4 MOTORS

For converting Electrical Power to Mechanical Power, Motors are used. In a motor,
electrical power forces the armature to turn, and the moving armature, through a
mechanical system of belts or gears, turns a mechanical load. A motor converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy.

D.C. Motors

Principles of D.C. Motors

When a current flows through the coil, the coil itself acts as a magnet; and if the coil is
suspended between poles of magnets then, it will move by the force between the two
magnetic fields. This is the principle of operation of all dc motors, from the smallest to
the largest.

The elementary d.c. motor is basically a loop of wire between the poles of a magnet. The
ends of the loop connect to commutator segments, which in turn make contact with the
brushes. The brushes have connecting wires leading to a source of dc voltage. With the
loop in position 1, the current flowing through the loop makes the top of the loop a north
pole and the underside a south pole, according to the left-hand rule. The magnetic poles
(of the loop) will be attracted by the corresponding opposite poles of the field. The loop
will therefore rotate clockwise, bringing the unlike poles together. When the loop has
rotated through 90 degrees to position 2, commutation takes place, and the current
through the loop reverses in direction. As a result, the magnetic field generated by the
loop reverses. Now like poles face each other, which means that they repel each other:
the loop continues to rotate in an attempt to bring unlike poles together. So rotating 180
degrees past position 2, the loop finds itself in position 3. Now the situation is the same
as when the loop was back in position 2. Commutation takes place once again, and the
loop continues to rotate. This is the fundamental action of the dc motor.

Fig.1

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Construction of DC Motor

The fields are mounted in the stator. The armature is then inserted between the field
poles and the housing end, with the brush assemblies mounted last.

Main Frame: The main frame is sometimes called the "yoke." It is the foundation of the
machine and supports the other components. It also serves to complete the magnetic
field between the pole pieces.

Pole Pieces: The pole pieces are made of many thin layers of iron or steel, called
laminations, joined together and bolted to the inside of the frame. These pole pieces
provide a support for the field coils, and are designed to produce a concentrated field. By
laminating the poles, eddy currents are reduced.

Fig.2

Field Windings: The field windings, when mounted on the pole pieces, form
electromagnets which provide the magnetic field necessary for motor action. The
windings and pole pieces together are often called the "field." The windings are coils of
insulated wire wound to fit closely around pole pieces. The current flowing through these
coils generates the magnetic field. Field windings can be connected either in series or in
parallel (or "shunt," as the parallel connection is often called) with the armature. Shunt
field windings consist of many turns of fine wire, while series field windings are
composed of fewer turns of fairly heavy wire.

End Housings: These are attached to the ends of the main frame and contain the
bearings for the armature. The rear housing usually supports the bearing only, while the
front housing also supports the brush assemblies.
Brush Holder: This component supports the brushes and their connecting wires. The
brush holders are secured to the front end housing with clamps.

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Fig.3

Armature Assembly: In practically all dc motors, the armature rotates between the
poles of the field. The armature assembly is made up of a shaft, armature core, armature
windings and commutator. The armature core is laminated, and is slotted to take the
armature windings. The armature windings are usually wound in forms and then placed
in the slots of the core. The commutator is made up of copper segments insulated from
one another and from the shaft, by mica. The shaft supports the entire armature
assembly and rotates in the end bearings. There is a small air gap between the armature
and pole pieces to prevent rubbing between the armature and pole pieces during
rotation. This gap is kept to a minimum in order to keep the field strength at a maximum.

Brushes: The brushes ride on the commutator, and carry the applied voltage to the
armature. They are usually made of a high grade of carbon. and are held in place by
brush holders. The brushes are made to slide up and down in their holders so as to be
able to follow irregularities in the surface of the commutator.

Fig.4
Controlling The Speed of a DC motor

The speed of a dc motor depends upon

1. the strength of the magnetic field

2. Voltage applied to the armature
3. Load.

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The speed of dc motor can therefore be controlled by varying the field current or by
varying the voltage attached to armature.

Maintenance

The main maintenance work is to oil the bearing & ensure good contact between
brushes & commutator.

Excess lubrication can cause faults in motor operations but lack of it is more serious.
Unlubricated bearing results in overheating resulting in expansion of the shaft & bearing
assembly further resulting in shaft rotation stoppage. Lack of lubrication also results in
noisy operation.

The continual sliding of the brushes against the commutators wears the brushes down &
tends to push them out of alignment, causing bad connection between commutators &
brushes. In case of bad brush, there is usually excessive sparking. For satisfactory
commutation , a continuous contact between commutator & brushes must be
maintained.

When there is excessive sparking , the assembly must be checked & any defect found
must be corrected as soon as possible. The following steps are suggested.

1. Watch the motor for any sparking.

2. On finding excessive sparking, turn off the motor. Disconnect load.
3. Inspect the machine for any loose connection.
4. Check the relative position of the brushes on the commutator. If they are
unequally spaced, look for bent brush holder.
5. Check the condition of brushes. If worn, should be replaced.
6. Check for any dirt or roughness on the commutator. Replace dirt with light
canvas. Fine sand paper may be used to remove roughness. Never use
emery cloth on a commutator.

A.C. Motors

Since a major part of all electrical power generated is ac, many motors are designed for
ac operation. AC motors can, in most cases, duplicate the operation of dc motors and
are less troublesome to operate. This is because dc machines encounter difficulties from
the action of commutation which involves brushes, brush holders, neutral planes etc.
Some ac motors, in contrast, do not even use slip rings with the result that they give
trouble-free operation over long periods of time.

AC motors are particularly well suited for constant-speed applications, since the speed is
determined by the frequency of the ac applied to the motor terminals. AC motors are
also made which have variable speed characteristics within certain limits.

AC motors can be designed to operate from a single-phase ac supply or from a

multiphase ac supply. Whether the motor is single-phase or multi-phase, it operates on
the same principle. This principle is that the ac applied to the motor generates a rotating
magnetic field and this rotating magnetic field causes the rotor of the motor to turn. AC
motors are generally classified into two types:

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1. Synchronous motor
2. Induction motor

The synchronous motor is an alternator operated as a motor, in which ac is applied to

the stator and dc is applied to the rotor. The induction motor differs from the
synchronous motor in that it does not have its rotor connected to any source of power.
Of the two types of ac motors mentioned, the induction motor is by far the most
commonly used.

The Synchronous Motor

The synchronous motor is so called because its rotor is synchronized with the rotating
field set up by the stator. The application of three-phase ac to the stator causes a
rotating magnetic field to be set up around the rotor. But since the rotor is energized with
dc, it will act like a bar magnet. If a bar magnet is suspended in a magnetic field, it will
turn until it lines up with the magnetic field. In the same way, the energized rotor of a
synchronous motor, acting like a magnet, will line up with the magnetic field caused by
the application of three-phase ac to the stator. If the magnetic field turns, the rotor will
turn with the field. If the rotating magnetic field is strong, it will exert a strong turning
force on the rotor, which will therefore be able to turn a load as it rotates.

The speed of rotation of the magnetic field depends on the frequency of the three phase
ac supply and since the supply frequency is fixed, synchronous motors are single-speed
motors. They are used for loads which require constant speed from no-load right through
to the full load condition.

One of the disadvantages of a synchronous motor is that it cannot be started from a

standstill by applying three-phase ac to the stator. The instant ac is applied to the stator,
a high-speed rotating field appears. This rotating field rushes past the rotor poles so
quickly that the rotor does not have a chance to get started; it is repelled first in one
direction and then in the other.

In other words, a synchronous motor in its pure form has no starting torque. It is usually
started, therefore, with the help of a small induction motor, or with windings equivalent to
this incorporated in the synchronous motor. When the rotor has been brought near to
synchronous speed by the starting device, it is energized by connecting it to a d.c.
voltage source. The rotor then falls into step with the rotating field.

Induction Motors

The induction motor is the most commonly used ac motor because of its simplicity, its
robust construction and its low manufacturing cost. These characteristics of the induction
motor are due to the fact that the rotor is a self-contained unit which is not connected to
the external source of voltage. The induction motor derives its name from the fact that ac
currents are induced in the rotor circuit by the rotating magnetic field in the stator.

The stator construction of the induction motor and of the synchronous motor are almost
identical, but their rotors are completely different. The induction motor rotor is a
laminated cylinder with slots in its surface. The windings in these slots are one of two
types. The most common is called a "squirrel-cage winding," which is made up of heavy

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copper bars connected together at either end by a metal ring made of copper or brass:
No insulation is required between the core and the bars because of the very low
voltages generated in the rotor bars. The air gap between the rotor and stator is kept
very small so as to obtain maximum field strength. The other type of winding contains
coils placed in the rotor slots. The rotor is then called a "wound rotor".

Regardless of the type of rotor used, the basic principle of operation is the same. The
rotating magnetic field generated in the stator induces an e.m.f. in the rotor. The current
in the rotor circuit caused by this induced e.m.f. sets up a magnetic field. The two fields
interact, and cause the rotor to turn.

Induction motors are designed for three-phase, two-phase, or single-phase operation.

But in every case the ac applied to the stator must generate a rotating field which will
pull the rotor with it. Three-phase ac applied to a three-phase symmetrically distributed
winding generates a rotating magnetic field.

Fig.5

D.C. MOTOR STARTERS

In d.c. Motors, we know that the armature resistance is very low, usually less than one
ohm. If this resistance were the only opposition to current flow, the armature current
would be excessively high. When the motor is running, however, the back-e.m.f.
generated in the rotating armature opposes the applied voltage and limits the size of the
armature current.

When the motor is just starting, the back-e.m.f. is zero or very low, and the starting
current would be very high if it was not limited in some way. To prevent this high starting
current (which would damage the armature windings and commutator), a resistance
called the "starting resistor" is put in series with the armature at starting. As the speed
and the back-e.m.f. increase, the starting resistor is gradually shorted out of the circuit.

The complete starting resistor assembly is called a "d.c. starter". In addition to limiting
the value of the starting current, the d.c. starter usually contains devices intended to
protect the motor in case the field circuit becomes open circuited, or in case the applied

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voltage becomes too low. It is also necessary to ensure that the starting resistance is
automatically reconnected into the circuit every time the motor stops.

There are various types of starters, some manually controlled and some automatic.
Usually the starting current is limited to about one and a half times the normal full load
current.

There are some small d.c. motors, whose armatures contain many turns of fine wire,
offering enough resistance to the current flow to make a starter unnecessary; but all
large d.c. motors require some type of starter or controller.

Fig.6

The Elementary Starter

Fig.7

An elementary starter consists of a resistance with taps on it. A knife switch whose
contacts connect to the taps on the resistor can progressively short this resistance out.
When the motor is first started, the switch contacts the end of the resistor, so that all of
the resistance is in series with the armature. As the motor speeds up, the blade is slowly
closed, thus shorting out more and more of the resistance until, when the switch is
completely closed, all of the resistance is shorted.

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The disadvantage of the elementary starter is that if the operator forgets to open the
starting switch when the main switch is opened to stop the motor. The armature will have
no limiting resistance connected to it when the motor is next restarted.

Also, the elementary starter does not protect the motor from excessive speed if a break
in the field circuit occurs. The elementary starter has, therefore, no practical application.

The starter for a series motor is usually incorporated by the speed-regulating device, and
is known as the controller. In its simplest form, a controller consists of a large rheostat in
series with the field and with the armature, the setting of the rheostat determining the
speed of the motor. Means are usually provided for reversing the connections to the
armature, so that the motor can be reversed.

Shunt Motor Starters

One type of shunt motor starter has three terminals. Point L goes to one side of the
supply, point A to the armature, and point F to the field. When starting the motor, the arm
is moved to the first contact, and the entire resistance is placed in series with the
armature circuit. The field coil is connected in series with an electromagnet across the
supply. As the motor builds up speed and the back-e.m.f. increases, the arm is moved to
each of the contacts in turn, decreasing the resistance in steps. As the arm moves
across the starter, some of the resistance is also in series with the field and the
electromagnet coil. When the arm is all the way to the right, in the "run-position," the
armature is directly across the supply, and the motor is operating at full speed.

Fig.8

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In the run position, a small piece of iron on the arm is held by the electro-magnet through
whose coil the field current flows. If the supply voltage fails or is switched off, or if the
field circuit is broken, the magnet no longer attracts the iron, and a return spring pulls the
arm back to the "off" position-thus disconnecting the motor from the supply, and
preventing it from being started without any starting resistance when the supply voltage
is applied once again.

The return spring can also be set to return the arm if the voltage drops by a certain
amount. This is called "Iow-voltage" protection.

Overload protection is provided by a second electromagnet connected so that the

armature current flows through its coil. It is adjusted so that when the current exceeds a
predetermined safe value, a piece of iron attached to a spring-loaded arm is attracted to
the magnet. At the end of this arm is a link, which then connects two terminals and
shorts-out the coil of the electromagnet holding the starter arm in the run position. The
starter arm is thus released, and disconnects the motor from the supply.

Fig.9

When it is desired to obtain variable speed-control of the motor by varying the field
current, the electromagnet, which holds the starter arm in the run-position, may be
connected directly across the supply above. This type of connection allows variation of
field current without altering the pull of the electromagnet; but it does not give protection
against an open-circuited field.

Star-delta Starter

This method is used for motors which are built to run usually with a delta-
connected stator winding. It consists of a two-way switch which connects the motor in
star for starting and then in delta for normal functioning.

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Fig.10

The usual connections are shown in Fig. When star-connected, the applied voltage
over each motor phase is reduced by a factor of 1/√3 and hence the torque developed
becomes 1/3 of that which would have been developed if motor were directly connected
in delta. The line current is reduced to 1/3. Hence, during starting period when motor is
Y-connected, it takes 1/3rd as much starting current and develops 1/3rd as much torque
as would have been developed were it directly connected in delta.

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