ANALOG AND LINEAR IC’S

TOPIC: TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS AND THEIR

APPLICATIONS
SUBMITTED TO:
Mr. SHAKTI RAJ CHOPRA

SUBMITTED BY:
ROHIT DADHAWAL
ROLL NO.RD6802B57
REGD.NO.10810700
B.TECH (ECE) 4th TERM
I would like to thanks all those who have encouraged me to make a project. I
am grateful to our lecturer SH. SHAKTI R CHOPRA, who acted as a source of
inspiration for me. He encouraged me to make a project. I will never forget his
support and word of wisdom. His immense help and suggestion for improving
the content of the project are highly appreciable .Without his involvement this
project would not have been possible. I am also thankful to my friends for their
help and support.

CONTENTS:
 1. INTRODUCTION
2. FIGURES OF MERIT
3. Transistor amplifiers
4. DESIGNING OF TRNSISTOR AMPLIFIERS
5. EXAMPLES OF TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS
6. APPLICATIONS OF TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS
7. REFFERENCES

INTRODUCTION:
Generally, an amplifier or simply amp, is any device that changes,
usually increases, the amplitude of a signal. The relationship of the
input to the output of an amplifier—usually expressed as a function of
the input frequency—is called the transfer function of the amplifier,
and the magnitude of the transfer function is termed the gain.

In popular use, the term usually describes an electronic amplifier, in

which the input "signal" is usually a voltage or a current. In audio
applications, amplifiers drive the loudspeakers used in PA systems to
make the human voice louder or play recorded music. Amplifiers may
be classified according to the input (source) they are designed to
amplify (such as a guitar amplifier, to perform with an electric guitar),
the device they are intended to drive (such as a headphone amplifier),
the frequency range of the signals (Audio, IF, RF, and VHF
amplifiers, for example), whether they invert the signal (inverting
amplifiers and non-inverting amplifiers), or the type of device used in
the amplification (valve or tube amplifiers, FET amplifiers, etc.).

A related device that emphasizes conversion of signals of one type to

another (for example, a light signal in photons to a DC signal in
amperes) is a transducer, a transformer, or a sensor. However, none of
these amplify power.

Figures of merit:
The quality of an amplifier can be characterized by a number of
specifications, listed below.
Gain

The gain of an amplifier is the ratio of output to input power or

amplitude, and is usually measured in decibels. (When measured in
decibels it is logarithmically related to the power ratio: G(dB)=10
log(Pout /(Pin)). RF amplifiers are often specified in terms of the
maximum power gain obtainable, while the voltage gain of audio
amplifiers and instrumentation amplifiers will be more often specified
(since the amplifier's input impedance will often be much higher than
the source impedance, and the load impedance higher than the
amplifier's output impedance).

 Example: an audio amplifier with a gain given as 20dB will

have a voltage gain of ten (but a power gain of 100 would only
occur in the unlikely event the input and output impedances
were identical).

Efficiency

Efficiency is a measure of how much of the input power is usefully

applied to the amplifier's output. Class A amplifiers are very
inefficient, in the range of 10–20% with a max efficiency of 25% for
direct coupling of the output. Inductive coupling of the output can
raise their efficiency to a maximum of 50%.

Class B amplifiers have a very high efficiency but are impractical

because of high levels of distortion (See: Crossover distortion). In
practical design, the result of a tradeoff is the class AB design.
Modern Class AB amplifiers are commonly between 35–55%
efficient with a theoretical maximum of 78.5%.

Commercially available Class D switching amplifiers have reported

efficiencies as high as 90%. Amplifiers of Class C-F are usually
known to be very high efficiency amplifiers. The efficiency of the
amplifier limits the amount of total power output that is usefully
available. Note that more efficient amplifiers run much cooler, and
often do not need any cooling fans even in multi-kilowatt designs.
The reason for this is that the loss of efficiency produces heat as a by-
product of the energy lost during the conversion of power. In more
efficient amplifiers there is less loss of energy so in turn less heat.

In RF Power Amplifiers, such as cellular base stations and broadcast

transmitters, specialist design techniques are used to improve
efficiency. Doherty designs, which use a second transistor, can lift
efficiency from the typical 15% up to 30-35% in a narrow bandwidth.
Envelope Tracking designs are able to achieve efficiencies of up to
60%, by modulating the supply voltage to the amplifier in line with
the envelope of the signal.

Noise

This is a measure of how much noise is introduced in the

amplification process. Noise is an undesirable but inevitable product
of the electronic devices and components. The metric for noise
performance of a circuit is Noise Factor. Noise Factor is the ratio of
input signal to that of the output signal.

Output dynamic range

Output dynamic range is the range, usually given in dB, between the
smallest and largest useful output levels. The lowest useful level is
limited by output noise, while the largest is limited most often by
distortion. The ratio of these two is quoted as the amplifier dynamic
range. More precisely, if S = maximal allowed signal power and N =
noise power, the dynamic range DR is DR = (S + N ) /N.

Slew rate

Slew rate is the maximum rate of change of output variable, usually

quoted in volts per second (or microsecond). Many amplifiers are
ultimately slew rate limited (typically by the impedance of a drive
current having to overcome capacitive effects at some point in the
circuit), which may limit the full power bandwidth to frequencies well
below the amplifier's small-signal frequency response.

Rise time
The rise time, tr, of an amplifier is the time taken for the output to
change from 10% to 90% of its final level when driven by a step
input. For a Gaussian response system (or a simple RC roll off), the
rise time is approximated by:

tr * BW = 0.35, where tr is rise time in seconds and BW is bandwidth

in Hz.

Transistor amplifiers
The essential role of this active element is to magnify an input signal
to yield a significantly larger output signal. The amount of
magnification (the "forward gain") is determined by the external
circuit design as well as the active device.

Many common active devices in transistor amplifiers are bipolar

junction transistors (BJTs) and metal oxide semiconductor field-effect
transistors (MOSFETs).

Applications are numerous, some common examples are audio

amplifiers in a home stereo or PA system, RF high power generation
for semiconductor equipment, to RF and Microwave applications such
as radio transmitters.

Transistor-based amplifier can be realized using various

configurations: for example with a bipolar junction transistor we can
realize common base, common collector or common emitter
amplifier; using a MOSFET we can realize common gate, common
source or common drain amplifier. Each configuration has different
characteristic (gain, impedance...).

DESIGNING OF TRNSISTOR AMPLIFIERS:

From ‘rule 1’ we can now say that we want the base voltage, , to
be around 5·6 volts. The two base resistors act as a sort of potential
divider and we can choose their values to set the voltage we require.
To do this we need to use Ohms Law and recognise that the current
through provides the base current and the current which goes on
through .

From ‘rule 3’ we can also say that we require since the

currents in these resistors will be almost exactly the same and we
want to have 5 volts across each of them (Ohm's Law).

In the previous section you measured your transistor's value at a

particular point on its curves ( mA, V). So let's
choose to try and set the amplifier up with a collector current of about
2mA. We therefore want the currents passing through and to be
2mA. You now know the current in each of these resistors and the
voltage across each of them. Using Ohm's Law, what values do you
calculate are required for and ? What is the closest ‘E12’ series
value available in the lab? Use this value for the emitter and collector
resistor in your circuit.

Part of the current flowing through will continue on through

and part will enter the transistor to provide its base current. . Using
Ohm's Law again we can say that

where we know that, for to be 5 volts, we want volts, so

we can say that

This gives us two equations but we have three unknowns, , ,

and . To proceed any further we have to choose a sensible value for
one of these.
 The best way to
proceed is to choose a
value for the current,
, which passes
through both resistors.
In theory, we can
choose any value we
like. However, in
practice it turns out to
be a good idea to
choose a value since this means that the voltages across the
resistors are largely determined by . This means that any slight
changes in won't mean we've got the wrong results. However, we
don't want to be too big. The reason for this is that we would get a
large current by using very low resistance values. These would make
it difficult to apply an input ac voltage when using the amplifier.

In practice the simplest convenient choice is to pick something like

so I suggest you choose that. Note, however, that you
could choose almost anything from up to and it
would still probably be possible to make the amplifier work despite
having chosen very different currents and resistor values!

Note. Here I will assume you found that (‘rule 2’). You
can follow the argument I describe below, but substitute the you
measured to get the correct results for your transistor.

A current gain of 400 means that at mA the current entering

the transistor's base is A. Multiplying this by 25
we get 125 A. Putting this into the above equations we get
k and k . What values do you get for your
transistor? What are the closest E12 series values available to use in
your circuit?

You should now have values for , , , and . However, we

now need to decide what to do with ...

is actually quite important as it turns out to control the voltage gain

of the amplifier. To understand why this is true, have another look at
figure 6 and consider what happens when we quickly waggle the input
voltage up an down with an ac signal. In order to change the voltage
across we also have to change the voltage across as they are
connected in parallel. To change the voltage across we have to
move charge in or out of the capacitor. This takes time. So if we keep
changing our mind and waggling the input voltage up and down
quickly we don’t give this a chance to happen.

As a result, for ‘quick’ variations effectively ‘clamps’ the voltage

at the top of and won’t allow it to change. The transistor’s base-
emitter voltage remains about 0·6V. Hence the changes in input
voltage mostly appear as changes in the voltage across .

An input ac voltage, , therefore tends to produce an ac current

variation in of

Since is relatively tiny (hundreds of times smaller than or ) we

now expect the same current fluctuation to appear in . So the
voltage across the collector resistor will vary by an amount

So it is the ratio of these two resistors that tends to control the

voltage amplification factor (gain) of the circuit.
 Now, provided we choose a value for which reasonably small
compared to , we can leave the other resistor values alone and
not worry that we have changed the DC levels very much. A small
value will also mean a high gain.

APPLICATIONS:
Build A One Transistor FM Radio

Build 
this one transistor FM radio
(my design) 

 
 or 

     Build this one transistor FM radio

(Designed by Patrick Cambre)

My Design

A printed circuit board for the original circuit is available

through FAR Circuits.  Ask them for "Andy Mitz's One transistor FM
radio printed circuit board".  The same circuit board can be modified
for the improved one transistor radio.

Introduction
AM radio circuits and kits abound.  Some work quite well.  But, look
around and you will find virtually no FM radio kits.  Certainly, there
are no simple FM radio kits.  The simple FM radio circuit got lost
during the transition from vacuum tubes to transistors.  In the late
1950s and early 1960s there were several construction articles on
building a simple superregenerative FM radio.  After exhaustive
research into the early articles and some key assistance from a modern
day guru in regenerative circuit design, I have developed this simple
radio kit. It is a remarkable circuit.  It is sensitive, selective, and has
enough audio drive for an earphone.  Read more about theory behind
this radio on the low-tech FM page.

Construction
parts source

Except the the circuit board and battery, all parts are from Mouser
Electronics.  A complete parts list with stock numbers is listed below.
The circuit board is available through FAR Circuits.  The variable
capacitor is available through Electronix Express.

layout

Because this is a superregenerative design, component layout can be

very important.  The tuning capacitor, C3, has three leads.  Only the
outer two leads are used; the middle lead of C3 is not connected. 
Arrange L1 fairly close to C3, but keep it away from where your hand
will be.  If your hand is too close to L1 while you tune the radio, it
will make tuning very difficult.  

winding L1

L1 sets the frequency of the radio, acts as the antenna, and is the
primary adjustment for super-regeneration.  Although it has many
important jobs, it is easy to construct.  Get any cylindrical object that
is just under 1/2 inch (13 mm) in diameter.  I used a thick pencil from
my son's grade school class, but a magic marker or large drill bit work
just fine.  #20 bare solid wire works the best, but any wire that holds
its shape will do.  Wind 6 turns tightly, side-by-side, on the cylinder,
then slip the wire off.  Spread the windings apart from each other so
the whole coil is just under an inch (2.5 cm) long.  Find the midpoint
and solder a small wire for C2 there.  Mount the ends of the wire on
your circuit board keeping some clearance between the coil and the
circuit board.  

a tuning knob for C3

C3 does not come with a knob and I have not found a source.  A knob
is important to keep your hand away from the capacitor and coil when
you tune in stations.  The solution is to use a #4 nylon screw.  Twist
the nylon screw into the threads of the C3 tuning handle. The #4
screw is the wrong thread pitch and will jam (bind) in the threads.
This is what you want to happen.  Tighten the screw just enough so it
stays put as you tune the capacitor.  The resulting arrangement works
quite well. 
Adjustment

If the radio is wired correctly, there are three possible things you can
hear when you turn it on:  1) a radio station, 2) a rushing noise, 3) a
squeal, and 4) nothing.  If you got a radio station, you are in good
shape.  Use another FM radio to see where you are on the FM band. 
You can change the tuning range of C3 by squeezing L1 or change
C1.  If you hear a rushing noise, you will probably be able to tune in a
station.  Try the tuning control and see what you get.  If you hear a
squeal or hear nothing, then the circuit is oscillating too little or too
much.  Try spreading or compressing L1. Double check your
connections.  If you don't make any progress, then you need to change
R4.  Replace R4 with a 20K or larger potentiometer (up to 50K).  A
trimmer potentiometer is best. Adjust R4 until you can reliably tune in
stations. Once the circuit is working, you can remove the
potentiometer, measure its value, and replace it with a fixed resistor. 
Some people might want to build the set from the start with a trimmer
potentiometer in place (e.g., Mouser 569-72PM-25K).

Substituting other components

Many of the parts are fairly common and might already be in your
junk box.  Only certain component values are critical.  The RF choke
should be in the range of 20 to 30 uh, although values from15 to 40
uh might work.  The tuning capacitor value is not critical, but if you
use values below 50 pf you should reduce or remove C1. The circuit
is designed for the high impedance type earphone.  Normal earphones
can be used, but the battery drain is much greater and the circuit must
be changed.  To use normal earphones, change R3 to 180 ohms.  Q1
can be replace with any high-frequency N-channel JFET transistor,
but only the 2N4416, 2N4416A, and J310 have been tested.  A
MPF102 probably will work. C2 is not too critical; any value from 18
to 27 pf will work. C7 is fairly critical.  You can use a .005 or .0047
uf, but don't change it much more than that.   
Improved design for more audio gain
Chris Iwata recommended some design changes that greatly improve
the audio circuit, making it strong enough for regular earphones or
even a small speaker.  The same FAR printed circuit board can be
used with some modifications. The circuit board is important to make
sure the tuning end of the radio works properly, so the audio amplifier
changes can be squeezed onto the circuit board without fear of
wrecking radio operation.  Look closely at the new schematic for the
new components and some changed component values.

REFFERENCES:
C:\Users\LALIT-1\Desktop\The Transistor Amplifier -
Page 3.mht
BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
WRTTEN BY r, J.B. GUPTA
MODERNS ABC PHYSICS FOR TWELTH CLASS
C:\Users\LALIT-1\Desktop\Amplifier - Wikipedia, the
free encyclopedia.mht
C:\Users\LALIT-1\Desktop\The Transistor Amplifier -
Choosing Component Values.mht