p



Many people will have noticed that most of the professional high-power amplifiers made these
days are Class-G, and seem to have remarkably little heatsinking for the claimed power output.
Should one look inside, there are more output transistors than expected too. As well, you may
notice that there are also many more diodes than you'd expect to find in any "normal" amplifier.

All very baffling, and especially so since there is so little information on the Net about Class-G
amplifiers. There are almost no schematics that are more than a basic concept, so figuring out
how they work is not easy. While a very few circuit diagrams can be found in manufacturers'
websites, for the most part it seems that there's a conspiracy of silence surrounding these amps.
Without a full service manual, the likelihood of most people finding a complete Class-G
schematic are fairly limited.

Certainly, they are discussed (or in some cases simply dismissed [ 1 ]) in various books on audio
amplification, with varying opinions as to their suitability, sonic qualities, etc. One thing is quite
clear - the added complexity is only of benefit for high powered amplifiers, having an output
power of 200-300W or more. In addition, the use of Class-G is of dubious value for normal
home listening, where the average power may only be a few Watts but instantaneous (peak or
transient) power may reach far higher levels. Although there are modest gains in efficiency, they
do not warrant the additional complexity.

At the modest power ratings generally needed for home use (generally below 200W per
channel), a traditional Class-(A)B amplifier is perfectly capable of providing as much noise as
you'll need, without raising a sweat. In addition, the lower complexity reduces the likelihood of
distortion artefacts, which (it is claimed) may become audible in some (others may say Ô )
Class-G designs.

Despite the so-called "failings" of Class-G, the technique is now being used for high-speed
ADSL line drivers [ 2 ] . This is a surprisingly demanding application, and that the benefits were
seen as worthwhile and the apparent limitations (marginal dissipation improvement, distortion)
of little concern, some people take the technique very seriously indeed.

In some respects, a Class-G amp can be likened to an amplifier that uses series output devices.
This arrangement is not especially common, but is sometimes used to improve the safe operating
area for the output transistors by limiting the voltage across each transistor pair. From the
perspective of improving efficiency, the series design does nothing useful, other than spread the
wasted power across more transistors. If one were to contemplate such a design, it makes more
sense to add a lower voltage supply rail and make the amplifier Class-G, since there are several
benefits.
¢

 

 
 


For this article, the amplifiers discussed will all operate with identical supply voltages and a
resistive 4 ohm load. The supply voltage is 70V (i.e. ±70V), and ignoring all losses, an ideal amp
running from this voltage will produce 625W into 4 ohms. There are Ô
Ô losses, so we can
expect to obtain a typical output power of around 550W. This remains true regardless of the
topology, provided the power supply voltage does not collapse under load. For the examples
shown below, the supply voltage is fixed at ±70V regardless of load current. Real amplifiers will
not achieve the same results, except for brief periods before the filter capacitors have time to
discharge. Continuous power will typically be in the order of 500W into 4 ohms, depending on
the power supply.

The use of a fixed supply voltage simplifies the calculations and simulations, but is somewhat
pessimistic. In a real amplifier, the lower supply voltage with high output power results in lower
power transistor dissipation. However, I have  included any tests with real loudspeaker loads,
so the reactive load normally seen by the amplifier will result in  
 dissipation than shown.
In general, it is necessary to assume that peak dissipation with reactive loads will be double that
obtained with a resistive load.

 

 This is not a project, and no schematics are to be assumed to be workable as shown.

For this reason, no transistor types are specified. While most schematics show a single output
device, there is no single transistor known that can dissipate the power levels expected in the real
world with the given supply voltage and load impedance. Multiple devices - in parallel, with
emitter resistors - will always be needed in practice.

 

 



The entire premise of a Class-G amplifier is that the configuration is more efficient than Class-B.
This means that less heat is dissipated in the output transistors, but this is entirely dependent on
the power level. When a high power amp is operated at low power, no amplifier topology is
particularly efficient - this includes Class-D (switching) amplifiers. For example, any 500W
amplifier that's being run at around 1W will usually dissipate quite a bit of power, but in the
greater scheme of things it's negligible. A class-B amp with 70V rails will dissipate about 30W,
and Class-G (with voltages as described here) about 16W. Compared to worst case dissipation
it's nothing, and many amps will exceed that just with idle current. Even a Class-D amp may
approach this due to quiescent power and switching losses.

At higher power, a linear amp will start to dissipate significant power in the output devices, and
this varies with the power level. As the most common of all topologies, Class-B (or Class-AB if
you prefer) has a very predictable dissipation at any given output voltage and current.
 -  


 

  

  

Figure 1 shows the dissipation of the output transistors of one side of a simple Class-B amplifier
using a 70V supply and feeding a 4 ohm load. The dissipation is seen to increase until the output
voltage reaches 35V (exactly half the supply voltage), after which it falls again. Only one side of
the amplifier is shown, and the test circuit is seen in Figure 2. Naturally, in a real amplifier, the
total average dissipation at any voltage is quite different with sinewave or music signals. This is
covered later in the article. The average power dissipated for a continuous sawtooth waveform is
about 204W.
 - ¢



 




The test signal used was not a sinewave (or a half sinewave, to be exact), because that makes the
power dissipation curve too complex for simple analysis. The linear increase of voltage shows
the maximum dissipation very clearly, and it occurs at that point where the voltage across the
load and output transistor are equal. For the test circuit, this occurs at 35V. With a sinewave
signal, worst case transistor dissipation occurs when the RMS output voltage is roughly half the
DC supply voltage - 35V RMS, or 306W into a 4 ohm load. Again, this only applies for a
resistive load.

Two circuits are shown, Class-B and Class-G. These were used to capture the power dissipation
waveforms, and to perform all power calculations.


 



With any amplifier, the overall efficiency is based on the power supplied to the amp from its
power supply and how much of that power gets to the load. The discrepancy indicates the power
lost in the amplifier itself. In an ideal world, all the power from the supply would be delivered to
the load (100% efficiency), but this can never be achieved in practice with any type of amplifier.

Using the test circuit shown in Figure 2 and the same sawtooth waveform used for previous
measurements, I measured load power and output device dissipation. For this exercise, driver
transistor dissipation was ignored, as I deliberately "fudged" the simulation parameters to keep
this at a very low value (typically less than 1W). A 3-rail Class-G stage was also simulated, but
is not shown. Ignoring losses, with 3 supplies, each at 23.33V, the inner devices naturally get
23.33V, the middle transistor supply is 44.66V and the outer devices 70V (close enough).
Average dissipation is the sum of all power transistor dissipations (1, 2 or 3). Input power is the
sum of the output power and the dissipated power in all output devices, and with a resistive load
(this gives a slightly optimistic result). The results are tabulated below ...


 
 

  


 

  


 
 
 

Average Load
381W 381W 381W 381W
Power
Average
204W 151W 133W 143W
Dissipation
Peak
304W 268W 220W 297W
Dissipation
Input Power 585W 532W 514W 524W
Efficiency 65% 72% 74% 72%
¢  


 



 

The peak dissipation figures given are for the highest instantaneous power that is handled by the
device(s). For Class-G, this is Ô
Ô the outermost devices, regardless of the number of supply
rails. As is readily apparent, increasing the complexity to use three supply rails gives a marginal
improvement in efficiency. Also, bear in mind that the overall efficiency of any Class-G amp is
affected by the dynamic range of the programme material and the overall level. The above data
show the dissipation and efficiency with an applied 0-70V sawtooth waveform, but this is a
highly unlikely waveform in the real world. Also note that this is only one half of an amp, and is
used for explanatory purposes only.

Actual results will vary - possibly widely - depending on the usage of the amplifier. One thing is
obvious, and that's that a 3-rail system has a minimal improvement over two rail systems. The
switched-rail variant is discussed below, but was included here to keep the data organised, and to
allow easy comparison.

It must be understood that the efficiency figures shown above are different from the generally
published values. This is because a sawtooth waveform was used, and not a sinewave. Half
sinewave testing will change the numbers, but the relationships will remain fairly similar. For
the Class-B example, load power is 287W, transistor dissipation is 90W, and efficiency is 76%.
Class-G improves this, with 71W dissipation and 80% efficiency. These figures are for full
power, and are not representative of expected performance with music signals.

 

¢ 
A very common arrangement used in many commercial amps using Class-G is to operate the
power transistors in series, as shown in Figure 2 (note the drawing shows only one polarity, and
highly simplified. Figure 3 shows a similarly simplified schematic of a Class-G amp, but using
both polarities. The two transistor sets will be referred to as the 
 Ô - those connected
directly to the output and powered via diodes from a low voltage supply, and the 
 Ô -
those connected to the high voltage rails.

This arrangement is popular because it's relatively simple to achieve, and if done properly gives
very good results. The remainder of this article will concentrate on this topology, although there
are others that can also be used. These will be discussed later, but not in great depth.

- 
   

  

The output stage above will be used for all further analysis of the Class-G output stage. The
front-end and VAS (voltage amplifier stage) are virtually identical to any normal Class-B
amplifier. The VAS would normally be used in place of one of the current sources shown. The
arrangement above is convenient for analysis because it is quite straightforward.

Because the inner transistors (Q2 and Q5) are supplied with ±35V, both inner output transistors
and drivers must be rated for at least 105V breakdown voltage. The voltage across each will vary
by the full inner supply voltage plus the difference between the inner and outer supplies of each
polarity. As the output swings between positive and negative, the inner transistors will therefore
get a maximum voltage of 70 + 35 = 105V, however prudence suggests that a higher rating is
preferable, and ideally one would use transistors rated for the full supply voltage. Once the signal
calls for a voltage exceeding 35V of either polarity, the outer transistors (Q6 and Q8) boost the
supply voltage in the direction required, allowing the output voltage to swing by almost the full
±70V. Even a small miscalculation (in design or implementation) may cause large amounts of
magic smoke to escape from expensive devices, and a great number of rude words to be uttered.
The voltage across the outer transistors can (in theory) never exceed 35V, so low voltage, high
power transistors may be used. If higher voltage devices are used, their SOA (safe operating
area) should be very good - depending on the devices chosen of course. A good SOA is
necessary, because by the time Q6 (for example) turns on, it will be expected to supply 8.75A
with the full 35V across it. This is an instantaneous power of 306W, far more than any one
transistor can withstand without failure. At the point where Q6 turns on, Q2 (the inner transistor)
is turned on fully, and remains so until Q6 turns off again. Consequently, the dissipation in Q2
and Q4 will remain quite low whenever the output voltage is greater than 35V in either direction.

With the supply voltages shown, the diodes providing the ±35V supplies must be rated for a
continuous average current of at least 5A, preferably more. The voltage rating is not a problem,
since the maximum reverse voltage is 35V with the supplies shown.

 

 



Class-G amplifiers use two or more supply rails of each polarity. There are as many opinions as
to the optimum voltages for each rail as there are people commenting on or designing Class-G
amps in general. The simple truth is that it depends on several factors.

The main influences are ...

yc Type of music - material that is heavily compressed has a limited dynamic range, so the
average and peak powers are often different by only a few dB. Other material (amplified
orchestral music for example) can have a very wide dynamic range, with the peak power
exceeding the average by 10-20dB or more.
yc Actual power level - if 500W amplifiers are only ever operated at low power (less than
200W or so) to make allowance for dynamic peaks, the supply voltage balance needs to
be very different from an amp that is operated at close to full power at all times.
yc Amplifier usage - an amplifier used for hi-fi has a completely different job from those
used in professional PA systems. Therefore, the requirements are also completely
different, and typically a lower low voltage supply may be preferable.
yc Speaker system - an amplifier driving a full range speaker with inbuilt passive crossovers
behaves very differently from a bank of amplifiers fed from the outputs of an electronic
crossover. When electronic crossovers are used, the dynamic range for each amp will
often be quite different from the full range signal.

The power dissipation (using the same signal as used for Figure 1 and the Class-G circuit shown
in Figure 2) is shown below. Whilst more complex because of the two sets of transistors, there
doesn't appear to be a vast overall difference at first glance.
 -  


  

  

To appreciate the effect, one must look at the area below the curves, and determine the average
power. The outer supplies remain at ±70V in all cases. For the inner transistors with 35V
supplies, the average power - using exactly the same waveform as used in Figure 1 (and looking
only at a positive signal) - is about 40W, and for the outer transistors (Q6 and Q8) it's 100W. The
total is therefore 140W vs 203W for Class-B, a significant reduction. The ratios will change with
differing supply voltage distribution. The total power will rise to 158W if the inner supplies are
reduced to 30V. Conversely, if the inner supplies are raised to 40V, the total average power is
reduced slightly to 136W, and with inner supplies of 45V the total average power falls further to
129W.

It would seem logical that the inner supplies should therefore be around 70% of the total, and
indeed, this will give the lowest overall dissipation - but   for continuous signals at full
power. The real world is very different, and amplifiers are not usually operated at full power with
a continuous waveform. They are used for music, and as discussed above, there are many factors
that influence the optimum inner voltage.

Most professional power amps that use a dual voltage supply will aim for the low voltage supply
to be between 40% and 50% of the main (high voltage) supply, but there can be significant
variations. When used for hi-fi applications, the low voltage supply may be as little as 30% of
the high voltage, since the amplifier will typically spend well over 90% of it's time without ever
turning on the outer transistors. Different designers will have different opinions, but the end
result will usually be fine for most purposes. The point is that there is no optimum percentage -
there are too many variables.

There are several high power designs that use more than 4 supply rails (i.e. two positive and two
negative voltages). There are some that have three supplies of each polarity, and even four is not
unknown. As always, the law of diminishing returns applies, and the designer must balance
complexity and cost against advantages. In most cases, this will result in a two or three stage
output circuit (a total of 2 or 3 supplies of each polarity). The process for adding extra supplies is
identical to that needed for a simple two stage Class-G stage, and multiple stages will not be
examined any further.

As mentioned by Douglas Self [ 3 ], there is an additional topology that he refers to as "shunt"

Class-G. This is not too uncommon with some commercial amplifiers, but is not covered here.
The primary difference between the series and shunt (or parallel) topologies is that the latter
requires that the secondary output devices must be capable of withstanding the full voltage from
the high voltage supplies.

The series connection only requires that the outer transistors be capable of the voltage difference
between the two supply voltages. This can make the device selection easier, since only high
power is needed, and not a combination of high power Ô high voltage. Safe operating area is
also improved with the lower voltage.

While the following is not normally publicised, it must be considered that certain test signals (in
particular) may embarrass many Class-G amplifiers. Dissipation with some waveforms at
specific levels may cause the amplifier to run far hotter than expected. This is not likely to be an
issue with normal music signals, but it could still happen!

For example, consider a signal to the amplifier that is clipped (due to incorrect levels set from
the mixer or crossover perhaps), and just happens to push the amp to just above the
commutation point (say 36V peak for our examples here).   

Ô
Ô
Ô

Ô
 Ô .

Under these conditions, the amplifier output stage (Figure 3) will effectively be driven with a
36V squarewave signal. Power to the load is about 147W. A Class-B amp will dissipate ~150W,
slightly less than may be expected. The Class-G amp will dissipate the same (150W), and this is
the same as when delivering full power - under these conditions, Class-G has not reduced the
dissipation at all

X 


Because the efficiency at various powers and waveforms is so hard to quantify, the following
graph will hopefully make it a little clearer. As you can see, the Class-G amp has higher
efficiency (meaning lower losses and less heat output) over the full operating range. The two
types of amp have the same maximum theoretical efficiency at full power. Note that the
efficiency of Class-B and Class-G amps can approach 100% if they are driven into hard clipping,
but this is not the way they are (or should) be used in practice.

The data are based on a sinewave signal and a 4 ohm resistive load. There is no correction for the
power supply voltage collapsing under load - these are theoretical curves only, and are included
to allow the difference to be seen easily. The circuit topology used for the graphs was based on
those in Figure 2, but modified for bipolar operation. Correction for crossover distortion was
included, since the Figure 2 circuits have no provision for transistor bias.
 - X 


  

  

  

The graph for Class-G looks decidedly odd, but this is real data. At an output power of about
100W, the Class-G amp peaks, and falls again as power is increased further. Minimum efficiency
after the peak occurs at ~160W, after which it increases again. The graph was produced by
analysing the average power into the load and from the power supply (or supplies), with the peak
output voltage raised in increments of 1V. The dip after 100W is the point where the outer
transistors start conducting - see Figure 4, and compare the effects of combining the two sets of
dissipation data.

The reason that the Class-B graph is a straight line is because of the power scale which is based
on equal increments of voltage so is not linear. Changing scales does not change the data of
course, but this was the simplest way to obtain the graph, ensuring there were enough data points
to get an accurate result. The important thing to notice is that Class-G is more efficient over the
full normal working range of the amplifier, and especially so for material with a reasonably wide
dynamic range.
 - 


 


  

  

  

Figure 5A is essentially the same data used for Figure 5, but applied differently. In this chart, the
dissipation (via the transistors and heatsink) is plotted against output power. This gives an
alternate way to view the difference in heat between Class-B and Class-G. As is quite apparent,
the heat is reduced dramatically by using Class-G. The overall curve shape is similar to the sum
of the two dissipation curves in Figure 4, but is modified because of a sinewave signal instead of
a voltage ramp.




 
 
 

As a further test that may show the benefits better than a sinewave, I also ran simulations of the
circuits shown in Figure 2 using a filtered noise source. This was very revealing, and shows that
the efficiency benefits of Class-G are very real.

The simple Class-B and Class-G stages both showed a continuous average power into the load of
196W. No surprise, since both used the same signal. The Class-B stage had a transistor
dissipation of 245W - this is a lot of heat to get rid of! By comparison, the Class-G stage showed
an outer transistor dissipation of 87W, and an inner transistor dissipation of 48W - a total of
135W. This is just over half the dissipation - a significant reduction.

Peak dissipation is also improved considerably. The Class-B stage had a peak dissipation of
306W. This means that even 4 x 200W transistors may be pushed past their limits for each side
of the amp (positive and negative, not left and right) - remember the SOA curves, temperature
derating and dissipation with reactive loads.

By comparison, the Class-G stage showed peak powers of 269W (outer) and 72W (inner). While
it is obvious that the outer sections will need at least 3 x 200W transistors, remember that they do
not need to be high voltage. This reduces the financial burden. The inner transistors could use a
single 200W transistor, which will be well within its ratings, even at elevated temperature and a
reactive load. For ease of comparison, these figures are tabulated below. All figures are for a 4
ohm resistive load. Results into reactive loads (e.g. loudspeakers) will be very different, and are
too difficult to predict. I've taken a few measurements, but all averages are based on estimates.

Expect the peak dissipation to double with a worst-case 45° phase shifted current as produced by
a reactive loudspeaker load. This is no different from a Class-B amplifier, except that there is a
much greater saving with Class-G. All output devices R be able to withstand the worst-case
peak dissipation while remaining within their safe operating area at normal operating
temperature - not 25°C. This is commonly overlooked by novices, most of whom will (often
seriously) over-estimate the power they can get from any given semiconductor.

 
  

  



Average Load Power 196W 196W
Peak Dissipation (outer) - 269W
Peak Dissipation (inner) 306W 72W
Average Dissipation
- 87W
(outer)
Average Dissipation
245 48W
(inner)
Average Dissipation
245W 135W
(total)
Average Dissipation (total,
320W 180W
reactive)
¢  


 

 

Since a Class-B amplifier doesn't have two sets of devices, the Class-B figures have been
included in the "inner" categories. As you can see from the table, the difference is most
worthwhile. Being able to use a heatsink that's less than half the normal size with an inexpensive
fan means that a very powerful amplifier is easily made to fit into a 2U rack case (89mm or 3.5"
high). Because of the lower losses, this also means that smaller transformers can be used.

Since a single channel Class-B amp will waste 245W (from the table) while providing 196W into
the load, the transformer and power supply must supply 441W so the amp can do its job. The
Class-G amplifier requires 331W to do exactly the same work in the load - a saving of 110W in
total.

The saving is greater is you consider the reactive load dissipation, which as noted above is
roughly double that for a resistive load. As seen in the table, this will be (typically) around 320W
(or 490W for single frequency, 45° phase shift) for Class-B, but is manageable at 180W for
Class-G. Attempting to calculate the real contribution of reactive loads is very difficult, because
the signal will change from capacitive to reactive to resistive depending on frequencies present at
any given time. In terms of the Ô
Ô
contribution of reactance, it is not unreasonable to
assume that it will add somewhere between 10-30% to the resistive dissipation. Again, this will
vary depending on usage, speaker design, type of music, etc. I used 30% for the table.
As discussed earlier, it is impossible to predict the optimum voltage for the inner rail, because
the signal is effectively random. This also means that every efficiency figure that can be
produced can only be for a specific set of circumstances. I have attempted to provide sufficient
information to allow the reader to understand the processes involved, but no-one can predict how
any Class-G amplifier will perform in the end users' application, unless that application involves
a signal that can be repeated exactly (in all respects!). There are simply too many variables.




There is no actual changeover from the inner to the outer pair of transistors, but instead, the inner
rails can be considered to be boosted as the output attempts to exceed the lower voltage. In
theory, the inner transistors remain in control of the signal at all times, however in practice this
point is moot. Figure 5 shows the output signal and the voltage at the inner rails - the boosted
voltage.

- !
  

X 

As you can see, the rail voltage is maintained at a couple of volts above the output voltage. The
outer transistors are really simply supply voltage boosters, and are designed to turn on just before
the output clips at the inner rail voltage. Naturally, once the outer rail voltage is reached, the
output will clip, since there is no further for it to go. The switching process is commonly referred
to as commutation, since the process is not hugely different from the operation of a brush
commutator in an electric motor.

Commutation (or rail boosting) is accomplished using diodes, and the outer transistors. As with
any function that involves switching, distortion artefacts can be produced that will become part
of the output signal, reducing sound quality. In this respect, it is similar to the crossover
distortion that occurs when an amplifier fails to reverse its output polarity linearly.
Fortunately, the distortion occurs at a relatively high output level, and it is likely that any
distortion will be completely inaudible. This is partly because of the low level of distortion
compared to the output level, and partly due to masking, where sounds become inaudible when
in the presence of other sounds of a similar frequency but higher levels. This phenomenon is
exploited in all MP3 coded audio files, for example. While it is entirely possible that the
distortion may be audible with a sinewave input, as the complexity of the music increases the
audibility of the distortion reduces. The use of Schottky diodes for the inner rail voltages is
highly recommended, as these switch off much faster due to a much lower stored charge, and are
therefore less liable to generate audible artefacts.

The zener diodes shown in Figures 2 and 3 are essential. They ensure that the outer transistors
start conducting just before the inner transistors saturate. At this point, the amplifier would
normally clip, but the outer transistors now boost the supply rails to exactly the degree needed to
prevent clipping. As noted elsewhere, once the output signal attempts to exceed the 
 supply
voltage (either polarity) the amplifier will (must) clip regardless. If the zener diodes are omitted,
there will be considerable distortion generated at the commutation points. While negative
feedback will reduce it to some degree, it will still be present, measurable and possibly audible.

If the zener voltage is too high, the outer transistors will turn on too early, which will increase
the dissipation of the inner transistors. If too low, the outer transistors will not conduct early
enough, and the output will have distortion at the commutation point because the inner
transistors are no longer in control. Ideally, the zener voltage will be slightly higher than the
voltage drop across the inner transistor circuits, including emitter resistors and the losses in the
supply and outer transistor base diodes.

Like so many other areas of electronics, there is a balancing act (aka compromise) that must be
made. In general, a zener voltage of between 3.3V and 4.7V seems reasonable for most
applications, although some topologies will need more, others less.




A Class-G amplifier is unique, in that if subjected to a short circuit or other serious overload,
only the inner transistors require any protection circuitry. Because the output signal cannot swing
more than a few volts into a typical low resistance fault, the outer transistors never even try to
switch on. Therefore, if the inner devices are fitted with load-line (aka SOA - safe operating
area) protection, this is sufficient to protect the amplifier.

Because the inner transistors work at relatively low voltages, it is much easier to provide
excellent overload protection than would be the case for a high voltage Class-B amplifier. There
is no need for a protection circuit that has multiple break-points (essential for Class-B high
voltage designs), because the inner devices are usually easily contained within their safe
operating area with a relatively simple circuit.

The protection scheme is simplified solely because of the low operating voltage for the inner
transistors, and no other amplifier topology provides this inherent advantage. In the case of
Class-G amps using three or more supplies of each polarity, the inner transistors only require
protection for the lowest voltage rails.

  
  

As an example, I have included the SOA data from the ON-Semi data sheet [ 5 ] for the
MJL21193/4 transistors. These are rated at 200W, 250V and 16A continuous. They are rugged
devices, and are well suited for high power amplifiers. The general trend is virtually identical for
all bipolar transistors, although the numbers will change to match the device ratings.

As you can see, the voltage at maximum current is quite limited, but surprisingly, it extends
slightly beyond the 12.5V limit imposed by the 200W rating. Still, it is well below the 35V limit
for the outer transistors described here - at 35V, collector current is limited to around 7A.
Remember, that is with a case temperature of 25°C. At higher temperatures, the transistor must
be derated by 1.43W / °C. For example, with a case temperature of only 60°C, the transistor must
be derated by 50W, reducing maximum dissipation to 150W.

- 

     
  

Quote from the data sheet ... There are two limitations on the power handling ability of a
transistor; average junction temperature and secondary breakdown. Safe operating area curves
indicate IC â¼³ VCE limits of the transistor that must be observed for reliable operation; i.e., the
transistor must not be subjected to greater dissipation than the curves indicate. The data of Figure
7 is based on TJ (peak) = 200°C. TC is variable depending on conditions. At high case
temperatures, thermal limitations will reduce the power than can be handled to values less than
the limitations imposed by second breakdown.

For more information on transistor power dissipation, second breakdown and other limits, please
see the SOA article.

 
  

  

One topology used by at least one manufacturer [ 4 ] is shunt or parallel mode, where the outer
transistors actually  take over when the inner devices run out of voltage. Whether there is any
real advantage is debatable, but of the designs I've seen, it was done for a very specific purpose.
The way these amps are configured allows the transistor collectors to be mounted directly to an
earthed (grounded) heatsink. This minimises the thermal resistance between the transistor case
and the heatsink, allowing the best possible device dissipation.

In my opinion, this is probably the most complex way to design a Class-G circuit, and I would
not recommend even attempting it. Although the manufacturer does manage to make very
reliable amps using this method, I am informed (by someone who has repaired them) that many
of the components are highly critical - use a transistor even slightly different from the original,
and the amp will suffer parasitic oscillation. For most of the semiconductors, it is stated on the
schematic that they R be obtained from the manufacturer ... no substitutions of even the same
brand of device.

I've been able to get several schematics for commercial designs, and the series configuration
described here is still one of the more popular. As with many things in electronics, there will be
as many alternatives as there are designers. Ultimately, it doesn't matter, provided the design has
enough output devices to safely handle the worst case abuse to which the amplifier is liable to be
subjected. For professional audio, this can amount to a great deal.

Yet another arrangement is to use a switched high voltage supply. The high voltage supply is
switched on and off, rather than turn the supply on linearly to maintain 2-3V headroom over the
signal. As soon as the threshold is reached (typically half the main supply), the full supply
voltage is applied to the output devices, changing the supply voltage from (say) 35V to 70V in a
single step. The full voltage remains across the output devices until the output voltage falls
below the threshold, at which time the high voltage is turned off again. The output devices are
then returned to the 35V supplies. Overall dissipation is potentially slightly lower than the series
connection shown above, but commutation noise is almost guaranteed unless the switching is
slowed to a reasonably leisurely rate.

With this arrangement, the inner transistors must handle the entire dissipation of the amplifier.
Although average power is reduced compared to Class-B, the
Ô dissipation remains (more or
less) the same - it just doesn't last as long for any given frequency. The greatest benefit is that
switching MOSFETs can be used for commutation, and there is no need to use comparatively
expensive audio power transistors. The rail supply voltage is shown in Figure 8, as a simple
description is not sufficient to allow full understanding of the process involved.

There are undoubtedly other Class-G variants that I've not seen, and these may use other
techniques.
 - " 
   

 


As noted above in the section about overall efficiency, this scheme has an equivalent efficiency
to a conventional dual rail (each polarity) Class-G amplifier. Where it wins is in the outer
transistors, which are now switching rather than linear. Consequently, the outer transistor losses
are very small, but the peak dissipation of the inner transistors is now increased dramatically.

Because all amplifiers must be designed so that the output transistor safe operating area is not
exceeded due to reactive loads or high operating temperature, the inner transistor power ratings
must be the same as for a Class-B stage. Because average dissipation is lower, this helps to keep
temperatures lower, and this can provide a small advantage. As with all Class-G schemes, the
power transformer can also be slightly smaller, because of the lower overall losses.

 


A similar (at least in some respects) arrangement is called Class-H, and it can be difficult to
decide exactly into which camp some amplifiers fall. Class-H is often described as using a
"bootstrap" capacitor that lifts the rails as needed, but cannot maintain them at the full voltage for
more than a few cycles. After a short period, the capacitor discharges, and the high voltage
supply collapses. Originally, there were used for car audio, and allowed much more power than
can normally be expected (about 18W for a BTL (bridge-tied-load) amp operating from 13.8V
DC). Being far cheaper than a switchmode power supply, this is a convenient way to get extra
power for very little expense. A number of specialised ICs were/are produced for just this
purpose.

Because the difference is rather blurred, you may see Class-G amps described as Class-H and
vice versa. My preferred terminology is that only amps that use a bootstrap circuit are "real"
Class-H. Likewise, if the supply is switched or boosted using a separate fixed high voltage
supply, then Class-G is the most appropriate description of their topology.
Hitachi is usually credited with the first Class-G amplifier, but from the descriptions I've seen, it
actually appears to have been Class-H. The peak power of 400W into 8 ohms was not available
continuously, but only for relatively brief periods. This implies that the high voltage rail was
produced by bootstrapping a capacitor, rather than a switched rail design. By my definition
above, that makes it Class-H, although Hitachi described it at the time (1978) as Class-G.

This level of confusion has never gone away, largely because only classes A, B, AB, C and D are
"officially recognised".



The diagram below is  a project, and is intended only to show the general configuration of a
Class-G amplifier. Both inner and outer transistors use separate drivers. This is one of a great
many configurations that have been used, and in that respect can be considered as "typical" as
any other configuration.

- #  
 
- 

  

The front end of the amp is quite conventional, and uses a long-tailed pair (Q1, Q2) coupled to a
current mirror (Q4, Q5). The LTP is fed from a current source, using Q3. This drives the VAS
(voltage amplifier stage, Q6), which is stabilised using a Miller capacitor. The VAS is also
supplied using a current source, Q7. The bias servo (Q8) must mount on the main heatsink for
the output devices. The driver transistors are connected in the Darlington configuration, because
it is less prone to parasitic oscillation than the compound pair that I normally use. For high power
amps, one of the most important factors is reliability and stability.

The output devices are shown as a parallel pair, for both inner and outer output transistors. Oddly
enough, the outer transistors require more dissipation capability than the inner devices, primarily
because of the peak power demands. The average dissipation will also be higher with some
programme material, less for others. This is reflected in the choice of two parallel transistors for
both the and outer inner devices, but three may be needed in practice.

The resistor values shown are for reference only, and are typical of those that may be used in a
working amplifier. While the above circuit has been simulated pretty much exactly as shown, it
has not been built and tested. It is a reference design, in that it allows the reader to gain an insight
into the complete design. Should there be sufficient interest, a project may be developed for a
Class-G amplifier, suitable for operation at the voltages indicated, or possibly a little higher.

As should be fairly obvious, it is not a trivial undertaking, nor would it be a cheap amplifier to
build. Further complexity would be involved if the amp were to be rack mounted, since short-
circuit protection is needed to be added as a minimum. As with most commercial Class-G
amplifiers, a fan is essential for each heatsink unless oversize heatsinks are used. Fan(s) should
preferably installed in such a way as to provide cooling for the power transformers as well as the
heatsinks. All transistors from Q8 to Q20 need to be mounted on the heatsink. Smaller separate
heatsinks must be used for Q6 and Q7.

Class-G amplifiers are not for the faint hearted, as will be apparent from the above. Because of
relatively high voltages and considerable complexity, even a trivial mistake during construction
can easily generate a cascade of exploding (expensive) parts. Now you all know why I have
shied away from offering boards for anything more powerful or complex than the P68 subwoofer
amp - it's already more than capable of providing the same power as the Class-G amp shown.
Heat dissipation is higher, so it needs more heatsink for continuous operation - a reasonable
compromise, since it's not intended in its basic form for continuous duty.

 


 


It would seem initially that Class-G can't hope to compete with Class-D (pulse width modulation
amplifiers). The latter have a typical efficiency of around 85-90%, and even the best Class-G
amp cannot match that. However, Class-D amplifiers are significantly more complex, and
because of high frequency switching, PCB layout is critical. In addition, even with the best filter
circuits available, there will be some RF (radio frequency) noise emitted. Most Class-D
amplifiers also have a frequency response that is only flat for one load impedance. Since
speakers are not resistive, the high frequency response can be a gamble.
Because of the potential for RF interference problems, Class-D amps may be avoided by many
users. There is no doubt that Class-D amps can deliver excellent fidelity and very little heat even
at high power levels, but this doesn't mean that they are universally accepted as the most ideal
power amp where high power and almost infinite reliability are needed. Music tour operators
also have to consider the life of the equipment, and it's not unknown for 20 year-old amplifiers to
be in daily service. With (mostly) normal through-hole parts, little or no surface mount, and no
highly specialised ICs, linear amps can be repaired even when 30 years old or more.

Class-D amps nearly all use surface mount devices (SMD), and specialised ICs are essential with
most designs to obtain satisfactory performance. When these parts become obsolete, the
amplifier must be thrown away - it can no longer be repaired if "unobtanium" parts fail.
Substitutes may exist, but will almost certainly have different pinouts, and perhaps a different
SMD case style. This is becoming a real issue for many consumer products - they are
increasingly becoming unrepairable, because of SMD and the short lifetime of many of the
specialised ICs.

Professional products must stay clear of short lifetime parts whenever possible, because there is a
huge difference between the expectations of retail consumers and tour operators and other pro-
audio users. To make a pro product with an expected life of less than 10 years is asking for
trouble. This includes the ability to service the gear, well past the point where a normal home
consumer would have discarded the item for the latest model.

   

1.c High-Power Audio Amplifier Construction Manual - G. Randy Slone

2.c Zero Overhead Class-G Drivers Improve Power Efficiency In ADSL Line Cards - John
Wilson, Texas Instruments
3.c Audio Power Amplifier Design Handbook, Third edition - Douglas Self MA, MSc
4.c QSC Audio Products - website
5.c ON Semiconductor MJL21194/4 Data Sheet - ON Semiconductor¢