American Geographical Society

Mopan Maya Forest Resources in Southern Belize

Author(s): Michael K. Steinberg
Source: Geographical Review, Vol. 88, No. 1 (Jan., 1998), pp. 131-137
Published by: American Geographical Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/215876
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 GEOGRAPHICALFIELD NOTE

MOPAN MAYA FOREST RESOURCES IN SOUTHERN BELIZE

MICHAEL K. STEINBERG

The Mopan Maya of southern Belize are like many other indigenous cultures
aroundthe globe in thatthe centralgovernmenthas"given"them a reservation,from
which they areexpectedto supportthemselves.However,the traditionalareaswhere
the Mopanhunt and collectforestproductsincludeterritoryoutsidethe reservation,
landsto which the Mopanhaveno legalclaimandoverwhich theyhaveno influence,
even though management decisions affect their lifeways (Wilk and Chapin 1989).
Tensionsare risingbetween the Mopan and the centralgovernmentover accessto,
control over,and managementof landsthey use, particularlyoverthe government's
granting of logging concessions in the Columbia RiverForestReserve.
Locatedin the ToledoDistrict in farsouthern Belize,the Mopan villagesof San
Jos6,Na LumKa,and CriqueJutearenearthe northernedge of the indigenousreser-
vation;the ColumbiaReserve,just north of these villages,is outside the officialbor-
dersof the reservation(Figure1).IndividualsfromSanJos6,Na LumKa,and Crique
Juteregularlyenter the ColumbiaReserveto collect resources.
I conducted researchfor my doctoraldissertationamong the Mopan from 1994
to 1998,spendingtime in all of the villagesI mention in this note. I chose to studythe
MopanMayabecausetheirculture,economy,and environmenthavebeen alteredin
the past twentyyears,as a resultof the increasinginfluence of Christianmissionar-
ies, marketeconomics, and the centralBelizeangovernment.
The government does not acknowledge Mopan use of resources other than
those found in theirmilpasor in the immediatevicinity of theirvillages.Instead,Be-
lizean authoritiesview the matureforest in the reserveas standing timber,unpro-
ductive unless it is logged. They considersubsistencehunting and the gatheringof
nontimberforestproductsunimportantactivitiesbecausethe governmentreceives
no direct revenue from them.
In the past twenty years the Belizean government demonstratedinterest and
leadershipin environmentalconservationby designatinglargetractsof landwithin
Belizeasprotectedareas.Belizecontinuesto marketitselfas an ecotouristmeccaand
as an environmentallyenlightened nation. Yet,in its relationshipwith the Maya
peoples of southern Belize, the government practicesan inconsistent, if not dis-
criminatory,policy in terms of incorporatingthe Maya'scultural-ecologicalactivi-
ties into management plans for the protected areas that indigenous people use
(Steinberg1996). The Mopan have responded in distinctiveways to their conflict
with the government.

*i MR. STEINBERG is a doctoral candidate in geography at Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge,
Louisiana 70803.
The Geographical Review 88 (1): 131-137, January 1998
Copyright ? 1998by the American GeographicalSociety of New York
132 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

FIG.1-The Mopan Mayalandscapein Belize,1998.(Cartographybythe LouisianaState University

CartographicServices)

MOPAN MAYA CULTURAL ECOLOGY AND THE COLUMBIA RIVER FOREST RESERVE

The MopanMayaexploitavarietyof resourcesin the diverseold-growthlowlandand

lowermontanetropicalforestsof the ColumbiaReserve.Littleold-growthor mature
secondaryforestremainsoutsidethe ColumbiaReservearoundMopanMayavil-
lages.Insecurelandtenurehasled the Mayato reducethe lengthof timethattheir
milpaslie fallow(Steinberg1998).Theresultsof thisshort-termswidden-fallow
sys-
tem areevidentin the vegetationof the ToledoDistrict.Noncultivatedvegetation
neverreachesmaturity, so themosaicof milpas,secondarygrowth,andmaturefor-
 GEOGRAPHICAL FIELD NOTE 133

FIG. 2-Heliconias spp. and cohune palms surround a Mopan Maya milpa in southern Belize,
August 1996.(Photograph by the author)

ests that is found in traditional,long-term swidden-fallowculturallandscapeshas,

outside the forest reserve,been replacedby an almost monotonous landscape of
grasses (Cecropiasspp. and Heliconiasspp.) and cohune palms (Orbignyacohune)
(Figure2).
Accordingto a biodiversitystudy conductedby the ConservationInternational
RapidAssessmentProgramin 1993,the forestsof the ColumbiaReserve"areof great
nationaland internationalimportanceas a reservoirof biologicaldiversity.""[T]his
is one of the only large,continuous tractsof relativelyundisturbedevergreenforest
left in Middle America."Accordingto the assessmentteam, the reservehouses "the
most species-richplant and animalcommunitiesin Belize"(Parkerand others1993,
14).Becauseof this diversity,andbecauseso little matureforestremainsaroundvil-
lages,the Columbia Reserveis a source of game and nontimber forestproducts for
the Mopan Maya.
In my January1998surveyof thirty-one Mopan Mayafrom San Josewho regu-
larlyhunt, informantsindicatedthat they overwhelminglypreferredto hunt game
in the Columbia Reserveratherthan in the milpas and palm foreststhat surround
the villages.Morethan halfsaidthatthey huntedexclusivelyin the old-growthforest
in the reserve,ten claimed that they hunted in both the forest reserveand the de-
134 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

gradedvegetation,and only fivesaid that they hunted exclusivelyin the milpasand

palm forests.
The species hunted or trappedby the Mopan include, from most to least, col-
lared peccary (Tayassutajaca), gibnut (Agoutipaca), red brocket deer (Mazama
americana),white-taileddeer (Odocoileusvirginiana),white-lipped peccary (Tay-
assu pecari), great currasow(Craxrubra),coati (Nasua narica), crestedguan (Pe-
nelopepurpurascens),armadillo (Dasypusnovemcinctus),raccoon (Procyonlotor),
and parrots (Amazonaspp.). Peccaryand gibnut are the most frequentlyhunted
speciesbecausetheirhabitatrequirementsarethe most generaland includeboth de-
gradedand matureforests.Otherspecies requirematuretropicalforest for part or
all of their life cycles and are found only in the Columbia Reserve.These include
white-lipped peccary,red brocketdeer,crestedguan, and greatcurrasow.
Eventhough the collaredpeccaryis frequentlyhunted and found in the milpas
and palm groves that surround villages, peccariesbuild burrows and keep their
young in the forestreserve,accordingto the Mopan.As adults,the collaredpeccary
travelin bandsthatrangebetweenthe ColumbiaReserveandthe degradedlandscape
aroundvillages,raidingmilpas.A similarpatternholds trueforthe white-taileddeer,
the fourth most hunted animal.Althoughhuntersdo claimto takewhite-taileddeer
in their milpas,the deer,like the peccary,arecommonly found in the borderregion
between the reserveand the agriculturallandscape.Game-animalpopulations are
unlikelyto remainviablearoundMopanvillages:Evenhabitatgeneralistssuch as the
collaredpeccaryand white-taileddeersufferas reserveforestsare cleared.
The Mopan relyon the reservefor the collection of nontimber forestproducts.
Medicinalplants are important.Although some of them are collected in degraded
agriculturallandscapes,healersturn to the old-growth forestfor many others.A li-
anais used to healsnakebites;barkscrapingsheal rashesandburns;and forestshrub
roots, brewed, alleviatestomach ailments.Accordingto one of my Mopan infor-
mants, these plants were limited to the old-growth forest in the reserve.If logging
continuesthere,traditionalhealingandgeneralethnobotanicalknowledgeof forest
plantswill erode.Traditionalhealingis alreadyon the declineamong the Mopanbe-
causethe youngergenerationlacksinterestin it and becauseevangelicalmissionar-
ies discourage it (Steinberg1997). Eliminating the environment in which many
medicinal plants originatewill marginalizethis culturalinstitution even further.
The forestreservefunctionsas a gene bankforeconomicallyimportanttrees.Fe-
ral cacao,or what the Mopan call "wildcacao,"is found there,perhapsremnantsof
forestgardensplantedby ancientMaya.Increasingly,cacaoproductionis forexport,
but an improvedvariety of cacao trees, imported from Costa Rica, is infected by
blackpod disease.As a result,some Mopanwho growcacaoareexperimentingwith
wild cacao,which they hope is hardierthanthe importedstrains.The Mopancollect
seeds and seedlingsin the forestreserveto plant in their kitchengardens.Although
local, nondomesticatedtrees make up a minority of the total number of species in
Mopan kitchengardens,they were still recordedin everygardensurveyedfor a re-
lated researchprojectI undertook in 1997.
 GEOGRAPHICAL FIELD NOTE 135

The Mopan view the forest reserve as a resource that can generate income
through nonexploitativemeans by attractingtouriststo villagesthat border the re-
serve.In 1992a groupof Mopanmen fromSanJoseformedMayaTrekkers,the mem-
bers of which serveasguidesfortouristswho want to enterthe reserveto bird-watch,
explore caves,or simply hike and camp in the old-growth forest (Steinberg1996).
The group requestedpermission from the ForestryDepartmentto cleartrails and
build simple thatch structuresto house guides and tourists who make overnight
treks in the reserve.Their requests were denied because of logging concessions
grantedwithin the reserve'sborders.The governmentdoes not want to set the stage
for a conflict in which villagersclaim to havea legitimateeconomic activitythat de-
pends on keepingthe forestintactand therebychallengethe loggingconcession.De-
nying permissionto develop naturetourism in the reservewas a cear indicationto
the villagersthatthe governmentwas not interestedin a locallyinitiatedsustainable-
developmentprojectif it called into question tenure rights in the forest reserve.
Severaldevelopment agencies have focused on women's cooperativesin Maya
villagesto ensurethat tourism provideseconomic opportunitiesfor women as well
as men. Women make baskets,pottery,jewelry,and a varietyof weavingsto sell to
touristswho visit villages.However,Mopan men and women fearthat if naturalat-
tractionssuch as the old-growthforestdisappear,fewtouristswill makethe arduous
journeyto the Toledo District.It seems to the Mopanthat the governmenthas little
interestin tropical-forestconservationor sustainabledevelopmentin areas,such as
the ToledoDistrict,that arebeyond the reachof most guidebooksand tour groups.
The governmentclaimsthat only selectivelogging is takingplace in the reserve
andthatthe loggingcompaniesmust meetstrictenvironmentalguidelines.However,
as of January1998therewas little supervisionof the actuallogging sites by any Be-
lizeanofficials,becausethe ForestryDepartmentwas understaffedand underfunded
(Wright1996). Instead,an air of secrecyand suspicion hangs over the entire plan.
This secrecyhas persistedfrom the beginning,when local communitieswere not in-
formedof the concessionsuntil aftertheyhadbeen granted.The governmenthas not
conductedstudiesof the impactof loggingon localwildlife,streamhydrology,orwa-
terquality.Fluvialissuesareof greatconcernto the Mopanbecausethe headwatersof
riversthat pass through all of the borderingvillagesare in the forest reserve.
MOPAN RESPONSE TO LOGGING IN THE COLUMBIA RIVER FOREST RESERVE

The inability of the Mopan to have any input concerninglogging in the Columbia
Reservehas demonstratedto them that they havevery little legal control overlands
within their cultural-ecological sphere of influence. Logging is a rallying issue
throughwhich the Mopanhope to galvanizesupportfor land reformand the estab-
lishment of an indigenous homeland in the Toledo District. These are the focal
points of the Toledo Maya CulturalCouncil (TMCC), an indigenous organization
comprising Mopan and KekchiMayafrom southern Belize.
The TMCCis calling for a halt to logging in the ColumbiaReserveand for recog-
nition by the Belizeangovernmentthat the Mayashould gain legaltitle to lands they
136 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

farm and to forestsin which they hunt and collect nontimberforest products.The
TMCC proposed the creationof a 5oo,ooo-acreindigenous homeland that includes
the ColumbiaReserve(Palacio1989;Wilkand Chapin1989).This proposalhas gen-
erated a great deal of conflict among the Maya,the government,and other ethnic
groups in southern Belize who call the proposition outrageous.Many non-Maya
residentsof the Toledo District sympathizewith the Maya'slack of official title to
theirlandsand supportthe callfor a moratoriumon logging.Manyalso believethat
the proposedhomelandgoes too farin its effortsto addressindigenousland tenure.
The TMCC demanded a halt to the paving of the often-impassableSouthern
Highwayuntil the tenure and logging issues are resolved.The group believes that
roadimprovementswill leadto an accelerationof loggingon indigenouslands.This
has also generatedconflict between the Mayaand other ethnic groups in southern
Belize, particularlyamong those individuals in Punta Gorda whose businesses
would benefitfromimprovedland-transportationconnectionsbetweenthe remote
Toledo District and centralBelize,which is the economic centerof the country.
In responseto these issuesthe TMCC,with the assistanceof the IndianLawCen-
ter, the GeoMap Group, and the geographerBernardNietschmann, produced a
Maya Atlas that depicts the extent of each village's cultural-ecologicalterritory
(TMCC 1997).This was done to illustrateto the government which resourcesthe
Mayause and where the resourcesare located.
CONCLUSIONS

Logginglimits the cultural-ecologicalchoices availableto the Mopan. If the forest

disappears,so will the game animals,the medicinalplants,the wild fruits,andthe ge-
netic heritageof thousandsof yearsof tropical-forestevolution. If these naturalre-
sourcesdisappear,so will the culturaldiversitythat allowsthe Mopanto understand
and exploit their diversenaturalenvironment.
The Mopanarewell awarethatloggingthreatenstheirecologicalknowledge,and
they have askedme to conduct an ethnobotanicalinventoryof the flora in the Co-
lumbia Reserve.The TMCC believesthis informationcan be used to strengthentheir
claimsto the forestreserve.The Mopanarealsousing the lessonslearnedby otherin-
digenousgroups,amongthem the KunaIndiansin Panamaand the MiskitoIndians
in Nicaragua,and approachingthe tenureissuethrougha "green"discoursein order
to enlist the support of the internationalenvironmentalcommunity (Nietschmann
1991).Insteadof simplyprotestingtheirlackof tenurerights,they includea conserva-
tion agendain theircallsforgovernmentrecognitionof Mayalandsand resources.
The governmentis missing a unique opportunityto developa new conservation
strategyin southern Belize.The proximityof the ColumbiaReserveto the Mopan
villagesmakesit an ideal setting for a biospherereserve-typeprotectedarea.Areas
could be designatedfor extractivepurposes,with a protectedcore in which the Mo-
pan could develop nature tourism. Unfortunately,the Belizean government has
been swayedby the lure of quickprofits,which come at the expense of both culture
and ecology.
 GEOGRAPHICAL FIELD NOTE 137

A field of view is alwayschanging,and to a degreegeographyis the hostage of

politics. Electionsin Belize have the potential to alterthe direction of government
policy, and, indeed, the newly elected Belize government,in the fall of 1998, prom-
ised to appoint a commission to investigatelogging in and aroundthe Mayareserve.
Whether this actuallyeffects past practiceremainsto be seen.
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Nietschmann, B. 1991. Conservationby Self-Determination.National GeographicResearchand Ex-
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Quarterly 13 (3): 49-51.
Parker,T.A., B. K. Hoist, L.H. Emmons, and J.R.Meyer. 1993. A BiologicalAssessmentofthe Colum-
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