Contents

1.use in mobile telephony

1.1coverage and applications
2.technical details
2.1 code division multiplexing(synchronous CDMA)
2.1.1 example
2.2 asynchronous CDMA
2.3 advantages of a asynchronous CDMA over other
techniques

3.macro diversity usage

3.1 soft handover

3.2 hard handover

4.roaming

5.features
Code division multiple access (CDMA)
Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a form
of multiplexing and a method of multiple access to a
physical medium such as a radio channel, where different
users use the medium at the same time thanks to using
different code sequences. By contrast, time division
multiple access divides access by time, while frequency-
division multiple access divides it by frequency. CDMA is
a form of "spread-spectrum" signaling, since the modulated
coded signal has a much higher bandwidth than the data
being communicated.
An analogy to the problem of multiple access is a
room (channel) in which people wish to communicate with
each other. To avoid confusion, people could take turns
speaking (time division), speak at different pitches
(frequency division), or speak in different directions
(spatial division). In CDMA, they would speak different
languages. People speaking the same language can
understand each other, but not other people. Similarly, in
radio CDMA, each group of users is given a shared code.
Many codes occupy the same channel, but only users
associated with a particular code can understand each other.
CDMA also refers to digital cellular telephony systems that
use this multiple access scheme, such as those pioneered by
QUALCOMM, and W-CDMA by the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU).
CDMA has been used in many communications and
navigation systems, including the Global Positioning
System and in the OmniTRACS satellite system for
transportation logistics.

Use in mobile telephony

A number of terms are used to refer to CDMA

implementations. The original US standard defined by
QUALCOMM was known as IS-95, where IS refers to an
Interim Standard of the US Telecommunications Industry
Association. IS-95 is often referred to as the second
generation (2G) cellular, or as cdmaOne (the
QUALCOMM brand name). CDMA has been submitted
for approval as a mobile air interface standard to the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
Whereas the Global System for Mobile Communications
(GSM) standard is a specification of an entire network
infrastructure, the CDMA interface relates only to the air
interface—the radio part of the technology. For example,
GSM specifies an infrastructure based on internationally
approved standard, while CDMA allows each operator to
provide the network features as it finds suited. On the air
interface, the signalling suite (GSM: ISDN SS7) work has
been progressing to harmonise these features.
After a couple of revisions, IS-95 was superseded by the
IS-2000 standard (CDMA2000). This standard was
introduced to meet some of the criteria laid out in the IMT-
2000 specification for third generation (3G) cellular. It is
also called 1xRTT which means "1 times Radio
Transmission Technology" because IS-2000 uses the same
1.25 MHz carrier shared channel as the original IS-95
standard. A related scheme called 3xRTT uses three 1.25
MHz carriers for a 3.75 MHz bandwidth that would allow
higher data burst rates for an individual user, but the
3xRTT scheme has not been commercially deployed. More
recently, QUALCOMM has led the creation of a new
CDMA-based technology called Evolution-Data Optimized
(1xEV-DO, or IS-856), which provides the higher packet
data transmission rates required by IMT-2000 and desired
by wireless network operators.
This CDMA system is frequently confused with a similar
but incompatible technology called Wideband Code
Division Multiple Access (W-CDMA) which is the basis of
the W-CDMA air interface. The W-CDMA air interface is
used in the global 3G standard UMTS and the Japanese 3G
standard FOMA, by NTT DoCoMo and Vodafone;
however, the CDMA family of US national standards
(including cdmaOne and CDMA2000) are not compatible
with the W-CDMA family of ITU standards.
Another important application of code division
multiplexing — predating and distinct from CDMA — is
the Global Positioning System (GPS).
The QUALCOMM CDMA system includes very accurate
time signals (usually referenced to a GPS receiver in the
cell base station), so cell phone CDMA-based clocks are an
increasingly popular type of radio clock for use in
computer networks. The main advantage of using CDMA
cell phone signals for reference clock purposes is that they
work better inside buildings, thus often eliminating the
need to mount a GPS antenna outside a building.

Coverage and applications

The size of a cell depends on the power of the signal

transmitted by the handset, the terrain and the radio
frequency being used. Various algorithms can reduce the
noise introduced by variations in terrain, but require extra
information be sent to validate the transfer. Long
wavelengths need less energy to travel a given distance
than short wavelengths, so lower frequencies generally
result in greater coverage. These characteristics are used by
mobile network planners in determining the size and
placement of the cells in the network. In cities, many small
cells are needed; the use of high frequencies allows sites to
be placed more-closely together, with more subscribers
provided service. In rural areas with a lower density of
subscribers, use of lower frequencies allows each site to
provide broader coverage. (See also the Market situation
section of GSM.)
Various companies use different variants of CDMA to
provide fixed-line networks using wireless local loop
(WLL) technology. Since they can plan with a specific
number of subscribers per cell in mind, and these are all
stationary, this application of CDMA can be found in most
parts of the world.
CDMA is suited for data transfer with bursty behaviour and
where delays can be expected. Therefore, it is used in
Wireless LAN applications; the cell size here is 150 m (500
feet) because of the high frequency (2.4 GHz) and low
power. The suitability for data transfer is the reason for
why W-CDMA seems to be "winning technology" for the
data portion of third-generation (3G) mobile cellular
networks.

Technical details
Code Division Multiplexing (Synchronous
CDMA)
Synchronous CDMA exploits mathematical properties of
orthogonality between vectors representing the data strings.
For example, binary string "1011" is represented by the
vector (1, 0, 1, 1). Vectors can be multiplied by taking their
dot product, by summing the products of their respective
components. If the dot product is zero, the two vectors are
said to be orthogonal to each other. Some properties of the
dot product help to understand how SCDMA works. If
vectors a and b are orthogonal, then

Example

An example of four mutually orthogonal digital signals.

Start with a set of vectors that are mutually orthogonal.
(Although mutual orthogonality is the only condition, these
vectors are usually constructed for ease of decoding, for
example columns or rows from Walsh matrices.) An
example of orthogonal functions is shown in the picture on
the right.

Now, associate with one sender a vector from this set, say
v, which is called the "code", "chipping code" or
"chipcode". Associate a zero digit with the vector –v, and a
one digit with the vector v. For example, if v=(1,–1), then
the binary vector (1, 0, 1, 1) would correspond to (v, –v, v,
v) which is then constructed in binary as ((1,–1),(–1,1),(1,–
1),(1,–1)). For the purposes of this article, we call this
constructed vector the transmitted vector.
Each sender has a different, unique vector v chosen from
that set, but the construction method of the transmitted
vector is identical.
Now, due to physical properties of interference, if two
signals at a point are in phase, they add to give twice the
amplitude of each signal, but if they are out of phase, they
"subtract" and give a signal that is the difference of the
amplitudes. Digitally, this behaviour can be modelled by
the addition of the transmission vectors, component by
component.
If sender0 has code (1,–1) and data (1,0,1,1), and sender1
has code (1,1) and data (0,0,1,1), and both senders transmit
simultaneously, then this table describes the coding steps:
Step Encode sender0 Encode sender1
vector0=(1,–1), vector1=(1,1),
0
data0=(1,0,1,1)=(1,–1,1,1) data1=(0,0,1,1)=(–1,–1,1,1)
1 encode0=vector0.data0 encode1=vector1.data1
2 encode0=(1,–1).(1,–1,1,1) encode1=(1,1).(–1,–1,1,1)
encode0=((1,–1),(–1,1), encode1=((–1,–1),(–1,–1),
3
(1,–1),(1,–1)) (1,1),(1,1))
signal0=(1,–1,–1,1,1,– signal1=(–1,–1,–1,–
4
1,1,–1) 1,1,1,1,1)

Because signal0 and signal1 are transmitted at the same

time into the air, they add to produce the raw signal: (1,–1,–
1,1,1,–1,1,–1) + (–1,–1,–1,–1,1,1,1,1) = (0,–2,–
2,0,2,0,2,0)This raw signal is called an interference pattern.
The received then extracts an intelligible signal for any
known sender by combining the sender's code with the
interference pattern, the receiver combines it with the codes
of the senders. The following table explains how this
works.
 Decode sender0
vector0=(1,–1), pattern=(0,–
0
2,–2,0,2,0,2,0)
1 decode0=pattern.vector0
decode0=((0,–2),(–2,0),
2
(2,0),(2,0)).(1,–1)
decode0=((0+2),(–2+0),
3
(2+0),(2+0))
4 Data0=(2,–2,2,2)=(1,0,1,1)
Decode sender1
vector1=(1,1), pattern=(0,–
2,–2,0,2,0,2,0)
decode1=pattern.vector1
decode1=((0,–2),(–2,0),(2,0),
(2,0)).(1,1)
decode1=((0–2),(–2+0),
(2+0),(2+0))
data1=(–2,–2,2,2)=(0,0,1,1)

Further, after decoding, all values greater than 0 are

interpreted as 1 while all values less than zero are
interpreted as 0. For example, after decoding, data0 is (2,–
2,2,2), but the receiver interprets this as (1,0,1,1).

Asynchronous CDMA
The previous example of orthogonal Walsh sequences
describes how 2 users can be multiplexed together in a
synchronous system, a technique that is commonly referred
to as Code Division Multiplexing (CDM). The set of 4
Walsh sequences shown in the figure will afford up to 4
users, and in general, an NxN Walsh matrix can be used to
multiplex N users. Multiplexing requires all of the users to
be coordinated so that each transmits their assigned
sequence v (or the complement, -v) starting at exactly the
same time. Thus, this technique finds use in base-to-mobile
links, where all of the transmissions originate from the
same transmitter and can be perfectly coordinated.
On the other hand, the mobile-to-base links cannot be
precisely coordinated, particularly due to the mobility of
the handsets, and require a somewhat different approach.
Since it is not mathematically possible to create signature
sequences that are orthogonal for arbitrarily random
starting points, unique "pseudo-random" or "pseudo-noise"
(PN) sequences are used in Asynchronous CDMA systems.
These PN sequences are statistically uncorrelated, and the
sum of a large number of PN sequences results in Multiple
Access Interference (MAI) that is approximated by a
Gaussian noise process (following the "central limit
theorem" in statistics). If all of the users are received with
the same power level, then the variance (e.g., the noise
power) of the MAI increases in direct proportion to the
number of users.
All forms of CDMA use spread spectrum process gain to
allow receivers to partially discriminate against unwanted
signals. Signals encoded with the specified PN sequence
(code) are received, while signals with different codes (or
the same code but a different timing offset) appear as
wideband noise reduced by the process gain.
Since each user generates MAI, controlling the signal
strength is an important issue with CDMA transmitters. A
CDM (Synchronous CDMA), TDMA or FDMA receiver
can in theory completely reject arbitrarily strong signals
using different codes, time slots or frequency channels due
to the orthogonality of these systems. This is not true for
Asynchronous CDMA; rejection of unwanted signals is
only partial. If any or all of the unwanted signals are much
stronger than the desired signal, they will overwhelm it.
This leads to a general requirement in any Asynchronous
CDMA system to approximately match the various signal
power levels as seen at the receiver. In CDMA cellular, the
base station uses a fast closed-loop power control scheme
to tightly control each mobile's transmit power.

Advantages of Asynchronous CDMA over other

techniques

Asynchronous CDMA's main advantage over CDM

(Synchronous CDMA), TDMA and FDMA is that it can
use the spectrum more efficiently in mobile telephony
applications. (Quick note: In theory, CDMA, TDMA and
FDMA have exactly the same spectral efficiency. When it
comes to practical application, each has its own challenges.
Timing in the case of TDMA, power control in the case of
CDMA and frequency generation/filtering in the case of
FDMA.). TDMA systems must carefully synchronize the
transmission times of all the users to ensure that they are
received in the correct timeslot and do not cause
interference. Since this cannot be perfectly controlled in a
mobile environment, each timeslot must have a guard-time,
which reduces the probability that users will interfere, but
decreases the spectral efficiency. Similarly, FDMA systems
must use a guard-band between adjacent channels, due to
the random doppler shift of the signal spectrum which
occurs due to the user's mobility. The guard-bands will
reduce the probability that adjacent channels will interfere,
but decrease the utilization of the spectrum.
Most importantly, Asynchronous CDMA offers a key
advantage in the flexible allocation of resources. There are
a fixed number of orthogonal codes, timeslots or frequency
bands that can be allocated for CDM, TDMA and FDMA
systems, which remain underutilized due to the bursty
nature of telephony and packetized data transmissions.
There is no strict limit to the number of users that can be
supported in an Asynchronous CDMA system, only a
practical limit governed by the desired bit error probability,
since the SIR (Signal to Interference Ratio) varies inversely
with the number of users. In a bursty traffic environment
like mobile telephony, the advantage afforded by
Asynchronous CDMA is that the performance (bit error
rate) is allowed to fluctuate randomly, with an average
value determined by the number of users times the
percentage of utilization. Suppose there are 2N users that
only talk half of the time, then 2N users can be
accommodated with the same average bit error probability
as N users that talk all of the time. The key difference here
is that the bit error probability for N users talking all of the
time is constant, whereas it is a random quantity (with the
same mean) for 2N users talking half of the time.
In other words, Asynchronous CDMA is ideally suited to a
mobile network where large numbers of transmitters each
generate a relatively small amount of traffic at irregular
intervals. CDM (Synchronous CDMA), TDMA and FDMA
systems cannot recover the underutilized resources inherent
to bursty traffic due to the fixed number of orthogonal
codes, time slots or frequency channels that can be assigned
to individual transmitters. For instance, if there are N time
slots in a TDMA system and 2N users that talk half of the
time, then half of the time there will be more than N users
needing to use more than N timeslots. Furthermore, it
would require significant overhead to continually allocate
and deallocate the orthogonal code, time-slot or frequency
channel resources. By comparison, Asynchronous CDMA
transmitters simply send when they have something to say,
and go off the air when they don't, keeping the same PN
signature sequence as long as they are connected to the
system.

Macro diversity usage

Soft handover
Soft handoff (or soft handover) is an innovation in
mobility. It refers to the technique of adding additional base
stations (in IS-95 as many as 5) to a connection to be
certain that the next base is ready as you move through the
terrain. However, it can also be used to move a call from
one base station that is approaching congestion to another
with better capacity. As a result, signal quality and handoff
robustness is improved compared to TDMA systems.
In TDMA and analog systems, each cell transmits on its
own frequency, different from those of its neighbouring
cells. If a mobile device reaches the edge of the cell
currently serving its call, it is told to break its radio link and
quickly tune to the frequency of one of the neighbouring
cells where the call has been moved by the network due to
the mobile's movement. If the mobile is unable to tune to
the new frequency in time the call is dropped.
In CDMA, a set of neighbouring cells all use the same
frequency for transmission and distinguish cells (or base
stations) by means of a number called the "PN offset", a
time offset from the beginning of the well-known pseudo-
random noise sequence that is used to spread the signal
from the base station. Because all of the cells are on the
same frequency, listening to different base stations is now
an exercise in digital signal processing based on offsets
from the PN sequence, not RF transmission and reception
based on separate frequencies.
As the CDMA phone roams through the network, it detects
the PN offsets of the neighbouring cells and reports the
strength of each signal back to the reference cell of the call
(usually the strongest cell). If the signal from a
neighbouring cell is strong enough, the mobile will be
directed to "add a leg" to its call and start transmitting and
receiving to and from the new cell in addition to the cell (or
cells) already hosting the call. Likewise, if a cell's signal
becomes too weak the mobile is directed to drop that leg. In
this way, the mobile can move from cell to cell and add and
drop legs as necessary in order to keep the call up without
ever dropping the link.
It should be noted that this "soft handoff" does not happen
via CDMA from cell tower to cell tower. A group of cell
sites are linked up with wire and the call is synced over
wire, TDM, ATM, or even IP.

Hard handover
When there are frequency boundaries between different
carriers or sub-networks, a CDMA phone behaves in the
same way as TDMA or analog and performs a hard handoff
in which it breaks the existing connection and tries to pick
up on the new frequency where it left off.

Roaming
The capabilty to use many services of the home system in
other wireless systems is known as roaming. Roaming is a
critical capability of wide-area wireless systems, such as
GSM systems. While most subscribers spend most of their
time within their home system, many do spend time outside
it, and expect their phones to work everywhere with all
services.
When TIA/EIA-41 was first developed, the systems it
connected were predomintately regional in extent.
Domestic roaming was the first priority. However,
international roaming soon became an important
requirement. A series of add-on standards were developed
to support a variety of enhancements to gradually remove
the barriers of international roaming. Thereby allowing
CDMA carriers to launch international roaming globally.
CDMA2000 bases its roaming capabilities on ANSI-41,
Regional, National or International roaming all have
several elements that are required in order for CDMA
roaming to be facilitated:
CDMA Roaming Business Elements
CDMA Roaming Technical Elements
CDMA Roaming Service Features
Roaming Service Providers
CDMA Roaming Inter-carrier Implementation
CDMA Roaming Carrier Maintenance

Features
• Narrowband message signal multiplied by wideband
spreading signal or pseudonoise code
• Each user has his own pseudonoise (PN) code
• Soft capacity limit: system performance degrades for
all users as number of users increases
• Cell frequency reuse: no frequency planning needed
• Soft handoff increases capacity
• Near-far problem
• Interference limited: power control is required
• Wide bandwidth induces diversity: rake receiver is
used
• - Introduction, signal generation, voice restoration,
features.
Conclusion:-
(CDMA) is a form of multiplexing and a method of
multiple access to a physical medium such as a radio
channel, where different users use the medium at the same
time thanks to using different code sequences.