Outline

2.008
ƒ Introduction
Metal Casting ƒ Process Constraints
ƒ Green Sand Casting
ƒ Other Processes

Some Facts Example – Sand Casting

ƒ First casting: 5000-3000 BC

ƒ Bronze, iron age, light metal age?
ƒ Versatility
• Many types of metals
• Rapid production
• Wide range of shapes and sizes
• Complex parts as an integral unit
 Example – Die Casting Example – Investment Casting

Casting Process Physics and

Analysis of Casting Processes
Constraints
ƒ Phase Change
• Density ƒ Fluid mechanics for mold filling
• Solubility ƒ Heat transfer for solidification
• Diffusion rates ƒ Thermodynamics, mass transfer and heat
transfer for nucleation and growth
ƒ High melting temperature ƒ Materials behavior for structure-property
• Chemical activity relationships
• High latent heat
• Handling
 Mold Filling Cooling for Sand Mold
ƒ Bernoulli’s equation
P v2 AIR MOLD SOLID LIQUID
h+ + = const.
ρg 2 g
h
v ≅ 2 gh ≈ 1.5 m/s Tw

TEMPERATUR
ƒ Reynold’s number
vDρ
METAL - MOLD
∆T
Re = ≈ 5 ×10 4 INTERFACE

E
MOLD - AIR
∆T INTERFACE
T0
• Turbulence DISTANCE
• Injection Molding : Re ~ 10-4

Conductivity / Diffusivity Solidification Time : Sand Casting

ƒ Conductivity (W/mK) ƒ Transient 1-D heat transfer
Cu ~ 400, Al ~ 200
∂T ∂ 2T
Sand ~ 0.5, PMMA ~ 0.2 = αs 2
∂t ∂x
Solution
ƒ Sand Casting
αsand < αmetal T − TM −x
= erf
To − TM 2 α st
ƒ Die Casting
αtool metal ~ αmetal ƒ Solidification time
ƒ Injection Molding ⎛V ⎞
2

αtool metal > αpolymer ts = C ⎜ ⎟

⎝ A⎠
Chvorinov’s rule
 Comparison:
Solidification Time : Die Casting
Sand Mold vs Metal Mold
ƒ Transient 1-D heat transfer
∂T
mC p = − Ah(T − To )
∂t
Solution
mC p ⎛ Tinject + ∆Tsp − Tmold ⎞
t= ln⎜ ⎟
Ah ⎜⎝ Teject − Tmold ⎟
⎠
ƒ Solidification time
Sand Mold Metal Mold
1
⎛V ⎞ Sand casting
ts = C ⎜ ⎟ Die casting
⎝ A⎠ ts ~ (V/A)2 ts ~ (V/A)1

Microstructure Formation Formation of Dendrites

Liquid
TL
Liq

Temperature
L+S uid T
us
Solid S
S

So
lid
+

us
L
Solid Liquid

Alloying element Mushy zone

Solid Liquid

Schematic illustration of three basic types of cast structures Mold

wall
(a) Columnar dendritic (b) equiaxed dendritic (c) equiaxed nondendritic
Dendrites
 Constitutional Supercooling Green Sand Casting
SOLUTE ENRICHED

LIQUID COMPOSITION
CL* LAYER IN FRONT OF
LIQUID-SOLID Mechanical
CL* drawing of part
T* INTERFACE
CS* LIQUID

C∞
SOLID
Core halves
Core boxes pasted together Cope pattern plate Drag pattern plate

DISTANCE, x*
(b)
(a)
AL
TU
T LIQUIDS T AC
AL
TU

S
UID
TEMPERATURE

Cope after ramming with

AC

TEMPERATURE
Drag ready Drag after
T LIQ
T

Cope ready sand and removing pattern, for sand removing

for sand sprue, and risers pattern
CONSTITUTIONALLY
T* T* SUPERCOOLED
REGION

Casting as Casting ready

removed from for shippement
DISTANCE, x* DISTANCE, x* Drag with core Cope and drag assembled mold; heat treated
(c) (d) set in place ready for pouring

Pattern Design Considerations

Green Sand Mold (DFM)

ƒ Shrinkage allowance
ƒ Machining allowance
ƒ Distortion allowance
ƒ Parting line
ƒ Dimensional, Thermal and Chemical stability at high T ƒ Draft angle
ƒ Size and shape
ƒ Wettability by molten metal
ƒ Compatibility with binder system
ƒ Availability and consistency
 Typical Pattern Machining
Typical Shrinkage Allowance Allowance
Allowances, mm
Metal or alloy Shrinkage allowances Pattern size, mm Bore Surface Cope side
mm / m
For cast irons
Aluminum alloy ………………………………...... 13 Up to 152.……………………………….. 3.2 2.4 4.8
Aluminum bronze ……………………………...… 21 152 - 305………………………………… 3.2 3.2 6.4
Yellow brass (thick sections) ………...…....…… 13 305 - 510.………………………………... 4.8 4.0 6.4
Yellow brass (thin sections) …..……...….…...… 13 510 - 915………………………………… 6.4 4.8 6.4
Gray cast iron (a) …………………………….... 8 - 13 915 - 1524……………………………….. 7.9 4.8 7.9
White cast iron ………………………………..….. 21
Tin bronze …………………………………..……. 16 For cast steels
Gun metal …………………………………...… 11 - 16 Up to 152.……………………………….. 3.2 3.2 6.4
Lead …………………………………………..…... 26 152 - 305………………………………… 6.4 4.8 6.4
Magnesium …………………………………..…… 21 305 - 510.………………………………... 6.4 6.4 7.9
Magnesium alloys (25%) ………………………... 16 510 - 915………………………………… 7.1 6.4 9.6
Manganese bronze …………………………….… 21 915 - 1524……………………………….. 7.9 6.4 12.7
Copper-nickel …………………………………….. 21
Nickel …………………………………………….... 21 For nonferrous alloys
Phosphor bronze ……………………………… 11 - 16 Up to 76...……………………………….. 1.6 1.6 1.6
Carbon steel …………………………………… 16 - 21 76 - 152..………………………………… 2.4 1.6 2.4
Chromium steel ……………………………….….. 21 152 - 305………………………………… 2.4 1.6 3.2
Manganese steel ……………………………….… 26 305 - 510.………………………………... 3.2 2.4 3.2
Tin …………………………………………….……. 21 510 - 915………………………………… 3.2 3.2 4.0
Zinc …………………………………………….…... 26 915 - 1524……………………………….. 4.0 3.2 4.8

Gating System:
Riser: Location and Size
Sprue, Runner, and Gate

ƒ Rapid mold filling

ƒ Minimizing turbulence ƒ Casting shrinkage
ƒ Avoiding erosion ƒ Directional solidification
ƒ Removing inclusions ƒ Scrap and secondary operation
ƒ Controlled flow and thermal conditions
ƒ Minimizing scrap and secondary
operations
 Progressive Solidification in
Draft in Pattern
Riser

Progressive solidification : Patterns

Intermediate
rate
Slow Fast
rate rate
Mold

Riser

Temperature gradient
rising toward riser
Directional
solidification

Investment Casting Investment Casting (cont.)

Wax
pattern
Injection wax or
plastic patterns Ejecting pattern Pattern
assembly
(Tree)

Autoclaved
Heat Heat
Casting Pattern
Heat Heat
Finished product

Shakeout
Pouring

Slurry coating Stucco coating Completed Pattern meltout

mold
Advantages of Investment Casting Die Casting

ƒ Intricate geometry Gas/oil accumulator

Platen Toggle clamp

ƒ Close dimensional tolerance Piston

ƒ Superior surface finish

Shot sleeve
ƒ High-melting point alloys
Die

Advantages of Die Casting Lost Foam Casting

ƒ High production rates

ƒ Closer dimensional tolerances
ƒ Superior surface finish
ƒ Improved mechanical properties
 Lost Foam Casting Advantages of Lost Foam Casting
Receive raw polystyrene beads Invest assembly in flask
with backlip medium

ƒ No parting line
Expand beads Vibrate to compact medium
ƒ No cores
Mold component pattern, Pour
ƒ One-piece flask
including gating system
Shakeout castings ƒ Freedom of design
Join patters (if multipiece)
Clean castings assembly
ƒ Minimum handling of sand
ƒ Ease of cleaning and secondary
Coat pattern assembly Inspect castings
operation
Dry assembly Ship castings

Semi-solid Casting Advantages of Semi-solid Casting

Punch

Die
Induction
furnace
 Casting Process Comparison Cost - Casting
ƒ Sand casting
ƒ Tooling and equipment costs are low
ƒ Direct labor costs are high
ƒ Material utilization is low
ƒ Finishing costs can be high
ƒ Investment casting
ƒ Tooling costs are moderate depending on the complexity
ƒ Equipment costs are low
ƒ Direct labor costs are high
ƒ Material costs are low
ƒ Die casting
ƒ Tooling and equipment costs are high
ƒ Direct labor costs are low to moderate
ƒ Material utilization is high

Quality - Casting Rate - Casting

ƒ Sand casting ƒ Sand casting
ƒ Tolerance (0.7~2 mm) and defects are affected by shrinkage ƒ Development time is 2~10 weeks
ƒ Material property is inherently poor ƒ Production rate is depending on the cooling time : t~(V/A)2
ƒ Generally have a rough grainy surface
ƒ Investment casting ƒ Investment casting
ƒ Tolerance (0.08~0.2 mm)
ƒ Development time is 5~16 weeks depending on the complexity
ƒ Mechanical property and microstructure depends on the method
ƒ Production rate is depending on the cooling time : t~(V/A)2
ƒ Good to excellent surface detail possible due to fine slurry
ƒ Die casting
ƒ Tolerance (0.02~0.6 mm) ƒ Die casting
ƒ Good mechanical property and microstructure due to high ƒ Development time is 12~20 weeks
pressure ƒ Production rate is depending on the cooling time : t~(V/A)1
ƒ Excellent surface detail
 Flexibility - Casting New Developments in Casting

ƒ Sand casting
ƒ High degree of shape complexity (limited by pattern)

ƒ Computer-aided design
ƒ Investment casting
ƒ Ceramic and wax cores allow complex internal ƒ Rapid (free-form) pattern making
configuration but costs increase significantly

ƒDie casting
ƒ Low due to high die modification costs