of how liberation and political God‘s identification with the struggles of CBCC -- Sergio Torres and John
theologians have, in their own intellectual victims everywhere in the mystery and Eagleson, eds. The Challenge of Basic
praxis, sought to promote a dialectical message of Christ Jesus. Christian Communities. Maryknoll: Orbis
collaboration among past and present Books, 1981.
scientists, scholars, philosophers, and In Process and Reality Whitehead wrote: CE -- Timothy D. Barnes. Constantine and
theologians working within First, Second, "When the Western world accepted Eusebius. Cambridge: Harvard University
and Third world contexts (FSUW). It is Christianity, Caesar conquered; and the Press, 1981.
crucial to interrelate the manifold contexts received text of Western theology was CIR -- Marx Wartofsky. "The Critique of
in which people are striving to transcend edited by his lawyers. . . The brief Impure Reason: Sin, Science, and
concretely the injustices of classism, Galilean vision of humility flickered Society." Science, Technology, and
racism, sexism, technocentrism, and throughout the ages, uncertainly. . . [T]he Human Values. Cambridge: The MIT
militarism. deep idolatry, of the fashioning of God in Press, number 33, Fall, 1980, pp. 5-23.
the image of the Egyptian, Persian, and CLT -- Brian Mahan and L. Dale Richesin,
We can scarcely overestimate the work Roman imperial rulers, was retained. The eds. The Challenge of Liberation
that remains to be done. For nothing less is Church gave unto Cod the attributes which Theology: A First World Response.
at stake than collaborating on the radical belonged exclusively to Caesar . . . . [I]n Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1981.
transformation of civilizations and history. the Galilean origin of Christianity [is] yet CMST -- Anthony Giddens. Capitalism
As Cornel West points out, liberation another suggestion. . . It does not and Modern Social Theory. New York:
theologies in Christianity seek "a emphasize the ruling Caesar, or the Cambridge University Press, 1971.
promotion and practice of the moral core ruthless moralist, or the unmoved mover. CP -- Auguste Comte. Catéchisme
of the [dialectical] perspective against It dwells upon the tender elements in the positiviste. 1852. Paris: Société Positiviste
overwhelming odds for success‘ (PD 137). world which slowly and in quietness Internationale edition, 1912.
Solidarity with the victims of history trans- operate by love; and it finds purpose in the CPP -- August Comte. Cours de
values, indeed, the very notion of success. present immediacy of a kingdom not of philosophie positive. 1830-1842. Paris:
Domination has always been a short-cut to this world. Love neither rules, nor is it Schleicher edition, 1908. 6 vols.
very Pyrrhic victories. If the nuclear arms unmoved . . ." (PR 519f.). If sacralism, in CPST -- Anthony Giddens. Central
race is not proof enough of that, I do not this metaphor, is fashioning God in the Problems in Social Theory: Action
know what possibly could be! For the first image of an imperial ruler, secularism Structure and Contradiction in Social
time on the stage of world history, we (recalling Weber‘s appeals to the legal Analysis. Berkeley:
humans can envisage the possibility -- profession as paradigmatic for "legitimate University of California Press, 1979.
some would say, the probability -- of a domination") is turning the world over to CSAGW -- G. E. M. de Ste. Croix. The
self-inflicted, abrupt, and apocalyptic the lawyers. The solidarity or inclusive Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek
nuclear end of the drama as we have lived wholeness of the Galilean discipleship of World. Ithaca: Cornell University Press,
it till now. The drama must change equals has only flickered through the ages 1981.
profoundly if it is even to continue. uncertainly . . . and now we wonder if CSCP -- Stanislaw Starski. Class Struggle
there will even be another age! in Classless Poland. Boston: South End
For until now it has been rent by wars and Press, 1982.
conflicts in which some emerged as victors References CSP -- Derek Baker, ed. Church Society
and most were destroyed or enslaved as and Politics: Papers Read at the 13th and
victims. The human drama has been AB -- Margaret R. Miles. Augustine on the 14th Meetings of the Ecclesiastical History
marked by pell-mell successions of roles, Body. Chico: Scholars Press, 1979. Society. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1975.
which could be designated as winners AEE -- Rudolf Bahro. The Alternative in CTSA -- Matthew L. Lamb. "Power in
versus losers, victors versus victims, Eastern Europe. London: NLB Press, Liberation Theology." Catholic
masters versus slaves, empires versus 1978. Theological Society of America
colonies, superpowers versus AV -- Alasdair MacIntyre. After Virtue: A Proceedings 37 (1982), 134-36.
underdeveloped countries. The nuclear Study in Moral Theory. Notre Dame: DE -- Theodor Adorno & Max
arms race discloses the lethal power of University of Notre Dame Press, 1981. Horkheimer. The Dialectic of
domination as death. This was known by BFM -- Donald Senior and Carroll Enlightenment. New York: Crossroad
the victims of domination, but their cries Stuhlmueller. The Biblical Foundations for Publishers, 1972.
were scarcely heard over the drums of Mission. Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1983. EC -- Johann B. Metz. The Emergent
superpower rhetoric. If science and BL -- Norman K. Gottwald, ed. The Bible Church: The Future of Christianity in a
technology are ever to be liberated from and Liberation: Political and Social Postbourgeois World. New York:
tutelage to the dominative powers of Hermeneutics. Maryknoll: Orbis Books Crossroad Publishers, 1981.
history, if the drama is to be "interrupted" 1983. ERW -- Fergus Millar, The Emperor in the
redemptively rather than destructively, Roman World. Ithaca: Cornell University
then Christian theology, which has itself BOR -- Richard J. Bernstein. Beyond Press, 1977.
been enticed time and again to legitimate Objectivism and Relativism: Science, ES -- Max Weber. Economy and Society.
dominative power, can contribute to that Hermeneutics, and Praxis. Philadelphia: Berkeley: University of California Press
future by mediating more dialectically to University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983. edition, 1978. 2 vols.
the present the subversive memories of
39
ESF -- Peter Gay. The Enlightenment: The OECT -- Charles Avila. Ownership: Early WMSE -- Ruth L. Sivard. World Military
Science of Freedom. New York: Knopf, Christian Teaching. Maryknoll: Orbis and Social Expenditures 1983: An Annual
1969. Books, 1983. Report on World Priorities. New York:
EWL -- William A. Williams. Empire as a OMS -- Herbert Butterfield. The Origins World Policy Institute, 1983.
Way of Life. New York: Oxford of Modern Science. London: Bell & Sons, WPSP -- Joseph Priestly. Writings on
University Press, 1980. 1957. Philosophy, Science, and Politics. New
FF -- Schubert M. Ogden. Faith and OT -- Hanna Arendt. The Origins of York: Collier Books, 1965. Passmore
Freedom: Toward a Theology of Totalitarianism. New York: Harcourt edition.
Liberation. Nashville: Abingdon, 1979. Brace Jovanovich, 1973. Reprint.
FSUW -- Roger L. Shinn and Paul PCST -- Anthony Giddens. Profiles and Notes
Abrecht, eds. Faith and Science in an Critiques in Social Theory. Berkeley:
Unjust World: Report of the World University of California Press, 1982. 1Summa Theologiae, Il-Il, 57, ic. "iustitiae
Council of Churches‘ Conference on Faith, PD -- Cornel West. Prophesy Deliverance! proprium est inter alias virtutes ut ordinet
Science and the Future. Philadelphia: An Afro-American Revolutionary hominem in his quae sunt ad alterum.
Fortress Press, 1980. 2 vols. Christianity. Philadelphia: The Importat enim aequalitatem quandam, ut
Westminster Press, 1982. ipsum nomen demonstrat"; 58, Sc. "Et
GGC -- Johann B. Metz. Glaube in PO -- Paulo Freire. Pedagogy of the secundum hoc actus omnium virtutum
Geschichte und Gesellschaft. Mainz: Oppressed. New York: Herder & Herder, possunt ad justitiam pertinere, secundum
Grünewald, 1977. 1972. quod ordinat hominem ad bonum
HMT -- Matthew L. Lamb. History, PP -- Paulo Freire. Pedagogy in Process. commune. There are many inadequacies in
Method and Theology. Chico: Scholars New York: Seabury Press, 1978. Aquinas‘s analysis ofjustice, but his
Press, 1978. PPH -- Gustavo Gutierrez. The Power of definition did emphsize egalitarian
HU -- Stephen Toulmin. Human the Poor in History. Maryknoll: Orbis relations ("aequalitas") rather than mere
Understanding: The Collective Use and Books, 1983. equity ("aequitas"). Cf. Michael Walzer,
Evolution of Concepts. Princeton: PTPT -- John B. Cobb, Jr. Process Spheres of Justice (Boston: Basic Books,
Princeton University Press, 1972. Theology as Political Theology. 1983); and Joseph O‘Malley, "Karl Marx
I -- Bernard Lonergan. Insight: A Study of Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, and the Thomistic Concept of Justice" as
Human Understanding. New York: Harper 1982. yet unpublished article.
& Row, 1978. Eleventh Printing. SAFT -- Helmut Peukert. Science, Action,
IMH -- Elizabeth Schüssler Fioreuza. In and Fundamental Theology. Cambridge: 2 Cf. E. Voegelin, "The Gospel and
Memory of Her: A Feminist Theological The MIT Press, 1984. Culture" in D. Miller and D. Hadidan
Reconstruction of Christian Origins. New SAL -- Delwin Brown. To Set at Liberty: (eds.), Jesus and Man‘s Hope (Pittsburgh:
York: Crossroad Publishers, 1983. Christian Faith and Human Freedom. Pittsburgh Theological Seminary, 1971),
KHI -- Jürgen Habermas. Knowledge and Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1981. pp. 59-101. Also Eugene Webb, Eric
Human Interests. Boston: Beacon Press, SC -- Bernard Lonergan. A Second Voegelin: Philosopher of History (Seattle:
1971. Collection. Philadelphia: The Westminster University of Washington Press, 1981).
KP -- Richard Bendix. Kings or People: Press, 1974.
Power and the Mandate to Rule. Berkeley: SL -- Rita Arditti, Pat Brennan, Steven 3 Cf. M. Heidegger, Unterwegs zur
University of California Press, 1978. Cavrak, eds. Science and Liberation. Sprache (Pfullingen: Verlag C. Neske,
LL -- Charles Birch and John B. Cobb, Jr., Boston: South End Press, 1980. 1959), pp. 9ff.; A. Gouldner, Enter Plato:
The Liberation of Life: From the Cell to SMWV -- John McMurtry. The Structure Classical Greece and the Origins of Social
the Community. Cambridge: Cambridge of Marx‘s World-View. Princeton: Theory (London: Routledge and Kegan
University Press, 1981. Princeton University Press, 1978. Paul, 1965), pp. 326ff.; E. Dussel, MFL
LT -- Rosemary Ruether. Liberation SV -- Matthew L. Lamb. Solidarity with 17-31; Robert Goizueta, "Liberation and
Theology. New York: Paulist Press, 1972. Victims: Toward a Theology of Social Method: Enrique Dussel‘s Analectical
LW -- Frederick Lawrence, ed. Lonergan Transformation. New York: Crossroad Method," in R. Masson (ed.), Pedagogy of
Workshop. Chico: Scholars Press, 1978. Publishers, 1982. God‘s Image (Chico: Scholars Press,
Vol. 1. THN -- David Hume. A Treatise of 1982).
M -- Mark Morelli, general editor. Human Nature. Oxford: Clareton Press,
Method: Journal of Lonergan Studies. 1973. Reprint of 1888 edition. 4 Cf. Bernard Lonergan, Verbum: Word
Loyola Marymount University. 1/1 TKH -- Jürgen Habermas. Theorie des and Idea in Aquinas (Notre Dame: Notre
(Spring, 1983). kommunikativen Handelns. Frankfurt: Dame University Press, 1967), pp. 66-95,
MFL -- Enrique Dussel. Método para Suhrkamp Verlag, 1981. 2 vols. 201-20; also his Grace and Freedom (New
unafilosophia de la liberación. Salamanca: TW -- Hans Küng and David Tracy, eds. York: Herder & Herder, 1971), pp. 93ff.;
Sigueme, 1974. Theologie -- Wohin? Zurick: Benziger Elizabeth Dreyer, "Affectus" in the
MPP -- A. Schindler, ed. Monotheismus Verlag, 1984. Theology of St. Bonaventure (Milwaukee:
als politisches Problem? Gütersloh: C. TWI -- Jürgen Habermas. Technik und Ph.D. Dissertation at Marquette
Mohn, 1978. Wissenschaft als ‗Ideologie‘. Frankfurt: University, 1982, unpublished). Much
Suhrkamp Verlag, 1968. work remains to be done showing how the
Sophia-God of Jesus -- cf. E. Fiorenza,
40
IMH l3Off. -- correlates with the the temporal statement that God wills "this classical theoria and modern technique by
"sapientia" so central to Bonaventure and or that" requires for its truth that "this or which knowing and acting were
Aquinas. There is a need for a more that" actually occurs as the "ad extra" misunderstood as necessitating and
contextual retrieval of past theologies. event in the created universe. The "relatin dominating. Note also how within process
rationis" of God to all created events in the theologies there are the debates about the
5Cf. Aquinas Summa Theologiae, I, 8, 1; universe is another way of stating this relationship between God‘s primordial and
25, 3 c. and ad 3. It seems to me that noncoercive Divine Presence or Mystery consequent nature. To what extent is the
neoclassical criticisms of classical theism grounding all cosmic and human conception of a "dipolar God" an interim
misunderstand the theology of Aquinas by actualities, beckoning human freedom solution on the way towards a more
reading him through a too conceptualist towards noncoercive world and self adequate understanding of God‘s creative
rendering of his writings common to much understanding and acting. Cf. Lonergan, act as noncoercive, empowering, praxis?
so-called "Thomism." Process theologians De Constitutione Christi Ontologica et For goodness is internal within praxis, not
can scarcely be held accountable for this, Psychologica (Rome: Gregorian external as in the "making" of technique;
since most so-called "Thomists have University Press, 1961), pp. 9-56. There is cf., for the human analogue, AV 171ff.
promoted such a conceptualism. The key no "unilateral determination" on God‘s
to Aquinas, as Lonergan has shown, is a part relative to human freedom, contrary to 6 There are many terminological, and
nondominative understanding of human David Griffin‘s God, Power, and Evil some real, differences between
understanding as preceding and grounding (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1976), Whitehead‘s and Lonergan‘s respective
conceptualization. The analogy for Divine pp. 72-95. Hartshorne‘s analysis of accounts of consciousness and knowledge.
knowing and willing is a noncoercive "Thomism" tends to read Aquinas through Note, however, Whitehead‘s reliance on
"intelligere" and "velle," in which God‘s the logical conceptualism of Jacques Man- the Quaker notion of "concern," AI 178, as
eternal knowing and willing empowers tam. Process theology is, I believe, a more fundamental than knowledge. The
human freedom. Cf. Lonergan, Grace and coherent reaction to the mistaken real differences might depend on the
Freedom, pp. 93-116. Few contemporary identification of knowing and willing with extent to which Whitehead, for all his
theologians have yet understood how, for "determination," "control," and criticisms, still depends upon Hume‘s
Aquinas, the simplicity of God‘s eternity "domination" in the "De Auxiliis" approach. To what extent is "knowledge"
embraces as presence all the controversies from the 17th to the 20th still left in a typically modern paradigm of
spatiotemporal events of past, present, and century. But the argument should be technique and control, and emotive
future in the transcendent, noncoercive contextualized in terms of the dimensions added to it as correctives?
presence of Infinite Consciousness. Hence, determinative and coercive distortions of

41
Children of a White God:
A Study of Racist “Christian” Theologies
by Matthew C. Ogilvie
http://www.human-nature.com/nibbs/01/ogilvie.html
Introduction theologies have turned from parlour talk we note that racist Christians generally
The Context of this Issue. into matters of life and death. Of much preach a theology of rebellion against gun
It is common knowledge that Islamic concern is that white racists, who call control, on the grounds that it is part of a
extremism has been associated with themselves ―Christian‖ and who believe in ―New World Order,‖ which is supposed to
numerous terrorist attacks around the a theology that gives divine justification to be an anti-White, anti-American and anti-
world. It remains, though, that racist their beliefs, possess arsenals of high- Christian movement.[8] While we shall
Christian theologies have also animated technology weapons, the likes of which discuss these beliefs in detail below, it
violent movements. One key example many Middle-East terrorists would be should suffice for our introduction to note
concerns the Oklahoma City bombing. most jealous.[4] that there are many who call themselves
Bomber Timothy McVeigh has been Christian and who teach a racist theology
connected to white supremacist Racist theology has today found itself that is not only intellectually unacceptable
movements such as White Aryan powerful and influential voices. Of these, to mainstream Christianity, but also poses
Resistance and the Christian Identity most prominent would be David Duke, tangible dangers to society.
Movement, both of which promote racist former Ku Klux Klan leader, who was
theology.[1] In Australia, racist theologies elected to the Louisiana House of This Paper's Methodology.
have gained attention through the medium Representatives. Duke proclaims that he
of racist politician Pauline Hanson. Apart has always been a believing Christian and Having stated something of the context of
from her generally anti-Indigenous and that an integral part of his Christianity has racist theologies, this paper shall now
anti-Asian stance, Hanson has advocated been a theology of racial segregation. We present a study of the various racist
giving preference to Christian migrants read in his own work that in the name of theologies and propose some responses to
over those from non-Christian race preservation, God has commanded these theologies. This study will be
backgrounds. The media attention given genocide, segregation and anti- unorthodox in terms of its subject matter,
Ms Hanson has been accompanied by an miscegenation, and today forbids racial for the doctrines of fringe groups are not
increase in race-based violence within intermarriage and the crossing of racial normally the subject of serious
Australia. While one acknowledges that boundaries.[5] Duke's views are certainly philosophical or theological investigation.
Ms Hanson has not articulated a ―race- on the fringe of Christian thinking, but he However, even if the theologies with
theology‖ her movement has brought out is only the visible voice of a wider which we are dealing are uncritical and
many others who do present such racist movement of people whose theology somewhat unsophisticated, the seriousness
religion.[2] conceives violence, hate, intimidation and of their impact warrants earnest
race conflict to be in the name of God. investigation and thoughtful response. The
The seriousness of the threat presented by subject matter of this paper shall also
supremacist groups is reflected in the US In studying racist theologies, one is also affect the technical aspects of its
Army's approach to anti-terrorism. In the struck by the connection between the racist presentation. Much of the paper is based
prepublication edition of Force Protection: Christians and extreme elements of the not on books and articles, but on primary
Antiterrorism 1997, it is noted that there pro-gun lobby. In his reflections on ―Race sources closer to the movements
exists within the United States, ―an and Christianity,‖ Duke proceeds directly themselves. One would appreciate that
eclectic array of extremist organizations, from proposing racial segregation to racist Christian theology is not the sort of
which do not officially condone terrorism outlining a theology of gun possession, in material one would find resting on a
but may serve as breeding grounds for which he proclaims Christ's command for university library shelf. So the reader's
terrorist activities.‖ Of those extremist his followers to possess guns.[6] The forbearance in the course of this paper will
groups, there are those that either espouse Christian Identity movement also follows be much appreciated.[9] One should also
supremacist causes, or foster such teaching, simultaneously demanding acknowledge freely that this paper, like its
discrimination or the deprivation of civil of its followers a theology of racial author, is decidedly anti-racist. Even if this
rights based on race or religion.[3] What separation and a belief in Christ's study has given both some sympathy for
concerns us most is the combination of the command for Christians to own and be the people involved in racist Christianity
powerful factors of supremacist feeling ready to use the most advanced available and an insight into their life concerns, the
and race discrimination with a militaristic weapons of their day, such as an M-16 paper remains unsympathetic to many of
attitude. With that combination, race-based assault rifle.[7] In addition to these beliefs, the opinions studied in this investigation.
42
that God can do it, and will do so in the mainstream Christianity, which has lead to
To analyze and respond to racist coming kingdom, citing the case of a difficulties of interpretation for the Latter
theologies, this paper shall first clarify Missouri boy who spontaneously turned Day Saints. To be fair to the Latter Day
what is presented in the variety of racist from having black to white skin.[12] We Saints, it must be said that blacks have
Christian theologies. We shall next reflect would observe first, that contemporary now been admitted to the lay priesthood.
upon the theological methodologies used Watchtower doctrine proclaims the Moreover, the Mormon scriptures do
by such movements. Before drawing some equality of all races. However, in their mitigate the harshness of the texts
conclusions, we shall then propose some infant days, the Jehovah's Witnesses described above. By way of example,
parallels with Biblical fundamentalism and certainly accommodated themselves to the Second Nehpi tells us that God invites all
some motives for the use of religion that prevailing view that black people were people to himself, ―black and white, bond
help us in understanding racist theologies. inferior to whites. While the Watchtower and free, male and female; and he
The paper shall not present a chronology attempted to add a positive dimension to remembereth the heathen; and all are alike
of racist Christianity or a group-by-group this supposed reality, by holding that the unto God, both Jew and Gentile.‖
analysis of racist theologies. While such inferiority of black people would serve Moreover, even though the Lamanites
an analysis may be helpful for many them well in God's service and the coming were cursed by God, the God-fearing are
purposes, it would result in a work that kingdom, it remains that their reading of commanded not to revile the dark-skinned,
would be too large and unwieldy for the Biblical texts was overshadowed by the but to remember their own filthiness and
confines of this article. Rather, we shall assumption that society was right in to remember that filth of dark skin came
present a study ordered to the presentation presuming the inferiority of blacks. only because of their fathers' sins.[16] In
of our material so that the reader can best spite of such mitigation of hatred, though,
understand what exactly is believed across The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day we still see the presumption of cursing,
the range of racist religions. From the Saints (Mormons) represents another filthiness and inevitable subjugation of
basis of this understanding, we trust that group with supremacist beginnings, but people on account of their blackness. That
the reader will be better equipped to which has now turned to a reformed such scriptures exist explains why, despite
recognize racist material, identify its type position. In 1978, Spencer W. Kimball, the the efforts of non-racist Latter Day Saints,
and be better able to deal with it. church's twelfth president, proclaimed that the spectre of racism still hangs over that
The Varieties of Christian Racist the ―long-promised day‖ had arrived, in church.
Theologies which every worthy man, black or white,
White Supremacists could take up priesthood in the Latter Day While some churches have struggled to
Saints.[13] What makes the Latter Day reform a history of white supremacy,
The first and perhaps most socially Saints' position different to other others still boldly proclaim a gospel of
undesirable form of racist theology rests Christians is the presence of scriptures not white power. David Duke declares that
on the notion of white supremacy, which recognised outside of the church and belief God's program of genocide in the Old
holds that ―white people‖ are superior to in ongoing revelation within the church. Testament was intended to preserve both
all other races, and that their destiny in this Those scriptures found within the book of Israel's bloodline and its place of
life is to dominate those other peoples. Mormon deal with the issue of race in a superiority over all other peoples. In this
White supremacist thinking in Christianity distinct manner. By way of example, way, the life-and-death struggle between
is not altogether unfamiliar, and can easily Second Nephi recalls how God caused to Israel and its neighbours was seen not as a
be found, for example, in the earlier come upon the iniquitous brethren a merely territorial conflict, but an effort to
writings of the Jehovah's Witnesses.[10] cursing so that, ―wherefore, as they were protect the God-intended superiority and
Their founder, C.T. Russell asserted that: white, and exceedingly fair and separation of the Israelites. Duke continues
delightsome, that they might not be by proclaiming the supremacy of
If nature favors the colored brethren and enticing unto my people the Lord God did European Christianity over and above that
sisters in the exercise of humility it is that cause a skin of blackness to come upon embraced by other ―sub-white‖ races. He
much to their advantage, if they are rightly them.‖ This black skin, would cause them writes that:
exercised by it. A little, and our humility to be ―loathsome unto thy people, save
will work out for our good. A little while, they shall repent of their iniquities.‖[14] Whatever the ethnic origins of the
and those who have been faithful to their Elsewhere, black skin is stated to be a precursors of Christianity, over the
Covenant of Sacrifice will be granted new mark set upon the Lamanites. Dark skin centuries Christianity adopted a European
bodies, spiritual, beyond the veil, where would also serve as a sign of a people who cultural overlay both in its artistic
color and sex distinctions will be no more. were loathsome, ―a filthy people, full of expression and its religious tones. We can
A little while, and the Millennial kingdom idleness and all manner of see those expressions in the breath-taking
will be inaugurated, which will bring abominations.‖[15] Such Latter Day Saints paintings of the Sistine Chapel, the
restitution to all mankind.[11] scriptures clearly manifest texts written in sculpture of the Madonna and Child, the
the social spirit of their times. The rhetoric gothic cathedrals of Europe, and even in
We also note that the Watchtower made of savage people, cursed by God and given the classic Christmas carols that so deeply
use of bizarre pseudo-science in its race to idleness and iniquity could serve very touch our hearts. Christianity is tightly
theologies. In answer to the Biblical well to justify enslaving such people. One wound within the heritage of Western
question, ―Can the Ethiopian change his observes that such attitudes are not Man. No race is so intrinsically Christian
skin?‖ the Watchtower replied ―no,‖ but presented in the canonical scriptures of as the European, and I view all
43
denominations that follow Christ whether Other races, they hold, were created prior law and had to be protected by
they be Baptists or Catholics, Russian to Adam, the first fully human being. segregation. He wrote that:
Orthodox or Methodist, Pentecostal or Without really explaining how they come
Mormons, as brothers in Christ. We may to their conclusion, Identity teachers The traditional fear of the Afrikaner of
differ somewhat in our interpretation of propose that of the cattle, creeping things racial equality (equalitarianism) between
the Scriptures, but all of us share our faith and beasts created before Adam, black White and Black derives from his aversion
in Him.[17] people were among those beasts and that to miscegenation. The Afrikaner has
they, like other animals, have no spirits. In always believed very firmly that if he is to
In contrast to European forms of fact, Identity teachers assert that the word be true to his primary calling of bringing
Christianity, Duke holds that African and ―beast‖ covers all the non-white races and Christianity to the heathen, he must
Black Caribbean Christianity can only that non-whites were among the beasts preserve his racial identity intact. The
stray from genuine Christianity. He rounded up by Noah to escape the flood. Church is, therefore, entirely opposed to
proposes that when white missionaries and From the presumption of their animal inter-marriage between Black and White
their superior influence are absent, status, Identity preachers and their allies and is committed to withstand everything
Christianity inevitably degenerates into prohibit racial intermarriage, holding it to that is calculated to facilitate it. At the
idol worship, witch doctoring, voodoo, or be an act of treason to one's own white same time it does not begrudge the non-
other non-Christian practices.[18] Duke's race. White the attainments of a social status
assumption is that black people are simply commensurate with his highest aspirations.
incapable of leading themselves into true Separatists Whereas the Church, therefore, opposes
Christianity, and that they need the the social equalitarianism which ignores
guiding, sometimes coercive, hand of Separatist racism does not claim overtly racial and colour differences between
white missiondom to herd them into the that any one race is inherently superior to Black and White in everyday life, it is
gates of salvation. another. Rather, separatist racism holds prepared to do all in its power to
that it is the will of God that all races be implement a social and cultural
One may ask, from Duke's assertions, kept separate in terms of family, national segregation which will redound to the
how one reconciles the dominance and boundaries or social and economic benefit of both sections.[21]
apparent ―chosen status‖ of white development
Europeans, with the Biblical presentation Some concepts used in Malan's theology
of the chosen people and the Christian he typical form of separatist theology is may sound like a theology of
messiah as being of the Israelite expressed by D .F. Malan, Prime Minister multiculturalism. Yet the concept of
people.[19] Such objections are met by the and President of South Africa, who had separate development cannot be confused
race-theory of British Israelism. This earlier been a Dutch Reformed Church with true multiculturalism, even though
theory, to which we shall give more Minister. When Prime Minister, he Malan's rhetoric seems calculated to create
attention below, holds that the ten asserted that Apartheid was based upon the such confusion. Apartheid does not present
Northern Hebrew tribes, which were Afrikaner's ―divine calling‖ to ―convert the multiculturalism, but bounded
deported in 720 BCE to Assyria, never heathen to Christianity without obliterating polyethnicity, which is essentially a large-
actually returned to Israel, but migrated, his national identity.‖ That is, Apartheid scale ghettoism. In contrast to the
though successive generations, eventually was necessary to the Christianisation and confusion created by separatist thinking,
landing in the British Isles and becoming conversion of ―the heathen.‖ Malan's we note that multiculturalism does not
the Anglo-Saxon people. While the theory reasoning assumes that the first step separate communities or individuals.
is historically baseless, it provides another towards civilising peoples is their Rather, a multicultural state fosters the
theological basis for white supremacy. By Christianisation. While he acknowledges growth of cultures within it, provides for
claiming to be the true people of Israel, that in the past, the Church had used the the cultures' positive interactions, their
white Anglo-Saxon supremacists lay claim blessings of civilisation as a means of mutual benefit and education and mutual
to being God's chosen people, a race set Christianisation, modern missionary contribution to each's ongoing cultural
above all others. practice is to ensure the full social, evolution.
economic and educational development of
We have so far covered white supremacist non-Whites. However, proceeding from On this point, we can note that racism by
theology insofar as it deals with the presumption that "God helps him who separation is based upon what Bernard
supremacy primarily by divine election. helps himself" it was the Afrikaner's Lonergan called a ―classicist‖ notion of
Another, more insidious, supremacist responsibility to encourage and assist the culture, which is the notion that there is
theory seeks to prove from Biblical texts non-European in their development, but to one culture for all people for all times, to
that black people are not fully human. do so by ensuring that ―the various Black which all are expected to aspire. The
Taking some inspiration from British races [upheld] the right and duty to retain classicist notion of culture assumes that
Israelism, but moving far beyond it, their national identities.‖[20] culture, strictly speaking, is static. On the
movements such as Christian Identity other hand, an empirical notion of culture,
propose that only the white race is Corresponding to this desire to ensure that which maintains history in mind, realizes
descended from Adam. They assert that non-Whites maintained their distinct that cultures are and have been manifold,
―Adamah‖ refers to redness in the cheeks, identities, Malan asserted that the racial that at any time there exists a multitude of
which is not possessed by non-whites. purity of Whites was a matter of divine cultures and that each of these cultures is
44
never static, but in a process of progress or setting up of Apartheid-like policies. It is advancement must mean separate
decline, evolution or degeneration.[22] simply Paul's attempt to appeal to the development and existence of different
Such an empirical notion of culture is not philosophical system of his Athenian races. Interestingly, Klansmen also make a
appreciated by separatist racists who, for hearers. It is helpful in this matter to connection between intermarriage and
various reasons ranging from blind remember that Paul can hardly be held up disease:
prejudice to racial paternalism, fear the as a champion of racial separation. He was
encounter of cultures and look upon such after all the one who had opposed Peter ―to Until 20 or so years ago, nearly all states
activity not as fertilisation, but his face‖ for his failure to mix with the had 'sodomy' and miscegenation laws and
infection.[23] non-Jewish Christians (Galatians 2:11-14). statutes that were strictly enforced. Since
that time they have been repealed or are
Such an attitude is manifested in Malan‘s Notwithstanding such Scriptural evidence, ignored, the results are obvious with the
stated horror of miscegenation (racial contemporary separatist theologies play plague of AIDS now ravaging our land.
intermarriage), which embodies upon both the misreading of Acts and Both of these abominations against God
multiculturalism in its deepest form. The other ideas in an effort to show that and nature must be stopped if America is
theology of separate development is based intermarriage and racial interaction is anti- ever to return to the great Christian nation
ultimately upon this fear of racial Christian. An extreme example is Peter it once was.[28]
contamination. However, the reason that Peters' statement on Martin Luther King.
intermarriage is looked upon so negatively In an attack on Dr King, Peters asserted We shall cover later the connection
is neither theological nor Biblical, but that King's agenda was to pursue racial between racist theologies and anti-
simply the result of prejudice and aversion integration and intermarriage as part of a homosexual activism. For the moment,
to such practice. The only theological wider communist conspiracy to weaken though, we note that even though the
status one can give this belief is that based the United States.[25] In another tract, Klansmen in question do not advocate a
upon the experience of believing Peters linked racial intermarriage with strict white supremacy, but a policy of
Christians, but in this case it is an ―racial problems‖ and the ―killing plague‖ racial separation, they employ the
experience of fear which is not of AIDS. To support his theology, he cites aforementioned ideology of negativity
complemented by the effort to understand the story of Phinehas, who stopped a towards racial and cultural development.
that fear or the drive to inquire into the deadly plague by killing an Israelite man To the Klansmen, white society cannot be
reasonableness of that fear or otherwise. and a Midianite woman who had been advanced, except within the narrow
What is interesting though, is that an ―committing whoredom‖ (Numbers confines of race ―purity.‖ That the white
aversion to racial intermarriage is typical 25:7,8).[26] What one notices upon peoples and others could advance by
of most other separatist racist theologies. reading Numbers for oneself is that God means or paths as yet unknown to this
did not command racial separation or Klan, or anyone else, is not possible for
From within more traditional genocide for the primary purpose of the Klansmen.
fundamentalism, Bob Jones asserted that, segregation, as Peters and others would
―Intermarriage of the races is a breakdown have us believe. Rather, racial segregation From another perspective, separatist
of the lines of separation which God has in the Old Testament was for the purpose theology has been expressed in terms of
set up and, therefore, is rebellion against of maintaining the purity of the Israelites' ―race rights.‖ In a manifesto of race
God.‖ To support his viewpoint, Jones faith. We note that just prior to the text theology, the Christian Identity movement
cites Paul's statement in the Acts of the cited by Peters, Numbers yields the real promotes a notion that, in the eyes of God,
Apostles, that of all peoples, God ―hath problem with intermarriage in Phinehas' each race has the right (and duty) ―to
determined the times before appointed, time, namely that the Israelites bowed exclusivity, reproductive isolation and
and the bounds of their habitation.‖ (Acts down before foreign gods, and found geographic separation, to be free, safe and
17:26) Jones then asserts that God has themselves ―yoked to the Baal of Peor‖ secure from the racially destructive effects
fixed those boundaries so that people, (Numbers 25:2-3). We recall that in the of racial intermixture and replacement.‖
should seek the Lord, if haply they might Old Testament God had no problem with The context of these so-called rights is
feel after him, and find him.‖ (Acts 17:27) foreigners who were happy to embrace the explained in the preamble to this article,
For Jones, racial divisions and boundaries faith of Israel, and that according to the which states that to be faithful in caring for
are present for ―man's spiritual good.‖ In scriptures, God chose foreign, non- God's creation means preserving the world
contrast, the cry of those who rebel against Israelites, to be the ancestors of Jesus as God has created it.[30] Notwithstanding
God is ―One World, One Race, One Christ.[27] the aforementioned problems with this
Church.‖ Jones thus subscribes to an anti- theology, we can only disagree that anti-
Christian conspiracy theory which aims We find similar separatist reasoning in the miscegenationism could possibly express
for a ―corrupt and evil world, a mongrel Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. We note that any ―rights.‖ We maintain that rights are
race, and the church of Antichrist.‖[24] their race ideology is based upon the expressions of human freedom, which, for
United States being a great Christian good reason, one can forego. Christian
The citation of Acts 17:26-27 appears nation. However, rather than holding that Identity's presentation is not of ―race
many times in the literature of racist black people should be maltreated or rights,‖ but of coercive measures which do
theologies. However, the text means despised for their race, they claim to be not express human freedom. In other
nothing in terms of racism, and says interested solely in the advancement of words, they are imposed conditions that do
nothing about racial intermarriage or the white people. In practice, this
45
not convey rights but subjugated and experience, David Duke puts the point in ‗chosen people.‘‖[35] Duke notes
limited living conditions.[31] emotional terms thus: approvingly that in the Old Testament,
genocide was used, not just as a means to
Before leaving this section, we should I wondered if, in a few hundred years, defeat Israel's enemies, but also as a means
clarify the beliefs of the Jehovah's some half-black descendant of mine would of maintaining the nation's heritage. Duke
Witnesses and Latter Day Saints. First, the be sitting among the ruins of our does deal somewhat with the New
writings of the Watchtower suggest that civilization, brushing away the flies, Testament's message of salvation to all
Jehovah's Witnesses do not practice race- waiting to die. Every day our nation grows peoples. However, he asserts that the New
based discrimination of any sort. While in a little darker from the torrential Testament still recognises distinctions
the past, the Witnesses have bowed to immigration of non-whites, high non- between men and women, slaves and free
greater or lesser degrees of congregational white birthrates, and increasing racial people, people of different nationalities.
segregation, contemporary Witness miscegenation; and with each passing day, His ultimate position is that, even if
congregations are promoted as models of we see the quality of our lives decline. genocide is no longer endorsed by the
racial equality. However, the artwork in Crime is ever on the increase, drug activity New Testament, the will of God is still to
Watchtower literature gives reason for proliferates, educational quality declines, maintain national distinctions so as to
concern. While Watchtower books and and the American standard of living protect the heritage of his people. Duke
magazines portray Jehovah's faithful suffers. The healthy racial values of our proposes that, without keeping the United
people of many races, it is hard to find any forefathers are ridiculed and replaced by States free of ―alien races,‖ it would suffer
interracial couples portrayed in Jehovah‘s the pseudo-science of egalitarianism. the same fate as the Israelites who took
kingdom. Whether this artistic separatism Treason to our heritage prospers and foreign wives. He asserts, without
is intended or not, we do not know, nor are corruption feeds in the highest places.[33] establishing any substantial or causal
the Jehovah's Witnesses helpful in connection, that the influx of non-white
clarifying the issue. What is clear, though, In essence, the assumption made is that immigrants to the United States has
is that the artwork of Watchtower racial interaction or the development of a resulted in ―brutal crimes of violence,
publications raises questions about its race by encounter and sharing with another drugs, illiteracy, and corruption.‖[36]
approach to race. race will be to the sole end of destruction.
This argument is not new, however, and By itself, such reasoning may seem
The Latter Day Saints are also in an was also put succinctly by Hitler, who also political, rather than theological. However,
awkward position. While they have moved reveals the base of racial separatism. nationalist racist theology is founded upon
towards a more equalitarian position, they ―Historical experience offers countless the belief that one's nation (normally the
are still burdened by scriptures that insist proofs of this. It shows with terrifying United States) is God's chosen nation, or at
on strict segregation. Of the accursed, clarity that in every mingling of Aryan least, more favoured in the eyes of God
Second Nephi teaches that they are cursed blood with that of lower peoples the result than other countries.[37] We find this
with black skin. Moreover, ―And cursed was the end of the cultured people.‖[34] assumption made clear in the various
shall be the seed of him that mixeth with Hitler shows clearly what Duke implies, Chick publications, which state clearly the
their seed; for they shall be cursed even namely, that at the ultimate base of racist fundamentalist belief that God has chosen
with the same cursing. And the Lord separatism is an implied form of white the United States as a latter-day light to the
spake it, and it was done.‖[32] However, supremacist thinking or feeling. Even if nations. In the light of such beliefs, Duke
positive reform is possible from a reading such supremacism is not stated overtly, or and other nationalist racists hold that the
of Alma 3:8 and Helaman 3:16. These even if it is not done self-knowingly by borders of their nation should be closed to
texts make it clear that racial segregation racists, it is present and forms the racists' alien races on the grounds that admitting
is needed because intermarriage with the interpretation of texts pertaining to race, such people would abrogate the character
dark-skinned cursed races results in integration and separation. of the chosen nation.
wickedness and rebellion against God. Nationalists
Such reasoning follows the line of thought Kingdom Identity Ministries puts
present in the Hebrew Scriptures, that A third form of race theology begins not concisely the points we have presented on
intermarriage with pagan nations would from race supremacy or race separation, nationalist racism:
defile the Israelite faith. However, just as but from national separation. David Duke
with the Hebrew Scriptures, the Mormon asserts that God is most concerned to WE BELIEVE that the United States of
texts leave open the possibility of racial maintain a nation's heritage. In particular, America fulfills the prophesied (II Sam.
integration if the curse of wickedness is when that nation is singled out by God, the 7:10; Isa. 11:12; Ezek. 36:24) place where
lifted from the Lamanites. extermination of other nations is given Christians from all the tribes of Israel
divine authority in order to protect the would be regathered. It is here in this
To conclude this section we may question chosen nation. As Duke puts the point, blessed land (Deut. 15.6, 28:11, 33:13-17)
a key assumption made by separatist ―The more I read of the Holy Bible, the that God made a small one a strong nation
racism. All scriptures and theological more obvious it became to me that God (Isa. 60:22), feeding His people with
resources of separatist theology proceed concerned himself very much with knowledge and understanding through
from the belief that racial integration and heritage. The Old Testament is about one Christian pastors (Jer. 3:14-15) who have
racial mixing are evils and acts of nationality, one people: the Israelites, who carried the light of truth and blessings unto
destruction. In reflecting upon his Indian are designated as a special people, a the nations of the earth (Isa. 49:6, 2:2-3;
46
Gen. 12:3). North America is the tyranny from big government.‖ We find struggle against a government is more than
wilderness (Hosea 2:14) to which God repeatedly in Klan literature the theme of a political struggle, it becomes a holy war.
brought the dispersed seed of Israel, the government intervention in race matters
land between two seas (Zech. 9:10), and cooperation with the United Nations in Racist Christians' conspiracy theories are
surveyed and divided by rivers (Isa. 18:1- abandoning the racial purity of the United not limited to supposed Jewish plots. Anti-
2,7), where springs of water and streams States.[41] Such conspiracist thinking, Christian communist forces are also
break out and the desert blossoms as the aligned with an anti-government proclaimed as the real power behind the
rose (Isa. 35:1,6-7). [38] mentality, evokes a strong parallel with life and work of Martin Luther King Jnr.
fascist ideology. While we would want to Peter Peters of Christian Identity, for
The use of scripture to support such claims avoid using ―fascist‖ as a convenient example, asserts that King, far from acting
is both creative and imaginative. For though insubstantial term of derogation, it independently of political influence, was
example, notice is taken of the fact that the remains that fascism, particularly as actually a stooge for the Communist Party
above scriptures could apply equally to conceived by Mussolini, was a reactionary of America, being part of sixty-four
Australia, Canada or South Africa as to the movement of illiberality and anti- communist movements. In turn, his
United States (or no modern nation at all!). liberalism. Moreover, fascism was communist masters were supposed to have
What is present, though, is the prejudice of particularly opposed to the intervention of seen racial integration as an integral part
nationalism that predisposes the reader to liberal governments in the operation of of the communising and de-
agree with conclusions that really do not political and religious groups. We find a Christianisation of the United States.[42]
follow from the cited texts. strong parallel between such fascist
ideology and conspiracist racist theology. The Christian racists' view of global anti-
To end this section, we acknowledge that As a movement that believes itself to be Christian conspiracy leads to the issue of
nationalist racist theology forms a de facto increasingly subject to scrutiny and concern with which we opened this paper.
separatist theology. By presuming that moderation by anti-racist secular The same people who declare racism in
God has chosen an assembled people in governments, we can understand how the the name of Christ also oppose gun control
the nation, nationalists either cling to the ideology and actions of racist Christian in the name of Christ. Peter Peters
notion of native race in their homeland, or groups lean readily towards the politics proclaims that gun control is a communist
in the case of the United States, a mythic typified by fascist movements. In that tool with which to achieve anti-Christian
White American race or chosen people is light, we can have some idea of the revolution. He asserts that the peace
invented. Where nationalist theology political and social agenda that would be movement, which is tied closely to
differs from that of separatism is that the followed, were racist Christian groups to promoting racial equality, is nothing but
latter transcends national boundaries, and take power in a modern democracy. the arm of anti-Christ, working with
is so not tied to any notion of promised or communists in an effort to gain world
prophesied land. Under the theme of conspiracy, we note domination. Peters follows many others,
one particular theory concerning an including Duke, in rejecting utterly any
Conspiracist alleged Jewish plot to dominate the world. Gospel message of peace, choosing instead
Many racist Christian groups still to dwell upon a selective and militarist
Another form of racist theology stands disseminate as an authentic document the reading of Jesus' statement: ―The One who
upon theories of conspiracy against Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Although has no sword must sell his cloak and buy
Christian culture. In the 1960s, Bob Jones repeatedly shown to be a baseless anti- one‖ (Luke 22:36b).[43] It is believed by
evoked images of such a conspiracy by Semitic forgery, many racist Christians racist Christians that the ―New World
declaring that there is a movement hold that the Protocols shows the path for Order‖ intends the disarmament of
advocating one race, one Church, one the Jewish takeover of all peoples under Americans. One Right-wing Christian
world.[39] In contemporary times, this the auspices of what we now call the group claims that restrictions on gun
conspiracy theory has translated into United Nations. One such line of ownership in Australia are only the efforts
opposition to what is often called the conspiracy thinking holds that the United of those who use Australians as ―New
―New World Order,‖[40] an order which is States government is already under Zionist World Order Guinea Pigs,‖ before similar
supposed to stand for race-mixing, the end control. The significance of such thinking such actions are taken in the United States.
of Christianity and the weakening of the is that racist Christians are lead to believe The conspiracy, according to this group, is
United States. Moreover, this that opposition to their segregationalist or to destabilise the United States by
conspiratorial New World Order is supremacist positions is not effected by disarming its people, leaving them open to
believed to have effective, though legitimate government, but by an invisible attack from ―urban gangs, criminal
invisible, control over the World's dictatorship that is dedicated to destroying elements, roving packs of illegal
governments. the Christian religion along with the immigrants, and the entire federal Gestapo
United States. In that light, we can (the FBI, BATF, CIA, the EPA, NSA and
Such conspiracist thinking is found in the understand the religious justification all the other alphabet cops).‖[44] Thus, the
Ku Klux Klan's approach to the United invoked for acts of domestic terrorism. conspiracy envisaged by race theology is
States government. Of the Klan's most When racists believe that their visible of an international movement that will
visible symbols, the Klan proclaims that government is illegitimate, Zionist disarm Americans, weaken their nation
the ―Fiery Cross‖ is a Scottish symbol of controlled and anti-Christian, then armed though intermarriage, and have the
both obedience to God and ―opposition to
47
ultimate intention of destroying both the but they are motivated by a broad and Anti-Semitism
nation and Christianity. wide-ranging misanthropy. Rather than
seeing the motivations and effects of their We turn our attention now to anti-
Such conspiracy thinking has been hatred as concerning a wide variety of Semitism. While anti-Semitic feeling and
operative in Australia over the recent years different, and often unrelated, people who prejudice is well-known, a number of
since Martin Bryant used guns to murder each make their own responses, racist racist religious movements also embrace
thirty-five people and wound many others Christians seem tied to an egocentric developed anti-Jewish theologies. In this
at Port Arthur, Tasmania. While wide worldview. Under such a viewpoint, when section we shall first to cover the British
media attention was given to the gun many different people attack them or Israel belief, which though positive in
lobby's opposition to government efforts to disagree with them, it is easier to intent, ends in anti-Semitism. Secondly,
ban certain types of weapons, what was collectivise one's manifold enemies and we shall cover those theologies that use
not so widely reported was the presence in give them a common name and identity. scripture to promote anti-Jewish
the gun lobby of right-wing racist This in turn makes it easy to believe that propaganda.
Christians, who wanted to preserve their this one enemy constitutes a worldwide
gun ownership rights so that they would be conspiracy. Again, such a viewpoint British Israelism seems have been
armed and ready to fight the New World correlates with the fundamentalist proposed first by John Sadler, a member of
Order. Such people have found a voice for collection of many anti-fundamentalist the British Parliament, in a work entitled
their concerns in the racist politician, movements under the one banner of The Rights of the Kingdom (1649). The
Pauline Hanson, who has advocated ―secular humanism.‖ Like movement did not gain momentum,
immigration policies based on race and fundamentalism, the leaders of racist however, until its promotion by Richard
religion. While Ms Hanson does not Christianity are only too happy to both Brothers, with his A Revealed Knowledge
necessarily support conspiracy thinking, foster and prey upon a form of group of the Prophecies and Times (1794).
many of her supporters do, and they find paranoia. One promoter, somewhat Brothers proclaimed himself the ―nephew
Hanson‘s ―One Nation‖ party a convenient unwittingly one may think, of this of the almighty‖ and declared himself a
platform for their conspiracy theories. conspiracy thinking has been the actor descendant of King David and therefore
Charlton Heston, who has characterised the rightful holder of the British throne.
At this point, it is pertinent to make two gun control as cultural warfare. He calls For these beliefs he was confined to a
comments on the conspiracy thinking upon ―Mainstream Americans:‖ lunatic asylum between 1795 and 1806.
found in racist theologies. First, thinking Despite these unfortunate origins, the
people would realise that there is simply Mainstream America is counting on you to movement advanced and had, at its peak, a
no evidence for a global conspiracy to ―draw your sword‖ and fight for them. claimed two million followers.
promote racial intermarriage, weaken the These people have precious little time and
United States and control guns. Such resources to battle misguided Cinderella Between Brothers' time and our own,
conspiracies are more suited to a fantasy attitudes, the fringe propaganda of the British Israelism has taken several related
realm than serious theology. However, we homosexual coalition, the feminists who forms. However, the essence of the British
may put forward a hypothesis as to why preach that it is a divine duty for woman to Israelite story is that Queen Elizabeth II is
conspiracy thinking comes about. The hate men, blacks who raise a militant fist the one hundred and forty-fourth
linking of race theology with the gun with one hand while they seek preference descendant of King David. It is claimed
lobby leads us to note that racist with the other, New Age apologists for that in 583BC, the Israelite Princess Tamar
theologians often link themselves to other juvenile crime who see roving gangs as a Telphi travelled to Ireland by sailing ship.
causes. Variously, those promoting racist means to only the merchandising violence As the theory goes, Princess Telphi was
theologies will also be staunchly anti- as a form of entertainment for the daughter of Zedekiah, the last King of
abortion, anti-welfare, anti- impressionable minds, and gun bans as a Judah in Jerusalem, who was taken captive
homosexual,[45] anti-affirmative action, means to only the Lord-knows-what. We to Babylon. After her escape to Ireland
anti-feminist, anti-gun control, anti-free have reached that point in time when our with the prophet Jeremiah, she married
trade, and generally anti-liberal (both social policy originates on Oprah. Its time Eochaid the Heremon, a prince of Israelite
religiously and politically). On the one to pull the plug! [46] descent who was also allied to the tribe of
hand, such staunch defence of Dan. From Ireland, the kingdom moved to
fundamentalist issues has meant that Racist Christianity's conspiracist form Scotland, and then on to England, where it
fundamentalist Christian leaders have been certainly does not offer much, if anything is presently ruled over by Queen Elizabeth
unwilling to condemn racist Christians, by way of Biblical or theological II.[47]
both because they fear alienating their own justification for its beliefs. What is
flock and also because many manifest, however, is the preaching of an British Israelism has no historical evidence
fundamentalists share in a paranoia about a anti-Christian power against which good and it is not supported by any reputable
New World Order that is opposed to Christians are called to fight, even scholars. Solid historical facts make
Christian values. In the second place, and sometimes with lethal force. Those fallen British Israelism a belief impossible to
more pertinent to their motives, given their victim to such viewpoints are unlikely to hold with any level of reason. We may
opposition to so many liberal persons or abandon those viewpoints until they are consider, for example, the nature of Britain
movements, one gets the impression racist brought out of an egocentric and paranoid at the time of the Roman Invasion. Instead
Christians are not restricted in their hatred, view of the world around them. of finding inhabitants practising
48
monotheistic religion and a culture with reflections upon the material so far
Israelite influences, the Romans From the literature of the Christian covered. Then, before making our
discovered Druids practising human Identity movement, we can find the sort of conclusions, we shall explore some
sacrifice, a severe lack of Hebrew material that is offered as proof of the parallels with Biblical fundamentalism and
language, a diet consisting largely of pig- Jews being within Satan's fold. According comment upon the way that the politics of
meat and the disposal of bodies by to Kingdom Identity, Jesus called the Jews racism translate into racist theologies.
cremation rather than burial. ―children of Satan,‖ through the line of Methodological Reflections
Cain (John 8:44-47; Matt. 13:38; John
Notwithstanding the historical facts of the 8:23, I John 2:22, 4:3). They have always In this part of our paper, we shall comment
matter, British Israelism has been taken been a ―curse to true Israel,‖ due to the upon the underlying philosophies of
seriously, most notably by the Worldwide natural enmity between the two races interpretation exercised by racist
Church of God[48] and the various (Gen. 3:15). The Jews always do the will Christianities. First, we shall specify the
Christian Identity Groups. This has led of their father the Devil (John 8:38-44). exegetic approach by which racists extract
often to what has been called ―race- Like their father, Satan, they are contrary what is supposed to be the author's
based,‖ rather than ―grace-based,‖ to God and all men (I Thess. 2:14-15), intended meaning of Biblical texts.
salvation, in which priority in the life of ―though they often pose as ministers of Secondly, we will approach the manner of
salvation is given to the white, Anglo- righteousness‖ (II Cor. 11:13-15). Finally, hermeneutic by which racists apply those
Saxon and ―kindred‖ peoples. We this race's hands bear the blood of Jesus texts to their own culture.
acknowledge, though, that in its milder Christ, (Matt. 27:25) and all the righteous An Exegesis by Naive Realism
forms, British Israelists have been happy slain upon the earth (Matt. 23:35).[52]
to accept present-day Jewish people as the The informed reader of racist Christian
rightful descendants of the house of The critical reader will find no proof in the literature will be struck by the unscholarly
Judah.[49] There is, on the other hand, a scriptures, cited or otherwise, for the belief and often anti-intellectual character
stronger movement, which maintains that that the Jews are children of Satan. One manner of racist exegesis. By way of a bad
the British and kindred are the only finds that the scriptures cited are chosen example, we note the assertion that in the
descendants of Israel and that the Jews are selectively, and manipulated or Genesis story of creation, the word for
another entirely different race. misrepresented to mean something other man, ―adam,‖ means rosy-cheeked, or one
than what would have been meant by their with blood in the face, and that the beasts
Within this more directly anti-Semitic author. For example, one calls to mind that of the field are not all animals as such, but
theology, we find the Jews being the name Adam, claimed to mean ―rosy black people. One is struck by several
identified, not as descendants of Abraham, cheeked,‖ and therefore White/Aryan is a characteristics of such statements. In the
but as people of Khazarian ancestry. Given name taken from the Hebrew word first place, the relevant points are asserted,
the belief that the Jews are not true adamah, which refers to the earth, rather not argued. One is presented with Biblical
Israelites, many, most prominently the than the colour of one's skin. There is also data and then expected to assent to the
Identity groups, assert that the Jews have no credit given by racists to the difference racist dogmas supposedly based upon
absolutely no claim over the land of between the Scriptural authors' problems these texts. There is no intervening act of
Palestine. The Jews are regarded as with specific Jews, and a generalised anti- understanding, no attempt to dialogue with
imposters, wandering rogues who put to Jewish stance which is not promoted by the text, no effort to really put to the text
death Jesus Christ before he exposed their scripture. (One would state the obvious questions of how, what, why and
true nature and ancestry.[50] We note that point that many authors of scripture were wherefore, or whatever other questions
the success of the Jews in establishing the Jews, and like Paul, were most often proud and interpreter may usually be expected to
state of modern Israel and their influence of their Jewish heritage). One also notes ask. Instead of there being any struggle to
in world affairs adds, through British that the anti-Semitic theology we have understand, one is presented with a
Israelism, more fuel for the conspiracy cited conflicts with the supremacist belief fundamentalist-like declaration that ―God
theory that those who oppose them are part that the non-white races were the beasts of said it, I believe it and that settles it!‖[53]
of a Jewish-communist plot to undo the field created before Adam. We learn a
Christianity. lesson about racist thinking when we This parallel with fundamentalism is not
realise that in the one breath white insignificant, and leads us to recall
The ultimate expression of anti-Semitic supremacists claim that God created non- Richard McBrien's point that Biblical
theology follows on from British whites (including Jews) before Adam, but fundamentalism is an example of ―naive
Israelism. It is proposed that the White that in the next breath, we hear that Satan realism.‖ ―For the biblical fundamentalist,
people of the world are descended from created the Jews sometime after Adam's the meaning of the Word of God is
Adam, whose name is taken from the own creation. obvious. ‗Just take a look,‘ the biblicist
Hebrew word meaning ―rosy cheeked‖ or seems to say. ‗The requirements of
―to show blood in the face.‖ On the other At this point, we trust we have presented Christian existence are clear.‘‖[54] We
hand, it is proposed that Satan has a literal the different varieties of racist theologies. propose that racist Christianity approaches
―seed‖ or posterity upon the earth, and that Moreover, one would gather that racist the Bible in the same way as
Satan's literal children are the Jews, theology is flawed seriously on several fundamentalism. By this we mean that
descended from Cain, by nature of the fronts. In the remainder of this paper, we racism's abhorrence of critical scholarship
encounter of Satan with Eve.[51] shall make some methodological is not limited to its conclusions, but it
49
extends to the basis of its exegetical adopt an aphilosophical theology in the Adversarial hermeneutics rely upon a
methodology. We may clarify this point by name of ―more relevant catechesis.‖ prejudgement of enmity and confrontation.
noting that, for Bernard Lonergan, naive However, one cannot abandon philosophy One cannot find within the sources of
realism is the philosophic counter-position so easily, for when one attempts to do racist Christianity any direct or implied
that one knows an object simply by religion or theology without philosophy, command to the sort of confrontation
looking at it.[55] The naive realist will the real outcome is not no philosophy, but exercised by racists. The prejudgement of
approach the Bible, for example, and unconscious philosophy, or worse, bad this sort of exclusion and belligerence
assume that one can know correctly its philosophy.[57] With Lonergan, one directs the reader, consciously or
contents simply by reading them at face concurs and proposes that racist theology unconsciously, to the presumption that the
value. Lonergan explains that the naive uses a philosophy of naive realism that is Bible must be read and applied in a
realist's philosophy is faulty because no more often unconscious than consciously manner supporting the racist cause.
one knows an object simply by looking at bad, but nonetheless real and effective in
it. Rather, in addition to the data gained by facilitating the doctrines obtained by such Having made our point, we acknowledge
sensory experience, one must exert the unconscious philosophy. that racist theology is certainly not alone
effort to understand that experience, then Hermeneutic of Adversarialism in using a hermeneutic of adversarialism,
spend some mental energy in evaluating though it is no doubt prominent as an
and then passing judgement upon the In the same way as racist Christianity extreme case in point. During the last
correctness or otherwise of one's exercises a philosophical exegesis of naive century, hermeneutics of confrontation and
understanding.[56] realism, we propose that it has a exclusion have been seen in the extremes
hermeneutic philosophy, even though this of many movements that promote the
From a slightly different perspective, we is not a sophisticated philosophy, but cause of one group at the expense of
note that fundamentalism employs an rather an unconscious or bad philosophy. others, be the others separated by race,
assertory form of proclamation. The That racist Christianity does have a gender or political philosophy. Against
fundamentalism will make a point by hermeneutic that applies scripture to this approach, Pope John-Paul II called the
asserting that ―the Bible says ....‖ without current times allows itself to manifest its world's citizens to solidarity. While the
really asking critical questions about ideology as theology in its specific social Pope's call was practical and action-
whether one can really extract such and cultural context. oriented, one can propose that a
meaning from the Biblical text. Racist philosophy embracing a hermeneutics of
theology employs a similar approach to Racist Christianity's overriding solidarity would provide a coherent and
scripture. A racist will take selected parts hermeneutic is one of adversarialism. It preferable alternative to the hermeneutics
of scripture, and use these as proof texts seeks confrontation with and exclusion of of adversarialism as proposed in racist
for predetermined dogmas of race, culture those who do not fall under the racist Christianity.
and creed. Moreover, the racist will do this mantle. That adversarialism dominates Religious Reflections
without comparing his interpretation to racist Christianity can be shown by the
other readers, without consulting the people or movements opposed by racists. Parallels with Fundamentalism
history of the text, analysing its literary We have found in this article that racists
form, or, very often placing the text within are not restricted to the issue of race. They We have noted above that racist
the wider context of the Bible or the book are not only anti-black, anti-Jewish or anti- Christianity shares with Biblical
in question. In concrete terms, a racist will Asian, but they are also anti-abortion, anti- fundamentalism a naive realist approach to
approach scripture, not with the question welfare, anti-free trade, anti-drugs, anti- scripture. This parallel should not surprise
or set of questions, ―What does this text communist, anti-homosexual, anti-equal us, because many, if not most or all, racist
mean?‖ Rather, the racist will use rights, anti-feminist and anti-New Age. In Christians align themselves to
Scripture with the predetermined idea that fact, racist Christianity's theology shows fundamentalist Churches. While we would
―This is what scripture must mean!‖ We consistently a militant opposition to all in no way wish to implicate most
can say therefore, that the exegetic things that do not fall within its fold, fundamentalists in racism, the fact remains
philosophy of naive realism that is used in which would include most elements of that the fundamentalist method is both
racist theology means that racists will contemporary democratic, pluralist attractive to and has had great impact on
approach the scriptures with an society. In fact, in its more extreme forms, the way that racists use their sources.
unquestioning, acritical mindset and the racist Christianity shows its members to be Besides using an exegesis by naive
guiding prejudgement that the scriptures quite non-discriminating in terms of their realism, we would note several other
must yield racist doctrines. generalised misanthropy. characteristics common to both groups.

On a technical point, one may propose that The hermeneutic of adversarialism First, racist Christians and fundamentalists
what we have identified is not an employed by racist Christians is a reading, hold common views on evolution. On
exegetical philosophy, but an abject lack then application, of Biblical texts done evolution, Bob Jones presents the
of philosophy. While sympathetic to such with a view to making that text into a fundamentalist position by declaring that,
a point, this author is more inclined concur weapon of confrontation and exclusion of ―The process of the human race has not
with Lonergan on a different, but not those whom one has prejudged to be been upward from the swamp by
dissimilar matter. Even within mainstream enemies. This latter point brings some evolution, but downward from the garden
Christianity, there have been efforts to clarity to an otherwise murky philosophy. by sin.‖[58] Also, from a strictly
50
creationist viewpoint, J Mackay declares life self-giving of generating, nurturing as increasing corruption and anti-
that ―The current cultural status of the and educating a child. Procreation thus Christianity in an increasingly liberal
races ... is a direct consequence of whether concerns the responsibility and right of Church. Dobson and Hindson effectively
the ancestors of any race worshipped the parents to bring forth and take on the define the genesis of fundamentalism by
living God, or deliberately rejected Him. ongoing care of their child. Such its rise as a ―unified, organized effort to
There is no such thing as a primitive race stewardship effectively makes parents co- combat its [liberalism's] influence.‖[60]
evolving upwards.‖[59] With creators with God. We propose that
fundamentalists, racist Christians believe Christians would have little trouble in Racist Christianity, on the other hand,
that creation can only go backwards, not extending this positive theology from though as thoroughly anti-modern as
forwards. Properly speaking, the parent-child relationships to a theology of fundamentalism, is opposed to modern,
fundamentalist theory of human the entire human race's co-creation with liberal culture for different reasons. In the
development is of actual devolution, rather God of itself. One can thus engender a first place, racism did not start as a
than possible evolution. Likewise, racists more positive outlook on divine-human specific reaction to increasing liberalism.
believe that God has made white people as relationships than those envisaged by Moreover, racist Christianity does not
they are, and that one cannot develop racism or fundamentalism. appear to have functionally defined itself
positively either whites or any other race. so much by its opposition to new
One must either maintain one's race in Thirdly, both fundamentalism and racist developments in society. This is not to say
stasis, or face the downward spiral of Christianity share a counter-modern that racist Christianity is not a reactive,
ungodly devolution. suspicion. Racists are likely to regard anti-modern movement in the same way as
modern society as intolerant and dogmatic, fundamentalism. Rather, racist Christianity
The first point ties in with our second, due to its opposition to racist ideology. As has its own agenda, its own identity and its
namely, that fundamentalism and racist modern history, biology, theology, own objectives. The degree and manner in
Christianity are extremely negative philosophy all provide sharp and resolute which it reacts to society is defined in
towards human creativity. Fundamentalists criticisms of racist thinking, it is no fairly narrow terms, as opposed to
exercise an extreme form of Calvinism, surprise that racists should oppose all fundamentalism, which has become
holding that nothing that proceeds from things modern. Fundamentalists are also counter-cultural in very broad terms.[61]
the nature of man can be of any goodness. practically defined by their opposition to
Taking up Calvin's idea that all proceeding modernity, especially the modern embrace Religion as a Racist Tool
from unregenerate human nature is of liberal culture and religion. We may be
damnable, fundamentalists hold that only familiar with the fundamentalist hatred for The critical observer will readily agree
that which comes from regenerated liberalism, which often translates into with our observation that racist
humanity, which in practice means from contempt or hatred for liberals. However, Christianity does not derive its doctrines
within the fundamentalist fold, can be of there is here is significant deviation of from an impartial reading of its sources.
benefit to humankind. Likewise, racist racist Christianity from fundamentalism. Race theology is, more properly speaking,
Christianity holds that nothing humankind Regarding fundamentalism, we find upon not a theology so much as a predetermined
can do to or for itself can bring about serious reading, that despite its abhorrence ideology expressed in words commonly
effective improvement to ourselves. We of liberalism, fundamentalism most often used within Christian theology. To be
have seen in this article how racists fear is defined by liberalism. By this point, we truthful, racist Christianity, though using
race-mixing and intermarriage. The mean that from the very start, Biblical the power of religion and religious
underlying assumption behind such fear is fundamentalism has been defined by its language, does not originate within a
that any change to humanity will opposition to matters such as evolutionary religious context, but a social and political
inevitably be for the worse. science, critical scholarship of the Bible, context that uses religion for its own
and liberal, pluralist morality. Dobson and purposes.
This racist fear of any change contradicts Hindson lend support to this idea in their
Christian theology that sees human discussion of the history of American We may ask why racists use religion to
stewardship of God's creation as meaning fundamentalism. They introduce their further their aims. The anti-Christian
that we are co-creators with God. This work by noting that they shall evaluate the World Church of the Creator (WCOTC)
belief is reflected, in part, by the Genesis impact of fundamentalism by reference, provides candid reasons why religion is
creation account's statement that God has among other things, to its ―War with chosen as the vehicle for race ideology. In
commanded humanity to fill the earth, and Liberalism.‖ They also admit that, to the first place, while a political party may
subdue it, which suggests making some understand fundamentalism and place it in have some influence over part of a
improvements to the earth. An oft-ignored its correct perspective, they have to deal person's life, religion dominates all parts
part of Christian theology also concerns with liberalism. The term ―War with of a person's life. The genuinely religious
the issue of pro-creation. Unfortunately, Liberalism‖ is Dobson and Hindson's and person will have sublated by his or her
the furore over contraception in is the title of a chapter in their book. That religion all of one's life decisions
Catholicism has seen the theology of ―war,‖ in practical terms, defines concerning morality, work and economy,
procreation more often ignored or fundamentalism. Apart from brief law, education, marriage, family and
misunderstood. Understood fully, references to ―the Fundamentals‖ community life. Another aspect of religion
procreation refers not only to biological fundamentalists are more inclined to deal is that, when firmly established, it can
conception, but to the whole process and with their efforts to combat what they saw outlast even the most dogged of political
51
parties or social groups. While political If we turn back to why religion is so useful Christians can, and have, furthered the
parties last rarely longer than a century, to racist religionists, Hitler again provides racist cause, even if they have done so
the well-established religion can have us with helpful, even if unpalatable, inadvertently.
influence for centuries after the death of its reflections. Religion proves potent at
founder.[62] controlling people's actions, Hitler In the first place, the New Age movement
surmises, because ―The great masses of has had significant effect upon mainstream
Further insight into why religion can used people do not consist of philosophers; Christianity in recent years. As for the
as a racist tool comes from the master of precisely for the masses, faith is often the interracial relevance of the New Age,
social manipulation. In Mein Kampf, sole foundation of a moral attitude.‖ Later Charles Strozier observes:
Hitler gave his assessment of religion's Hitler repeated the point by claiming that
significance by stating: ―Verily a man the great mass of humanity consists neither New Age is a decidedly middle-class and
cannot serve two masters. And I consider of philosophers nor of saints, which means white movement. There are few African
the foundation or destruction of a religion that most people never access the inner Americans and hardly any Hispanics. As a
far greater than the foundation or efficacy that a religion can bring.[64] religious movement it is open to
destruction of a state, let alone a party.‖ Hitler, of course, knew how to harness everything except people who are
Hitler went on to observe that religion can such religion based on ―faith alone‖ genuinely different. ... This class and racial
be an effective cover, even for the without the foundation of either clear focus gives New Age an identity often
otherwise obvious vices of those who hide thinking or genuine spirituality. A popular lacking in the murky waters of the
beneath religion's mantle.[63] That (or folkish) religion, whether it be theistic multicultural world of Catholic and
religion can be used as a cover for moral or not, that demands the hearts of its Protestant churches; it also puts constraints
evils raises for us the whole question of followers will find itself empowered to on its potential for future
religious freedom. We would note that the enact all manner of activities, and find a development.[65]
great majority of racist Christianities have number of willing servants who will
originated in the United States, a nation in perform even the most debased of acts, if While one has reservations about referring
which freedom of religion is sacrosanct. only they are in the name of God or faith. to the so-called murky realm of
Unfortunately, the strength of this multiculturalism, one would agree that
constitutional right, along with a certain We have then, some reflections on the New Age religion is essentially a
vagueness as to what exactly constitutes a potency of religion and why it is used by monoculturalist movement, with little
―religion‖ has meant that, in practical racist Christianity. These reflections lead appeal to non-white, middle-class people.
terms, ―freedom of religion‖ has meant the one to disagree somewhat with Marx, who There is present, then, a risk for the
right to preach any form of corruption or regarded religion as the opium of the Christian Churches in the affluent Western
madness, regardless of its rationality, masses -- a mental policeman that world, in which New Age thinking and
social implications or other concerns. maintained the social order by keeping spirituality is having ever-greater
Various movements repeatedly find downtrodden persons submissive and influence. New Age has raised an
protection from criticism, public scrutiny passive to the oppressive drudgery of their awareness of private spirituality that has
or proactive legal action because they fall lives. Rather than enforcing passivity, our been harnessed by many Churches. What
under the mantle of ―free‖ religions. If study of racist Christianity shows that is of concern, though, is that while New
Hitler is right in his observations on the religion can be more of a stimulant than a Age concerns itself well with liberation of
baser side of human nature, and his wicked narcotic, driving people to action, the spirit, it does not address more tangible
success gives us every reason to think so, stimulating them into frenzied action, concerns of human liberation. From time
then we have to address seriously the driving their thoughts and moral decisions to time, Christian churches have
question of what manner of freedom we and sometimes even goading them into unwittingly alienated their members who
allow religions. If we are to subject racist homicidal actions, all in the name of God may be of non-white, middle-class
religions to open scrutiny, and call these and the promise of bliss in the hereafter. background, and whose personal poverty,
faiths to account, then we must abandon One would agree with Marx, however, that race discrimination experience or other
the popular notion of freedom of religion religion can and does have great power oppression make them hardly receptive to
as a relativist right to pursue any belief over the lives of individuals and what may seem to them an egocentric
system whatsoever. Rather, one would communities. That power can have a spirituality. To those practising liberation
propose a more serious notion of religious stupefying effect in keeping oppressed theology, for example, New Age
freedom as freedom from state or other people passive and subservient, or it can spiritualities must seem like decadent self-
coercion. That is, rather than the licence to have the converse effect of rousing people indulgence. Christians may be advised
create any form of anti-social movement, to action and giving power to an otherwise then, to beware of religious
one proposes that religious freedom be weak position. monoculturalism, which though not
conceived as the right to uncoerced intended to be racist, tends in that direction
worship, which right brings with it the Conclusion by excluding certain racial and social
responsibility to be reasonable and groups from participating fully in the
rational, and responsible towards people Before, finishing this paper, we note that Church's life, spirituality and decision-
and society. even otherwise well-intentioned people making processes.
can be stumble into an unintentional form
of racism. From time-to-time, non-racist
52
At another end of the Christian spectrum, love of God that translates into love of working actively towards an envisaged
fundamentalist and ultraconservative other humans. goal.
movements also employ a monocultural
outlook that effectively separates them Spirituality, however, is intensely personal The first element of the hermeneutic of
from other races. In fundamentalist and not subject to formal education. As to solidarity would not seek to keep humanity
movements there exists a desire to keep upsetting Hitler‘s intentions through bound to the lowest common denominator.
culture and religion static and unchanging. philosophers, we suggest that the anti- Rather, we would apply scripture in a
This has often had the effect of rigidity racist cause can be assisted by promoting a manner that would drive us to the highest
when it comes to cross-racial and cross- positive view of humanity. We have noted common factor. This methodology would
cultural relations. By way of example, the in this paper that the philosophical- avoid the racist urge to look backwards to
Lefebvreite movement in Catholicism, theological anthropology of racism is a what humanity has been like (or
with its strident adherence to the white- negative theory of devolutionism. Within supposedly been like), by looking
Eurocentric church of the 1950s, finds Christianity, a primary step in insulating forwards to a common goal to which all
itself unappealing to those of other races, people from racism is the embrace of a can aspire and to which purpose we are
for whom such Eurocentric liturgies and positive anthropology which expresses called to assist one another in attaining.
theological thinking have no appeal. confidence in the goodness of humanity
and our world and a confidence in the Secondly, a hermeneutic of solidarity
In conclusion, we can explore some human ability to shape creation, including would embrace a true democracy of
themes on responding to racist theologies. ourselves, both positively and intellect and achievement, in which ideas
From one perspective, racists share with constructively, working with God, rather and contributions to society are welcomed,
fundamentalists a dislike for rational than against God, as proposed by racists. whether they emanate from society's
dialogue, so it is very hard to win over the One hastens to add that one need not adopt dominant groups or not. Such social
ardent racist. On the other hand, it is not a naively positive view of humanity. That participation of all would ensure that
that difficult to preserve people from wickedness exists is self-evident in our society did not stagnate in the old ideas
falling into the trap of racist Christianity, world. However, what is necessary is a and way of life that would otherwise be
and we can present some ways in which philosophy that not only seeks to preserve maintained in the status quo.
this is possible. people from evil, but works positively and
creatively for the betterment of humanity. Thirdly, as implied in our first aim, a
First, we emphasise the fact that there are hermeneutic of solidarity would apply
a variety of racist theologies. Having We next propose that critical thinking can scripture to a vocation to identity with all
identified some of the main types of help to overcome the deficiencies of naive people, rather than confrontation. Identity
racism, we can more effectively respond to realism that permeates both racist and would, in the first place go beyond a
those who espouse racist theology, but fundamentalist exegesis. Between reading Marxist class-struggle or the racist ethnic
deny that are they are in fact racist. scriptural data and making dogmatic struggle. Rather, people would see
Clearly, most racists who repudiate in assertions, young people and old need to themselves as bound to make the goals and
public the label ―racist,‖ are in fact only be taught the intervening act of aspirations of other people not only theirs
repudiating one type of racism, normally understanding that draws out the inner to serve, but theirs in principle and
that of supremacy, while they promote meaning of the text, rather than allowing practice, so that the good of one another is
another form, such as separatism. the text to be subjected to the wiles of seen as the common good of the entire
dogmatic manipulation. One would human race.
In the second place, we find it helpful to suggest that some form of critical theory
note that what is at stake is not the sources must be part of the education curriculum, One can be confident that if such a
used by racist theology. Racists use the both for secondary as well as tertiary hermeneutic is introduced to the reading of
same sources as orthodox Christianity. The studies. One suggests that method in scripture, many will be saved from falling
contentious issue is methodology and the addition to content must form the part of into the otherwise seductive trap of racist
way in which sources are used. In this any academic curriculum that produces theology. By doing so, we would go no
light, one can suggest, given Hitler's citizens capable of resisting racism‘s small way to preventing the violent and
reflections on Christianity, that nothing is appeal. abusive manifestations of hatred that have
so dangerous to the racist cause than blighted society in the name of Christ. We
philosophers or saints.[66] If we extend Lastly, we propose most strongly the trust that this article has both clarified for
Arendt‘s political thesis about implementation of a hermeneutic of the reader what exactly is proposed by
totalitarianism into the realm of solidarity to scripture, and other racist theologies and something of what
spirituality, it would seem that religious sources.[67] What we envisage by a thought processes are present in racist
fervour becomes misanthropic when mass hermeneutic of solidarity is that scripture thinking. We would acknowledge readily
movements replace personal communion will be interpreted and applied to the sort that we cannot pretend that philosophy or
with the divine with uncritical of society that we wish to create. We theology alone can disarm those who fight
abandonment to totalist leadership. Such would trust that this sort of hermeneutic the racist war in the name of Christ. There
movements can be countered by those would avoid the excesses of the liberal are of course, social psychological and
―saints‖ who maintain a personal presumption of automatic progress by other factors that foster such an approach
spirituality that is based upon a personal to one's fellow human. However, we do
53
propose that by being able to identify Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day the anti-Darwinism of creationist
accurately and criticise racist theologies, Saints, which are not regarded by outsiders Christians. Racists and many
we can serve humanity by removing at as orthodox Christian churches. One also fundamentalist Christians hold in common
least one powerful weapon from the racist acknowledges the desire of many not to a belief that positive human development
arsenal. admit racists to the Christian fold. is simply not possible, but that one can
Notwithstanding these concerns, for this only maintain in stasis the societal reality
Endnotes paper at least, "Christian" shall apply to that God has supposedly established. They
[1] Howard Pankratz, Did McVeigh botch those churches or movements who invoke hold that the only other option is human
a larger plot? The Denver Post, March 29, the term for themselves and who take as degeneration. We shall deal with this
1997. divine revelation (either as the whole or belief in more detail later.
part of their canon) those sources, most
While McVeigh has not been identified as notably the Bible, which are also regarded [24]Bob Jones, Racial Integration, in
a formal member of these or other groups, as authoritative by mainstream Robert Campbell, Spectrum of Protestant
his thinking and motivations for the Christianity. Beliefs, (Milwaukee: Bruce, 1968), 68.
bombing have certainly been formed by
these movements. [11] Inferiority of the Colored Bretheren, [25]Peter Peters, Martin Luther King Jr:
Watchtower, April 1 1914, 105-106. His Dream, our Nightmare!, (La Porte CO:
[2] Stephanie Raethel and Agencies, Scriptures for America Worldwide, nd)
Peddlers of hate must be silenced, Chan [12] Can the Ethiopian Change his Skin?
warns, Sydney Morning Herald, August Watchtower, February 15, 1914, 52-53. [26]Pete Peters, The BIBLE: Handbook
25, 1997; Karen Middleton, Race Debate for Survivalists, Racists, Tax Protesters,
blamed for Increasing Anti-Semitism, The [13] Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Militants and Right-Wing Extremists,
Age, 27 February, 1997. Saints, Myth-Conceptions about the
Church, [27] cf. Matthew 1:5, and the mentions of
[3]US Army Training and Doctrine Ruth and Rahab in Ruth 1 and Joshua 2.
Command, Force Protection: Antiterrorism [14]Second Nephi, 5:21-22.
1997, Fort Monroe Virginia. [28]Imperial Klans of America, Things the
(Prepublication edition). [15] Alma 3:6, First Nephi 12:23, Book of liberal media told you that just aren't true.
Mormon 5:15, Enos 20.
[4]Patsy Sims, The Klan, (Lexington: [30]Richard McCulloch, The Racial
University Press of Kentucky, Second [16]Jacob 3:3, 3:9, Second Nephi 26:33. Compact, A call for Racial Preservation,
Edition, 1996) xi. Racial Independence, Racial Rights and
[17]David Duke, "Race and Christianity. Racial Good Will.
[5]David Duke, Race and Christianity,
[18]Ibid. [31]We may express this point from a
[6]Ibid. slightly different perspective. If the
[19]Duke and many other racist Christians maintenance of anti-intermarriage was a
[7]Pete Peters, "The Bible, Handbook for ignore the reality that according to the right, it would be a right that one could
Survivalists, Racists, Tax Protesters, Christian scriptures, Jesus Christ was not forgo in order to marry one of another
Militants and Right-Wing Extremists. of pure Israelite blood. His ancestress race. Clearly, Christian Identity do not
Ruth, for example, was a Moabite. regard their racist position as a right, but
[8]Anon. Australia Confiscates Firearms, as a law which should be upheld by
We're Next! [20]Letter of D. F. Malan to Rev. John coercive powers.
Piersma of the Oakdale Christian
[9]On the question of sources, it has not Reformed Church of Grand Rapids, [32]Second Nephi 5:23
been advisable for this paper to include a Michigan, 12 February 1954.
public statement of all sources. Moreover, [33]David Duke, My Indian Odyssey
this paper also uses a high number of [21]Ibid.
electronic sources that give insight into the [34]Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, (Translated
current state of affairs concerning racist [22]Bernard Lonergan, Method in by Ralph Manheim, Boston: Houghton
theologies. To ensure that these electronic Theology, (Toronto: University of Toronto Mifflin, 1971. First published 1925, by
sources are accurate in their portrayal of Press, 1994), xi, 326-327. To be fair to Verlag Frz. Eher Nachf, G.M.B.H.), 286
racist theologies, this paper relies on Lonergan, the notion of progress and
primary sources disseminated by the racist decline is Lonergan's. The notion of [35]Duke Race and Christianity.
movements themselves. cultural evolution is this author's, though it
is used in a manner faithful to Lonergan's [36]David Duke, America at the
[10]This paper shall employ a liberal use intention. Crossroads, Race and Christianity.
of the term "Christian". We acknowledge
some objection to calling ―Christian‖ such [23]This fear corresponds to an anti-
groups as the Jehovah's Witnesses or the evolutionist stance that goes way beyond
54
[37]cf. Danny Vierra, Is the Virgin Mary News,' Article by Mr. Ralph Orr Entitled
Dead or Alive? (Lodi, CA: Modern Manna ―United States and Britain in Prophecy;‖ [58]Jones, in R Campbell, Spectrum of
Ministries), 72-73. Sheldon Emry, Heirs of the Promise; Protestant Beliefs, 36.
Adelaide Revival Centre, History of
[38]Kingdom Identity Ministries, British Israelism. [59]J. Mackay, The Origin of Races, Ex
Doctrinal Statement. Nihilo, 6(1984):11, cited in Martin
[48]We note that the Worldwide Church of Bridgstock and Ken Smith (editors),
[39]Bob Jones, in Campbell, Spectrum of God has endured some recent internal Creationism: An Australian Perspective,
Protestant Beliefs, 68. reforms, and has split into several (Manly, Sydney: Australian Skeptics,
schismatic groups, some of which reject Revised third edition, reprinted 1989,
[40] "A single thread runs from the White the British Israelite doctrine. originally published 1986), 88.
house to the State Department to .... to
secret societies to extreme New Agers. [49]Collins, A Rebuttal... [60]Dobson, Hindson and Falwell, The
There must be a new world order. It must Fundamentalist Phenomenon, (Grand
eliminate national sovereignty. ... To [50]Emry, Heirs of the Promise. Rapids: Baker, 1986), xiii, 3, 47.
others there must be a complete
elimination of Christianity, to some [51]The anti-Semites vary on this point. [61]Also, fundamentalism lends itself to
extreme New Agers there must be the Some hold that Cain was the result of violence. Violent images are often used to
deaths of two or three billion people in the Eve's spiritual liaison with Satan. Others portray fundamentalist victory, as can bee
Third World by the end of the decade." Pat hold that Eve gave birth to the "sub- seen in common expressions, such as "God
Robertson, The New World Order, p6 human" Jewish race by physical is raising an army", "Washing robes in the
cited in Martin E. Marty and R. Scott impregnation by Satan, or the Serpent. The blood of the lamb" (Rev 7:14), and
Appleby, The Glory and the Power, point remains that these people preach that "Battles of Armageddon." The psychology
(Boston: Beacon Press, 1992), 44. the Jews are Satan's children. of violence present in fundamentalism
fertilises the disposition towards violence
[41]Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, North [52]Kingdom Identity Ministries, found in racist Christians.
Salem IN. "White Civil Rights Now: End Doctrinal Statement; Aryan Nations,
the Invisible Agenda to destroy the White Aryan National Global Invitational. [62]World Church of the Creator,
Race." cf. http://www.k-k-k.com Frequently Asked Questions.
[53] AE.C. Christian Fags?? I Don't Think
[42]Peter Peters, Martin Luther King Jnr: So. New Kastle Kounty Knight Riders [63]Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, 114-115.
His Dream, Our Nightmare! Klavern.
[64]Hitler, Mein Kampf, 267, 379.
[43]Duke, Christianity and Race; Peters, [54]Richard McBrien, Catholicism, (New
The Bible: Handbook for ... Extremists. Edition. North Blackburn, Victoria: [65]Charles B. Strozier, Apocalypse,
Collins Dove, 1994), 1194. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1994), 224.
[44] Australia Confiscates Firearms --
We're Next! [55]Bernard Lonergan, Method in [66]cf. Hitler, Mein Kampf, 379.
Theology, 238-239, 363-264.
[45]Typically, those holding racist [67]One will find elements of this
theologies will also advocate the death [56]Bernard Lonergan, Cognitional hermeneutic of solidarity reflected in
penalty for homosexuals. Structure, Collection, (Toronto: University Bernard Lonergan's notion of
of Toronto Press, 1988), 206-207, cf. "cosmopolis" as found in Insight,
[46]As cited by Christian Identity Method in Theology, 239. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press,
1992), 263-267.
[47]Revival Fellowship, British Israel: [57]Bernard Lonergan, Christology Today,
Thy Name Shall be Called Great; Stephen A Third Collection, (New York: Paulist,
M Collins, A Rebuttal to the 'Worldwide 1985), 77.

55
Congressional Staffers Gain from Trading in Stocks
By BRODY MULLINS, TOM MCGINTY and JASON ZWEIG
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703431604575522434188603198.html
WASHINGTON—Chris Miller nearly Mr. Miller isn't the only Congressional Congress. Even if they had done so, it
doubled his $3,500 stock investment in a staffer making such stock bets. At least 72 would be legal, because insider-trading
renewable-energy firm in 2008. It was a aides on both sides of the aisle traded laws don't apply to Congress.
perfectly legal bet, but he's no ordinary shares of companies that their bosses help
investor. oversee, according to a Wall Street Journal A few lawmakers proposed a bill that
analysis of more than 3,000 disclosure would prevent members and employees of
Mr. Miller is the top energy-policy adviser forms covering trading activity by Capitol Congress from trading securities based on
to Nevada Democrat and Senate Majority Hill staffers for 2008 and 2009. nonpublic information they obtain. The
Leader Harry Reid, who helped pass legislation has languished since 2006.
legislation that wound up benefiting the The Journal analysis showed that an aide
firm. to a Republican member of the Senate "Congressional staff are often privy to
Banking Committee bought Bank of inside information, and an unscrupulous
Jim Manley, a spokesman for Mr. Reid's America Corp. stock before results of last person could profit off that knowledge,"
office, initially defended Mr. Miller's year's government stress tests eased says Vincent Morris, a spokesman for Rep.
purchase of shares in the company, Energy investor concerns about the health of the Louise Slaughter (D., N.Y.), a leading
Conversion Devices Inc. He said the aide banking industry. A top aide to the House backer of the "Stop Trading on
had no influence over tax incentives for Speaker profited by trading shares of Congressional Knowledge Act," or
renewable-energy firms, and that other Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae in a STOCK Act. "The public should be
factors boosted the stock. brokerage account with her husband two outraged there is no law specifically
days before the government authorized banning this."
But on Sunday, Mr. Manley added: "Mr. emergency funding for the companies.
Miller showed poor judgment and Senator Another aide to Republican lawmakers When the bill was introduced nearly five
Reid has made it very clear to Chris and interested in energy issues, among other years ago, just 14 other lawmakers
all his staff that their actions must not only things, profited by trading in several endorsed it. The current version of the bill
follow the law, but must meet the higher renewable-energy firms. has fared worse: Only nine lawmakers
standards the public has a right to expect support it. There is no companion
from elected officials and their staffs." The aides identified by the Journal say legislation in the Senate.
they didn't profit by making trades based
on any information gathered in the halls of
56
Congressional aides have ringside seats on stock in dollar terms. (Some aides opted to
the making of laws that affect American give precise numbers to the Journal.) Still, On Oct. 23, 2009, Mrs. Brown's form
business. Receiving salaries up to roughly because the disclosure forms specify the indicates two additional purchases of BoA
$170,000 a year, they can glean days when shares were bought and sold, for a total of between $65,002 and
information about policies and government the Journal was able to calculate the $150,000.
action before the public. They have access minimum profits that aides made in
to information about hearings or percentage terms. Joel Brubaker, the 41-year-old chief of
legislation that can move stocks and staff to Rep. Shelley Moore Capito (R,
markets. The calculation involved taking the high W.Va), a member of the House Financial
price on the day the stock was purchased Services Committee, made money trading
The current Congressional disclosure rules and the low price on the day it was sold. If in financial-services firms in 2009.
on stock trading stem from a scandal an aide bought the stock below that daily
involving Robert Baker, a senior Senate high or sold it above that daily low, the Mr. Brubaker says he invested $1,570 in
aide, in the early 1960s. Mr. Baker was actual profit would have been bigger than Citigroup Inc. on Feb. 27, 2009, the day
accused of using his Senate office for the Journal calculation. Citi and the Treasury announced the bank
personal gain, partly involving the would issue common stock in exchange
operation of a network of vending The Journal's analysis comes at a time of for preferred shares. The move helped
machines. He was eventually convicted of close government involvement in U.S. bolster investor confidence.
income-tax evasion and spent 16 months business. Much of the trading was in
in prison. industries dependent on government help, "I bought 1,000 shares at 12:50 p.m. on
such as the financial-services and that date well after it was widely reported
The scandal led to a Senate rule in 1968 renewable-energy industries. in the media that morning," Mr. Brubaker
that required lawmakers and aides to says.
disclose information about their finances. A number of aides invested in financial
The House of Representatives imposed stocks. Karen Brown, an aide to Sen. Mike He sold the Citi shares on Sept. 18 for at
similar requirements about the same time. Crapo (R., Idaho), a Senate Banking least $4,260, assuming he sold at Citi's
Committee member, traded Bank of lowest price for that day. That was a
The rules require all members of Congress America stock on seven occasions in 2009, minimum profit of $2,690, or 171%,
and about 2,900 of the highest-paid according to filings. She bought a total of during the nearly seven months he owned
congressional aides to disclose information between $3,003 and $45,000 of the bank's the stock.
once a year on their finances, such as their shares in three trades on April 17 and
assets, debts, spouse's employment and April 27 and sold between $51,002 and Terri McCullough, a 41-year-old aide to
other sources of income they earn, $115,000 in September. Her minimum House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, had several
including capital gains from trading gain during that period would have been successful trades in 2008 in a Charles
securities. Some 15,000 lower-paid 43%. Schwab brokerage account with her
Congressional staffers aren't covered by husband, Howard Wolfson, a former
the disclosure rule. At the time of the purchases, Bank of spokesman for Hillary Clinton's 2008
America was discussing with the presidential campaign.
Unlike many Executive Branch government the findings of "stress tests"
employees, lawmakers and aides don't used to gauge the safety of U.S. banks. On Mr. Wolfson says he bought about $2,000
have restrictions on their stock holdings May 7, 2009, BofA shares surged when worth of Freddie Mac and $2,700 worth of
and ownership interests in companies they the stress-test results were made public, Fannie Mae on July 11, 2008, just two
oversee. Congressional rules say that easing investor fears. days before the Fed authorized emergency
requiring employees to do so could funding to Freddie and Fannie. Mr.
"insulate a legislator from the personal and After it was contacted by the Journal, Mr. Wolfson says he bought the stock after
economic interests that his or her Crapo's office said the trades were made reading a news story on the possibility of
constituency, or society in general, has in by Mrs. Brown's husband, "independent of the U.S. taking over one or both mortgage-
governmental decisions and policy." any direction from Mrs. Brown." The finance companies.
office said Mrs. Brown has since filed an
An analysis of financial-disclosure forms amended financial-disclosure form. As the Speaker of the House, Ms. Pelosi
for 2008 and 2009 compiled by the was briefed by the administration and
website LegiStorm shows that several Susan Wheeler, a spokeswoman for Mr. Treasury Department officials about the
hundred congressional aides bought or Crapo, said: "There is no relation between steps they were taking in the financial
sold stocks. At least 72 traded the stocks Senator Crapo's service on the Banking crisis. Ms. McCullough served as Ms.
of companies their bosses write laws for. Committee and any decisions made by Mr. Pelosi's chief of staff, though she focuses
Brown regarding the trades in question." on social issues and matters concerning
The disclosure only requires dollar ranges Ms. Pelosi's San Francisco-area district.
for stock holdings and capital gains, so it A spokeswoman for Mr. Crapo's office
is impossible to calculate from them declined to specify the precise purchase In one day Mr. Wolfson bought and sold
precisely how much aides make trading and sale prices of the stock. Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae shares as the
57
stocks jumped about 40%, for a profit of In a statement, Mr. Stewart said: "Yes, I A beneficiary of the tax credit was Energy
about $2,000, he said. The couple made a had information about the renewable tax Conversion Devices, a Michigan company
total of $20,000 on trading in 2008, he credits, but nothing I knew or had access whose solar-energy division is the "world's
said. Mr. Wolfson says that he made the to wasn't unknown by the investment largest producer of flexible solar panels,"
trades on his own, without telling his wife community...As a Republican staffer, I according to the company's website.
or getting any information from her. was not privy to any special or unique
information in this area." When Mr. Miller bought the Energy
Ms. McCullough said: "I was not involved Conversion Devices shares, the renewable-
in discussions regarding Fannie Mae or Mr. Stewart said he engaged in "a little energy industry was vulnerable because
Freddie Mac, and I was unaware of the bottom-of-the-barrel investing when the this investment-tax break was due to
Bush Administration's or Congress's plans markets were at historic lows." expire at the end of 2008.
regarding them. I do not make trades and
had no knowledge of the trades my Mr. Miller, the 47-year-old energy aide to "We were worried as we are always
husband made in 2008 until after they Mr. Reid, bought shares in Energy worried because it meant uncertainty,"
were made." Conversion Devices stock in two chunks said Martha Duggan, the vice president of
on Jan. 14 and Jan. 16, 2008, according to regulatory and government affairs for the
Another aide who trades actively is Cody filings. The filing only indicated two solar unit of Energy Conversion Devices.
Stewart, the executive director of the purchases were each between $1,001 and
Western Caucus. This is a group of $15,000, but a spokesman for Mr. Reid's Within a few months, the prospects for the
Republican lawmakers from Western office said that Mr. Miller bought a total of legislation brightened and it became more
states interested in energy legislation and $3,500. likely that some form of the investment
other issues that affect Western states. It credit would be approved.
doesn't have a formal role in enacting Mr. Reid has supported using the federal
legislation. government to help the renewable energy On May 8, the company issued an earnings
industry. Mr. Miller works as Mr. Reid's report that beat analysts' expectations and
Mr. Stewart made short-term profits by senior policy adviser on energy and sent the stock up 43% that day.
trading in firms such as NCI Building environment issues.
Systems Inc. that had a stake in energy Mr. Miller sold most of his stake on May
legislation. He made a $1,500 gain on two In a 2009 profile entitled "Energy: 10 12 and May 14, according to filings. On
short-term trades in NCI in the summer Staffers to Know," Mr. Miller told the May 14, the House introduced its version
and fall of 2009, according to Mr. Stewart Capitol Hill newspaper Roll Call that he of legislation to extend the tax credit and
and filings. He bought $3,782 in Sunpower "meets frequently with a broad array of voted to approve it a week later. Mr.
on Nov. 19 and sold it Dec. 15 for $4,331, energy stakeholder groups and daily with Miller continued to hold the remainder of
for a $549 profit, or 15% gain, in less than Reid himself." his ECD stake.
a month, according to Mr. Stewart and the
filings. One of the government incentives Mr. On Sept. 22, Mr. Miller sold his final ECD
Reid supported for the renewable-energy shares when the stock was declining; in
Mr. Stewart held each of his investments, industry was a 30% investment tax credit all, he gained about $3,200 on an
which were all in the $1,000 to $15,000 for companies in the solar-energy investment of about $3,500 in his ECD
range, for just a few months. He says he business. A spokesman for Mr. Reid says holdings during 2008, Mr. Manley said.
made a total 2009 profit of $15,000 on 47 Mr. Miller doesn't work on that issue, and That's a 91% gain.
trades, including about $9,000 on trades in that on Capitol Hill, the tax credit was
financial services companies. widely expected to pass. The following day, the Senate approved
extension of the tax credits.
As the Western Caucus' top full-time "You have cherry-picked information and
employee, Mr. Stewart kept tabs on many woven a misleading narrative," says Mr. Corrections & Amplifications
issues that cleared the House last year, as Miller of the Journal analysis. "It's pretty About 2,900 of the highest-paid
well as tax incentives for the renewable straightforward: I bought on a dip and sold congressional aides must disclose
industry. on spikes, none of which had anything to information annually about their finances,
do with my job." and each of the forms submitted in 2008
Mr. Stewart says he serves as a and 2009 was reviewed by The Journal. A
"clearinghouse for general information" to On Sunday after Mr. Reid criticized his previous version of this article incorrectly
the Western Republicans, but says that he trading, Mr. Miller declined to respond said that about 1,700 staffers are required
had "virtually no input on policy in the further, according to Mr. Manley, the to submit the disclosures.
House." senator's spokesman.

58
Reaganomics after Twenty Years
George J. Viksnins
Georgetown University
http://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/viksning/papers/Reaganomics.html
On Feb. 18, 1981, President Reagan marginal rates were reduced further in academe. A recent book by former
announced his tax plans, the Economic President Reagan‘s second term – to a low Reagan speechwriter Peter Robinson notes
Recovery Tax Act of 1981, loosely based of 28% in 1988. A key theoretical that a 1992 survey of 139 reporters and
on the so-called Kemp-Roth proposal, for argument behind the supply-side bureau chiefs in Washington found that
cutting income tax rates, which was first revolution was the so-called Laffer Curve, 89% had voted for Clinton and only 7%
introduced in 1977 by Senator William V. the idea that a cut in marginal tax rates for Bush. Similar statistics could easily be
Roth, Jr., of Delaware and Congressman could actually lead to a rise in total generated about social sciences professors,
Jack Kemp of New York. The tax cuts revenues. It is interesting to note that in movie stars, and rock singers. Robinson
proposed by Reagan initially totaled $53.9 1980, when rates were high, the top 1% of discusses at some length the reasons why
billion, proposing a 10-percent cut in rates income taxpayers paid 19.1% of total the Hollywood establishment is so heavily
in mid-1981, to be followed by additional income taxes, but by 1988, when marginal biased toward the left – in part, it may be
10-percent reductions on July 1 of the two rates had been roughly cut in half, the top the fear of censorship. For the liberal left,
succeeding years. After a good deal of one-percent paid 27.5% of the total. (In anything is allowed – except business
political infighting, a much more modest part because of higher rates, but also due transactions between consenting adults.
$37.7 billion cut in fiscal 1982 receipts to higher incomes, the top 1% today pays Despite the fact that President Reagan left
was eventually signed into law on Aug. about one-third of total individual income office with a public approval rating close
13. Total tax reductions for the Reagan taxes). to 70 percent, twenty years of media effort
program over the next five years were have left the term ―Reaganomics‖ today
estimated at about $750 billion – the While Spiro Agnew certainly does not with a definite negative spin, a bad
centerpiece of the argument of the supply- deserve a favorable assessment in history aftertaste. The average college sophomore
side school. While fear of mounting books, one nugget from his speeches ought would probably say something about
deficits led to a tax increase a year later, to be retained: ―the nattering nabobs of ―increased defense spending, at the
which led to the resignations of a number negativism.‖ That reference is to the expense of social programs and welfare for
of ―true believers‖ in the administration, distinct liberal bias of both the media and the poor, coupled with lower taxes for the
59
rich.‖ These unwise and uncaring policies rhetoric as well as reality. ―Mr. expenditures and 4.8% of GDP in 1980 –
contributed to huge budget deficits Gorbachev, tear down this wall . . .‖ was a but rose to 26% of government spending
throughout the decade punch-line in President Reagan‘s speech in and 5.5% of GDP in 1989 (and is about
Berlin that survived the best efforts of the 3% today). There was no massive rise in
(―$200 billion a year, as far as the eye can State Department bureaucrats to remove it defense spending (E. Ray Canterberry
see...‖) and a large rise in income (reportedly Colin Powell was against this says: ―an explosion in military spending‖)
inequality. She might also mutter confrontational sentence as well). The use and few government social programs were
something about ―the decade of greed‖ and of the term ―Evil Empire‖ was also very subjected to a brutal slashing, despite what
―welfare for the rich.‖ helpful, as well as the intervention on leftist authors continue to tell us. Taxes,
behalf of the ―contras‖ – though the of course, did not fall; they rose by $375
It is certainly true that the public debt rose financial aspects of this operation (Iran!?) billion. What they might have been in
by more under Reagan than in the two were dubious, to say the least. Although 1989, if rates had remained at 1980 levels,
hundred years of all previous the senior Mr. Bush did not help matters is anyone‘s guess, but my guess is that the
administrations added together. However, by trying to support the Moscow revenue total would have been a good deal
it is important to pause for a moment and hegemony (suggesting to Ukrainians in lower. As an aside, the Reagan tax bill
reflect on the economic situation which Kiev that independence was really not indexed the personal exemption to
had been inherited from Mr. Carter. First, necessary!), the dismantling of the Berlin inflation rates, thinking that Congress
measured on a year-to-year basis, the Wall, the dissolution of the Comecon in could be ―shamed into limiting spending . .
country was beset by double-digit inflation 1991, and the implosion of the USSR itself . .‖ Let us say it bluntly – politicians are
in 1979, 1980, and 1981. Second, that are closely related to a shift in the public not familiar with the concept of ―shame...‖
inverse harbinger of confidence in all perception of the U.S. – ―it is morning
paper currencies, the price of gold, was again in America . . . ‖, said President In terms of economic accomplishments,
pushing $900 – and silver was also at an Reagan, and many people here and perhaps the most significant positive
all-time high. Third, the U.S. dollar had overseas really believed him. aspect of the Reaganomics program of
weakened steadily, since its link to gold lower taxes and regulatory reforms is the
had been severed by Nixon in Aug. 1971. Returning to economic statistics, a very tremendous increase in employment. The
For example, the dollar fetched 360 significant accomplishment was the atmosphere of expansion and innovation
Japanese yen at the start of the decade, but remarkably rapid decline in inflationary created by the Reagan program continued
only half of that by 1980. Fourth, the tax expectations. Using a weighted-average to affect economic activity in the next
system was becoming punitive even for method of estimating expected price decade as well. It is estimated that 24
middle-class families, ―bracket creep‖ increases, expected inflation fell from million new jobs have been created in the
raised rates from 22% in 1965 to 49% in about 12% in 1981 to only 2.5% in 1988 1980-1995 period in the U.S. – compared
1980 – and the highest income taxpayers (before rising again to as much as 5.3% to only about 9 million in the European
faced a 70% federal marginal rate, and an under Bush senior in 1991). As Lawrence Union, which has a one-third larger
11% D.C. tax on top of that. Tax shelters, B. Lindsey (nowadays one of Bush population than America. After the 1981-
anyone? Moreover, the U.S. was faring junior‘s key economic advisers) writes: ―A 82 recession (inherited in large part from
very badly in the battle for the ―hearts and new and very important word crept into the Carter years), and largely caused by
minds‖ of the younger generation of the the economic jargon of the time – the Fed hitting the monetary brakes very
whole world. As Roberts points out, to be credibility. While the neo-Keynesians in hard, real GDP rose by about four percent
anti-American was becoming a badge of the Carter administration had talked about per year in the 1982-88 period. During
honor; it was ―. . . to be against a variety of anti-inflation strategies, the this period, overall employment rose by
imperialism, neo-colonialism, racism, markets simply did not believe them.‖ 17%, but . . . ―Hispanic employment has
sexism, commercial exploitation Going after the air traffic controllers and grown by more than 45 percent, black
(particularly of the environment and the refusing to increase the minimum wage employment by nearly 30 percent, and
Third World), pollution, poverty, gave President Reagan lots of credibility in female employment by more than 20
inequality, and war.‖ Not only was the establishing the administration‘s anti- percent.‖ Although there was a distinct
image of America as a ―shining city on the inflation stance, which was also greatly shift from manufacturing jobs (in part due
hill‖ and ―beautiful for spacious skies and bolstered by the actions of Chairman to a strong rise in productivity in that
amber waves of grain‖ losing its luster to Volcker at the Federal Reserve. This sector) to employment in services, 90% of
Soviet spin doctors, the historically pre- decline in inflationary expectations took the new jobs were full-time positions and
ordained march of Marxist-Leninist place despite significant budget deficits. 85% were in skilled occupations (not
regimes was triumphant in Southeast Asia, A detailed analysis of the causes of the ―flipping burgers‖).
in much of Africa, and – where was the deficits is beyond our scope here. Were
Monroe Doctrine? – in Cuba and Central they caused primarily the Reagan tax cuts? The strong appreciation in the U.S. dollar
America. A simple answer would be in the negative, was a vote of confidence in the economic
since government spending rose by $450 policies of the Reagan administration.
Before returning to the nitty-gritty of billion during the 1981-1989 period. In Looking again at the Japanese yen, the
economics and dry, boring statistics, passing, it should be noted that the rise in exchange rate rose from 180 in 1980 to
Reagan‘s greatest accomplishment was the defense spending was relatively modest; it 260 yen in 1985. From 1980 to 1985, the
decisive reversal of the Soviet triumph in was about 23% of total government dollar also rose by 37% against a basket
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of ten major currencies, with significant related to this, the distribution of income householder either living alone or with
negative implications for the U.S. export worsened – with the share of the bottom nonrelatives. By 1990, that figure grew to
sector‘s competitiveness. This led to the 20% falling, while the share of the top 1%, 29.2 percent.‖ The income level of that
so-called Plaza Accord, where the G-5 5%, or 20% rose. There were obscene group is only about one-half of family
agreed to bring the dollar down to a more increases in corporate profits and the households, thus,as families fall apart, the
competitive level. While the target personal incomes of the filthy rich. Gini rises. Perhaps an even more
depreciation in the agreement was only important demographic trend is the
about 10%, the dollar declined by nearly The liberal left is incensed by the rising growing percentage of female-headed
20% by the end of the decade (and incomes and wealth of the upper one households (no husband present), which
continued falling against a number of percent – in 1998, there were 192, 000 tax rose from 10.8% to 16.5% over this
currencies -- the Japanese yen reached an returns filed with a yearly income of a period, and which typically have incomes
all-time high of about 80 in the spring of million dollars or more. The upper 1% of lower than average. Finally, income can be
1995). In part, of course, the strong dollar income recipients receive nearly 20% of redefined in many different ways – with or
in the first half of the 1980's was due to adjusted gross income, according to the withour taxes and transfers, with or
very high interest rates in the U.S. The IRS (but, as mentioned above, also pay a without capital gains, with or without the
―prime rate‖ stood at above 20%, the Fed‘s bit more than 33% of total income taxes). imputed income from housing, and so on.
discount rate reached 14%, and new home In the last twenty years it is true that the The most obvious adjustment, of course,
mortgage rates were in the 15-18% range. Gini Coefficient for income before taxes would be to account for taxes and
Even at the end of the decade of the 1980s, has risen significantly (from about 0.34 in transfers. Bartley notes that such an
long-term government bond yields in the the 1970's to 0.44 in 1999), and is a good adjustment ―. . . tripled the income share
U.S. were approximately twice as high in deal higher than in most other capitalist of the lowest quintile while reducing the
Japan. A somewhat weaker dollar and democracies. According to E. Ray share of the top quintile by 6.8 percentage
high interest rates attracted significant Canterberry, the distribution of marketable points.‖
inflows of foreign investment, which led wealth is even more unequal. The share of
to a strong recovery in the stock market the ―super-rich‖ stood at about one-third of Equally striking evidence about the
after its ―sinking spell‖ in October 1987. the total in the 1930s, declined to a low of dynamics of the income distribution is
about one-fifth by 1969, and fluctuated a provided by two economists at the Federal
There exists something called the ―misery bit below 30% in the 1970s. ―. . .Then, Reserve Bank of Dallas, W. Michael Cox
index,‖ invented by Carter‘s speechwriters fortunes reversed. The share owned by the and Richard Alm. While the share going
to attack President Ford‘s record in 1976. super-rich soared to 37 percent in 1989 on to the top 20% rose (to nearly 50% of the
This measure involves adding the the way to 38.5 percent in 1995. The total), and the share of the bottom quintile
unemployment rate and the rate of dramatic dislocation of wealth to the top fell, over the 1975-1977 period, they cite a
inflation. Since that index stood at nearly reflected the staggering trundling of University of Michigan longitudinal study,
20 in 1980, Mr. Carter ―was hoisted by his financial wealth upward during the which found that only 5% of those in the
own petard . . . .‖ Under Reagan, this 1980's.‖ Canterberry goes on to claim that bottom income group in 1975 were still
index declined significantly, to just under the financial wealth of the bottom 40 there in 1991. Thus, ―. . . low income is
10 by 1989. Today it is well below 10% percent of households has declined largely a transitory experience for those
(about 7% in 2000), in large part because absolutely, and – an even more shocking willing to work.‖Over this period, the
of the sound economic base built by statement – that ―. . . 95 percent of Michigan study notes that ―. . . the poor
Reaganomics. Lower marginal tax rates American families have become not only make the most dramatic gains when one
created jobs and unleashed entrepreneurial relatively but absolutely worse off.‖ looks at the income distribution . . .The
activity in the New Economy. While Mr. While rising Gini Coefficients and a rich may have gotten a little richer, but the
Gore claims to have invented the smaller percentage of incoming going to poor have gotten much richer. . .‖
―Internet,‖ it could more plausibly be the bottom 20% can used by the liberal left Looking at these studies cited by Cox and
argued that Reaganomics led to the to score debating points, there are Alm, Canterberry‘s claim that 95% of the
expansion of ―e-commerce.‖ significant limitations in the statistics. As people are absolutely worse off today
Robert L. Bartley points out, an income seems ludicrous. As Cox and Alm say:
The one area in which Reaganomics distribution is ―a snapshot in time.‖ A
appears to be vulnerable is the charge of banker‘s graduate student son may show ―... For all the anguish about downward
―unfairness.‖ There are two aspects to this up in the bottom quintile for a few years – mobility and long-term poverty, the
argument. First, over the past twenty ― . . . Even movements in and out of the University of Michigan sample shows it‘s
years – or during the 1980's, if you like – it poverty population are far more dynamic a reality for only a tiny fraction of
is often argued that the standard of living than usually supposed.‖ There are a Americans. A mere 2 percent of the
for the average American deteriorated. The number of objective factors, which bottom fifth failed to attain higher living
hourly wage rate appeared to fall, after account for the rise in the Gini –for standards by the early 1990s.‖ There are
correcting for inflation. In other words, example, a larger number of households is also dynamic movements at the other end
ordinary people were working hard, but elderly now than in 1970, and average of the distribution. John W. Sloan notes
not benefitting from GDP growth and incomes of the elderly are lower. Also, the that ―. . .only 171 of the original 400
improvements in productivity (a bit more nature of households is changing. ―...In richest Americans listed in Forbes
on that issue below). Second, and closely 1970, 18.7 percent of the households had a
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magazine in 1982 were listed in the average rate of 0.7 percent through 1996. cumulative gain in total compensation of
magazine‘s 1991 issue.‖ The total decline over two decades more than 17 percent. Gains in both per
exceeded 15 percent. . . ― A number of capita income and total compensation, by
While lay-offs and ―down-sizing‖ are observations need to be made in order to creating greater purchasing power,
prominently mentioned by the media, reconcile this fact with the very visible explain how Americans would be able to
creation of new jobs does not appear on signs of affluence all around us – larger increase consumption quite visibly over
the 6 o‘clock news. The loss of jobs in the homes with all the amenities, color TV the past quarter century.
first few years of the 1990s made for (97.9%) and cable (63.4%), and other
frightening headlines: 74,000 jobs cut at consumer durables. A lot of people own To conclude this brief assessment of
General Motors, 60,000 at IBM, 50,000 at items that did not exist in 1970 – Reaganomics, let us look at a relatively
Sears, and 40,000 at AT&T. However, videocassette recorder, answering even-handed treatment of the topic by two
capitalism is characterized by evolutionary machine, cordless phone, CD player, and distinctly liberal economists from the
change – what Joseph Schumpeter called so on (in 1970, less than 1% of households Urban Institute. There are three legacies,
the ―Gale of Creative Destruction.‖ While owned a microwave, but by the mid- said the authors in a volume published in
Sears was down-sizing , Wal-Mart Stores 1990s, 90%+ did). There are three main 1984, when policies were just beginning to
added 624,000 jobs between 1985 and factors helping this reconciliation. First, in work. First, a significant decrease in
1996 – and other publicly-held retailers addition to wages, households also receive inflation had already taken place. The
(such as Home Depot, Circuit City, and interest dividends, rent and profit. Second, second was large budget deficits, which
others) created nearly 2 million jobs. IBM it is well known that the inflation index led the authors to be pessimistic about
lost jobs, but EDS and Microsoft added used to ―deflate‖ wage increases, the long-term growth. But, third,
positions. While AT&T downsized , MCI Consumer Price Index (CPI), has a built in
and Sprint and other long-distance overstatement (―upward bias‖) of about ―...there was a shift in expectations about
providers added at least 80,000 workers. 1.1%. Thus, the annual decline of 0.7% what the government should or will do.
Many people cut by GM found just mentioned above should have been ...public opinion surveys suggest that the
employment with Honda, Toyota, and corrected to a small gain of about 0.4% per president has struck a responsive chord,
other foreign car manufacturers operating year. Third, and this is the most obvious and messages from the Rose Garden about
in the U.S.‖ point, many workers have chosen to take the importance of entrepreneurship and
more of their compensation in the form of individual initiative may yet have an
Finally, let us look briefly at the biggest fringe benefits: ―. . . additional health care, impact on the way managers and workers
trump card held by the liberal left – falling contributions to retirement savings, or behave...‖ Hindsight enables us to say
real wages, which allegedly would affect employee assistance programs. . . .Overall, quite clearly that the economy‘s
―the average American worker.‖ At first non- monetary benefits as a percentage of productivity and efficiency were greatly
glance, the results seem grim. After rising wages have increased by a third since improved by the Reagan years, and
at an annual rate of about 2% from 1953 to 1970.‖ If we add these fringes to calculate continue to provide the basis for the
1973, ―. . .they stagnated for five years ―total compensation,‖ we find . . .‖a functioning of the economy well into the
before beginning a long slide, falling at an 21st century.

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List of URL’s (In Order of Appearance)
http://jumbofiles.com/2r76xoojknef
http://jumbofiles.com/vcxdj5zyare4
http://cct.creighton.edu/?cat=71
http://www.colgate.edu/academics/departments/educationalstudies/education415podcastsfall2009.html

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