• The earliest models of the atom

were developed by the ancient

Early Atomic Theory Greek philosophers.
and Structure – Empedocles (pronunciation: [empedokleez])
stated that matter was made of 4
Chapter 5 elements: earth, air, fire, water.
– Democritus (pronunciation: [demokritus])
(about 470-370 B.C.) thought that all
Hein * Best * Pattison * Arena forms of matter were divisible into tiny
indivisible particles. He called them
Eugene Passer
“atoms” from the Greek “atomos”
Chemistry Department
Version 1.0 1 College
Bronx Community
© John Wiley and Sons, Inc
indivisible. 2

Dalton’s Model
of the Atom
• Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) rejected the
theory of Democritus and advanced
the Empedoclean theory 2000 years after Aristotle, John Dalton,
an English schoolmaster, proposed his
– Aristotle’s influence dominated the
thinking of scientists and model of the atom–which was based on
philosophers until the beginning of experimentation.
the 17th century

3 4

Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1810)

Changes to the theory
1. Elements are composed of minute indivisible particles called
atoms.
• Atoms are composed of subatomic particles
2. Atoms of the same element are alike in mass and size. – electron, neutron, proton
3. Atoms of different elements have different masses and
sizes. • Not all atoms of the same element have the
4. Chemical compounds are formed by the union of two or same mass - carbon 12, carbon 13, carbon 14
more atoms of different elements.
• Atoms can be decomposed - fission
5. Atoms combine to form compounds in simple numerical
ratios,such as one to one, two to two, two to three, and so on.
6. Atoms of two elements may combine in different ratios to form
more than one compound.
5 6

1
 Composition of Water: H2O
Composition of Compounds

• Water always contains the same two

Two laws that apply to the composition of elements: hydrogen and oxygen.
compounds
• The percent by mass of hydrogen in
The Law of Definite A compound always contains two or more
elements combined in a definite proportion
water is 11.2%.
Composition
by mass. • The percent by mass of oxygen in
water is 88.8%.
The Law of Multiple Atoms of two or more elements may • Water always has these percentages.
Proportions combine in different ratios to produce If the percentages were different the
more than one compound. compound would not be water.
7 8

Composition of Hydrogen Peroxide: H2O2 Combining Ratios of Hydrogen and Oxygen

• Hydrogen peroxide always contains the same
• Hydrogen peroxide has twice as many
two elements: hydrogen and oxygen.
oxygens per hydrogen atom as does
• The percent by mass of hydrogen in hydrogen water.
peroxide is 5.9%. • The formula for water is H2O.
• The percent by mass of oxygen in hydrogen • The formula for hydrogen peroxide is
peroxide is 94.1%. H2O2.
• Hydrogen peroxide always has these
percentages. If the percentages were different
the compound would not be hydrogen
peroxide. 9 10

The Nature of
Electric Charge

The Law of Definite

The Law of Multiple
Composition
Proportions 11 12

2
 Properties of Electric Charge

• Charge may be of two types: positive and negative.

• Unlike charges attract (positive attracts negative),
and like charges repel (negative repels negative and
positive repels positive).
• Charge may be transferred from one object to
another, by contact or induction. Discovery of Ions
• The less the distance between two charges, the
greater the force of attraction between unlike
charges (or repulsion between identical charges).
kq1q 2 q1 and q2 are charges, r is the
F= distance between charges and
r2 k is a constant.
13 14

• Michael Faraday discovered that

certain substances, when dissolved in
water, conducted an electric current.
• He found that atoms of some elements
moved to the cathode (negative
electrode) and some moved to the
anode (positive electrode).
• He concluded they were electrically The anode of an electrolytic cell is positive (cathode is negative), since
charged and called them ions (Greek the anode attracts anions from the solution. However, the anode of a
galvanic cell is negatively charged, since the spontaneous oxidation at
wanderer). the anode is the source of the cell's electrons or negative charge. The
15 cathode of a galvanic cell is its positive terminal. 16

• Svante Arrhenius reasoned that an ion

is an atom (or a group of atoms)
NaCl → Na+ + Cl-
carrying a positive or negative electric
charge. • In the melt the positive Na+ ions moved
• Arrhenius accounted for the electrical to the cathode (negative electrode).
conduction of molten sodium chloride Thus positive ions are called cations.
(NaCl) by proposing that melted NaCl
dissociated into the charged ions Na+ • In the melt the negative Cl- ions moved
and Cl-. to the anode (positive electrode). Thus
Δ negative ions are called anions.
NaCl → Na+ + Cl-
17 18

3
Subatomic Parts An atom is very Small

of the Atom
Electron, proton, neutron

19 20

• In 1875 Sir William Crookes invented In 1897 Sir Joseph Thompson demonstrated
the Crookes tube. that cathode rays:
• travel in straight lines.
• Crookes tubes experiments led the way • are negative in charge.
to an understanding of the subatomic • are deflected by electric and
structure of the atom. magnetic fields.
• Crookes tube emissions are called • are capable of moving a small
cathode rays. paddle wheel.

The electron, 9.110 X 10-28 g, negative charge

21 22

• Eugen Goldstein, a German physicist, • James Chadwick discovered the neutron

first observed protons in 1886: in 1932.
• Thompson determined the protons’ • Its actual mass is slightly greater than
characteristics. the mass of a proton.
• Thompson showed that atoms contained
both positive and negative charges.
• This disproved the Dalton model of the
atom which held that atoms were
indivisible.
23 24

4
 Ions

25 26

• Positive ions were explained by

assuming that a neutral atom loses
electrons.
• Negative ions were explained by
assuming that extra electrons can be
added to atoms.

When one or more electrons are lost

27 from an atom, a cation is formed. 28
5.4

The Nuclear Atom

When one or more electrons are added

to a neutral atom, an anion is formed. 29 30
5.4

5
• Radioactivity was discovered by Becquerel
in 1896.
• Radioactive elements spontaneously emit
alpha particles, beta particles and gamma
rays from their nuclei. The Rutherford Experiment
• By 1907 Rutherford found that alpha
particles emitted by certain radioactive
elements were helium nuclei.
31 32

• Rutherford in 1911 performed experiments

that shot a stream of alpha particles at a
gold foil.
• Most of the alpha particles passed through
the foil with little or no deflection.
• He found that a few were deflected at large
angles and some alpha particles even
bounced back.
Rutherford’s alpha particle scattering experiment.
33 34
5.5

• An electron with a mass of 1/1837 amu • If a positive alpha particle approached

could not have deflected an alpha close enough to the positive mass it
particle with a mass of 4 amu. was deflected.
• Rutherford knew that like charges • Most of the alpha particles passed
repel. through the gold foil. This led
• Rutherford concluded that each gold Rutherford to conclude that a gold
atom contained a positively charged atom was mostly empty space.
mass that occupied a tiny volume. He
called this mass the nucleus.
35 36

6
• Because alpha particles have relatively
high masses, the extent of the
reflections led Rutherford to conclude
that the nucleus was very heavy and
dense. Deflection

Scattering

Deflection and scattering of alpha particles by positive gold nuclei.

37 38
5.5

• Rutherford’s experiment showed that an

General atom had a dense, positively charged
nucleus.

Arrangement of • Chadwick’s work in 1932 demonstrated

the atom contains neutrons.

Subatomic • Rutherford also noted that light,

negatively charged electrons were
Particles present in an atom and offset the positive
nuclear charge.
39 40

• Rutherford put forward a model of the

atom in which a dense, positively
charged nucleus is located at the
atom’s center.
• The negative electrons surround the
nucleus.
• The nucleus contains protons and
neutrons

41 42
5.6

7
 • The atomic number of an element is
Atomic Numbers equal to the number of protons in the
nucleus of that element.

of the Elements • The atomic number of an atom

determines which element the atom is.

43 44

Every atom with an atomic Every atom with an atomic

number of 1 is a hydrogen atom. number of 6 is a carbon atom.

Every hydrogen atom contains 1 Every carbon atom contains 6

proton in its nucleus. protons in its nucleus.

45 46

atomic atomic
number number

H C
Every atom with an Every atom with an
atomic number of 1 atomic number of 6

1 6
is a hydrogen atom. is a carbon atom.

1 proton in the 6 protons in the

nucleus nucleus
47 48

8
 atomic
number

U
Every atom with an
atomic number of
92 is a uranium Isotopes of the
atom.
Elements
92 protons
in the
nucleus
92 49 50

• Atoms of the same element can have Isotopes of the Same

different masses.
Element Have
• They always have the same number of
protons, but they can have different
numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. Equal numbers of protons
• The difference in the number of neutrons
accounts for the difference in mass.
Different numbers of
• These are isotopes of the same element.
neutrons
51 52

Isotopic Notation Isotopic Notation

6 protons + 6 neutrons
12
6C
6 protons

53 54

9
 Isotopic Notation Isotopic Notation

6 protons + 8 neutrons 8 protons + 8 neutrons

14 16
6C 8O
6 protons 8 protons

55 56

Isotopic Notation Isotopic Notation

8 protons + 9 neutrons 8 protons + 10 neutrons

17 18
8O 8O
8 protons 8 protons

57 58

Examples of Isotopes
Hydrogen has three isotopes
Element Protons Electrons Neutrons Symbol
Hydrogen 1 1 0 1H
1
Hydrogen 1 1 1 2H
1
Hydrogen 1 1 2 3H
1

Uranium 92 92 143 235U

92
Uranium 92 92 146 238U
92

1 proton 1 proton 1 proton

Chlorine 17 17 18 35Cl
0 neutrons 1 neutron 2 neutrons 17
Chlorine 17 17 20 37Cl
59 17 60

10
 • The mass of a single atom is too small to
measure on a balance.
Atomic Mass • Using a mass spectrometer, the mass of
the hydrogen atom was determined.

61 62

A Modern Mass Spectrometer

Positive ions
formed from
sample. Electrical field
From the intensity and positions
at slits A mass
of the lines Deflection
accelerates on the mass of spectrogram
spectrogram,
positive the different
ions. positive ions A typical reading from a mass spectrometer. The two
is recorded.
isotopes and their at
occurs relative principal isotopes of copper are shown with the
amounts can be determined.
magnetic field. 63 abundance (%) given. 64
5.8 5.9

This number is very small.

Using a mass spectrometer, the mass of one

small
small
small
small
small
hydrogen atom was determined to be 1.673 small
small
small
x 10-24 g
small
small
small
small
small
small
small
small
small
small
small

65 66

11
 The standard to which the masses of all
The mass of a hydrogen atom is other atoms are compared to was chosen
very small. to be the most abundant isotope of
carbon.
Numbers
To of thisthis
overcome sizeproblem
are too small for of
a system
practical atomic
relative use. masses using “atomic
12
C
mass units” was devised to express the
masses of elements using simple
numbers.
1.673 x 10-24 g

67 6 68

1
A mass of exactly 12 atomic mass units 1 amu is defined as exactly equal to
(amu) was assigned to the mass of a carbon-12 atom 12

1 amu = 1.6606 x 10-24 g

12 12
6 C 69
6 C 70

Average atomic mass 1.00797 amu. Average atomic mass 39.098 amu.

H 71
K 72

12
 Average atomic mass 248.029 amu.

Average Relative

U 73
Atomic Mass

74

To calculate the atomic mass multiply the

atomic mass of each isotope by its percent
• Most elements occur as mixtures of abundance and add the results.
isotopes. Average
Isotopic mass Abundance
Isotope atomic mass
• Isotopes of the same element have (amu) (%)
(amu)
different masses. 63
29 Cu 62.9298 69.09
• The listed atomic mass of an element is 65
63.55
Cu 64.9278 30.91
the average relative mass of the isotopes 29

of that element compared to the mass of

carbon-12 (exactly 12.0000…amu (62.9998 amu) 0.6909 = 43.48 amu
(64.9278 amu) 0.3091 = 20.07 amu
75
63.55 amu 76

The mass number minus the atomic

number equals the number of neutrons in
the nucleus.
mass
109
Relationship Between Mass
number
atomic
number 47 Ag
Number and Atomic Number
atomic number of
mass number - =
number neutrons
109 - 47 = 62
77 78

13
79

14