Atmospheric Turbulence

&
General Circulation
Chapter -4
Physical Meteorology
&
Dynamic Meteorology
 Contents

• Reynold Stresses
The General Circulation of the Atmosphere
• Reynolds Number Atmospheric Energy
• Turbulent Flow Trade Winds
• Laminar Flow Doldrums
• The Richardson Number Horse Lattitudes
• The Planetary Boundary Equatorial Easterlies
Layer Middle Lattitude Westerlies
• Airflow Near the Ground Polar Easterlies
• The Ekman Layer Hadley Cell
• Prandtls Mixing Lengh Ferrel Cell
Hypothesis Polar Cell
• The Ekman Layer Zonal Index
Equation
 Flow N fluid

• Flow :
• Fluid dynamics, or fluid flow, the motion of
a gas or liquid
• A fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows)
under an applied shear stress. Fluids are a subset of the
phases of matter and include liquids, gases, plasmas
and, to some extent, plastic solids.
• In common usage, "fluid" is often used as a synonym for
"liquid", with no implication that gas could also be
present. For example, "brake fluid" is hydraulic oil and
will not perform its required function if there is gas in it.
This colloquial usage of the term is also common in
medicine ("take plenty of fluids"), and in nutrition.
 shear stress
• A shear stress, denoted (tau), is defined as a stress
which is applied parallel or tangential to a face of a
material, as opposed to a normal stress which is applied
perpendicularly.

The formula to calculate average shear stress is:

where
τ = the shear stress
F = the force applied
A = the cross sectional area
 Physics

• Fluids display such properties as:

• not resisting deformation, or resisting it only lightly
(viscosity), and
• the ability to flow (also described as the ability to take on
the shape of the container).This also means that all
fluids have the property of fluidity.
• These properties are typically a function of their inability
to support a shear stress in static equilibrium.
• Solids can be subjected to shear stresses, and to normal
stresses—both compressive and tensile. In contrast,
ideal fluids can only be subjected to normal,
compressive stress which is called pressure. Real fluids
display viscosity and so are capable of being subjected
to low levels of shear stress.
 Viscosity
• Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being
deformed by either shear stress or tensile stress. In everyday terms
(and for fluids only), viscosity is "thickness". Thus, water is "thin",
having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick", having a higher
viscosity. Put simply, the less viscous the fluid is, the greater its
ease of movement (fluidity).[1]
• Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be
thought of as a measure of fluid friction. For example, high-viscosity
felsic magma will create a tall, steep stratovolcano, because it
cannot flow far before it cools, while low-viscosity mafic lava will
create a wide, shallow-sloped shield volcano. All real fluids (except
superfluids) have some resistance to stress and therefore are
viscous, but a fluid which has no resistance to shear stress is
known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid.
• The study of flowing matter is known as rheology, which includes
viscosity and related concepts.
Clear liquid above has lower viscosity than the substance below
stress In continuum mechanics,
• stress is a measure of the average force per unit area of a surface
within a deformable body on which internal forces act. It is a
measure of the intensity of the internal forces acting between
particles of a deformable body across imaginary internal surfaces
[2]. These internal forces are produced between the particles in the
body as a reaction to external forces applied on the body. External
forces are either surface forces or body forces. Because the loaded
deformable body is assumed as a continuum, these internal forces
are distributed continuously within the volume of the material body,
i.e., the stress distribution in the body is expressed as a piecewise
continuous function of space coordinates and time.
• The SI unit for stress is pascal (symbol Pa), which is equivalent to
one newton (force) per square meter (unit area). The unit for stress
is the same as that of pressure, which is also a measure of force per
unit area. Engineering quantities are usually measured in
megapascals (MPa) or gigapascals (GPa)
Stress in a loaded deformable material body assumed as a continuum.
 shear stress
• A shear stress, denoted (tau), is defined as a stress
which is applied parallel or tangential to a face of a
material, as opposed to a normal stress which is applied
perpendicularly.

The formula to calculate average shear stress is:

where
τ = the shear stress
F = the force applied
A = the cross sectional area
 Tensile stress
• Tensile stress (also referred to as normal
stress or tension) is the stress state
leading to expansion; that is, the tensile
stress may be increased until the reach of
tensile strength, namely the limit state of
stress.
• The formula for computing the tensile
stress in a rod is:
where σ is the tensile stress, F is the tensile force over
the rod and A is the cross-sectional area of the rod.
 Strain
• Strain is the geometrical measure of
deformation representing the relative
displacement between particles in the
material body. It measures how much a
given displacement differs locally from a
rigid-body displacement
 Modelling- Fluids
• Depending on the relationship between
shear stress, and the rate of strain and its
derivatives, fluids can be characterized as:
• Newtonian fluids : where stress is directly
proportional to rate of strain, and
• Non-Newtonian fluids : where stress is not
proportional to rate of strain, its higher
powers and derivatives.
 A Newtonian fluid
• A Newtonian fluid (named after Isaac
Newton) is a fluid whose stress versus
strain rate curve is linear and passes
through the origin. The constant of
proportionality is known as the viscosity.
 non-Newtonian fluid
• A non-Newtonian fluid is a fluid whose
flow properties are not described by a
single constant value of viscosity
• In a non-Newtonian fluid, the relation
between the shear stress and the strain
rate is nonlinear, and can even be time-
dependent. Therefore a constant
coefficient of viscosity cannot be defined.
 Laminar flow,

• Laminar flow, sometimes known as streamline flow,

occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers, with no
disruption between the layers. In fluid dynamics, laminar
flow is a flow regime characterized by high momentum
diffusion and low momentum convection. It is the
opposite of turbulent flow. In nonscientific terms laminar
flow is "smooth," while turbulent flow is "rough."

Momentum diffusion refers to the diffusion, or spread of momentum between particles (atoms or molecules) of matter,
usually in the liquid state
• The dimensionless Reynolds number is an important
parameter in the equations that describe whether flow
conditions lead to laminar or turbulent flow. In the case
of flow through a straight pipe with a circular cross-
section, Reynolds numbers of less than 2300 are
generally considered to be of a laminar type

• however, the Reynolds number upon which laminar

flows become turbulent is dependent upon the flow
geometry. When the Reynolds number is much less than
1, Creeping motion or Stokes flow occurs. This is an
extreme case of laminar flow where viscous (friction)
effects are much greater than inertial forces.
 turbulent flow
• In fluid dynamics, turbulence or turbulent
flow is a fluid regime characterized by
chaotic, stochastic property changes. This
includes low momentum diffusion, high
momentum convection, and rapid variation
of pressure and velocity in space and time.
Nobel Laureate Richard Feynman describes
turbulence as "the most important unsolved
problem of classical physics."[1]
• Flow that is not turbulent is called laminar
flow. While there is no theorem relating
Reynolds number to turbulence, flows with
high Reynolds numbers usually become
turbulent, while those with low Reynolds
numbers usually remain laminar. For pipe
flow, a Reynolds number above about 4000
will most likely correspond to turbulent flow,
while a Reynold's number below 2100
indicates laminar flow. The region in between
(2100 < Re < 4000) is called the transition
region.
• In turbulent flow, unsteady vortices appear
on many scales and interact with each other.
Drag due to boundary layer skin friction
increases. The structure and location of
boundary layer separation often changes,
sometimes resulting in a reduction of overall
drag. Although laminar-turbulent transition is
not governed by Reynolds number, the same
transition occurs if the size of the object is
gradually increased, or the viscosity of the
fluid is decreased, or if the density of the
fluid is increased.
Smoke rising from a cigarette. For the
first few centimeters, the flow remains
laminar, and then becomes unstable
and turbulent as the rising hot air
accelerates upwards. Similarly, the
dispersion of pollutants in the
atmosphere is governed by turbulent
processes.
 Reynolds stresses
• In fluid dynamics, the Reynolds stresses
(or, the Reynolds stress tensor) is the
stress tensor in a fluid due to the random
turbulent fluctuations in fluid momentum.
The stress is obtained from an average
(typically in some loosely defined fashion)
over these fluctuations.
Averaging and the Reynolds stress
 Reynolds number
• In fluid mechanics, the Reynolds number Re is
a dimensionless number that gives a measure of
the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces
and consequently quantifies the relative
importance of these two types of forces for given
flow conditions. The concept was introduced by
George Gabriel Stokes in 1851,[1] but the
Reynolds number is named after Osborne
Reynolds (1842–1912), who popularized its use
in 1883.[2][3]
• Reynolds numbers frequently arise when performing
dimensional analysis of fluid dynamics problems, and as
such can be used to determine dynamic similitude
between different experimental cases. They are also
used to characterize different flow regimes, such as
laminar or turbulent flow: laminar flow occurs at low
Reynolds numbers, where viscous forces are dominant,
and is characterized by smooth, constant fluid motion,
while turbulent flow occurs at high Reynolds numbers
and is dominated by inertial forces, which tend to
produce random eddies, vortices and other flow
instabilities.
 Definition

• Reynolds number can be defined for a number of different situations

where a fluid is in relative motion to a surface (the definition of the
Reynolds number is not to be confused with the Reynolds Equation
or lubrication equation). These definitions generally include the fluid
properties of density and viscosity, plus a velocity and a
characteristic length or characteristic dimension. This dimension is a
matter of convention - for example a radius or diameter are equally
valid for spheres or circles, but one is chosen by convention. For
aircraft or ships, the length or width can be used. For flow in a pipe
or a sphere moving in a fluid the internal diameter is generally used
today. Other shapes (such as rectangular pipes or non-spherical
objects) have an equivalent diameter defined. For fluids of variable
density (e.g. compressible gases) or variable viscosity (non-
Newtonian fluids) special rules apply. The velocity may also be a
matter of convention in some circumstances, notably stirred vessels.
1.3 Vertical Structure of the atmospheric boundary layer:
1.3.1 Troposphere
The layer which is just adjacent to the earth surface and starts from
the Earth’s surface and extends up to 8 to 16 kilometers in height is called
the troposphere. This part of the Atmosphere is most dense.In this layer the
temperature is more in the layer near to the earth’s surface and it drops to -
72 degrees Celsius at the top of the layer.almost all the weather
phenomena are observed in this region of the atmosphere. The tropopause
separates the troposphere from the layer which above it i.e.
Stratosphere.The troposphere is also known as the lower atmosphere.
• 1.3.2 Stratosphere
The stratosphere starts just above the troposphere and extends to 50
kilometers high.Compared to the troposphere, this part of the atmosphere is
dry and less dense.The temperature in this region increases gradually to -3
degrees Celsius,due to the absorption of ultraviolet radiation. The ozone
layer, which absorbs and scatters the solar ultraviolet radiation, is in this
layer. 99% of “air” is located in the troposphere and stratosphere.The
stratopause separates the stratosphere from the next layer.
 1.3.3 Mesosphere

The mesosphere starts just above the stratosphere and extends to 85

kilometers (53 miles) high.In this region, the temperatures again fall as low as -93
dgrees Celsius as you increase in altitude.The chemicals are in an excited state,
as they absorb energy from the sun. The mesopause separates the mesosphere
from the thermosphere.
1.3.4 Ionosphere
The ionosphere is the uppermost part of the atmosphere, between the
thermosphere and the exosphere, distinguished because it is ionized by solar
radiation. It plays an important part in atmospheric electricity and forms the inner
edge of the magnetosphere. It has practical importance because, among other
functions, it influences radio propagation to distant places on the Earth.
1.3.5 Thermosphere
The thermosphere starts just above the mesosphere and extends to 600
kilometers (373 miles) high.The temperatures increase continuously in altitude
due to the sun’s energy. Temperatures in this region can go as high as 1,727
degrees Celsius.Chemical reactions occur much faster here than on the surface
of the Earth. This layer is also known as the upper atmosphere.
1.4 Atmospheric boundary layer (ABL),
Atmospheric boundary layer (ABL), is the lowest part of the
atmosphere and its behavior is directly influenced by its contact with
a planetary surface. On Earth it usually responds to changes in
surface forcing in an hour or less. In these layer physical quantities
such as flow velocity, temperature, moisture etc., display rapid
fluctuations (turbulence) and vertical mixing is strong.
1.4.1 Need for ABL studies
The ABL plays a crucial role in more than one way.The energy
in the ABL is transferred from the surface to the atmosphere and
vice versa in the form of water vapour, heat and momentum. All
human and biological activities (with their consequences) take place
in the ABL.Hence knowledge of the structure of the ABL is very
important for the understanding of the large scale atmospheric
circulation and for the dispersion of pollutants in the atmosphere.The
variability of the surface (roughness,change of terrain,albedo etc.)
and the atmosphere provides infinite varieties of ABL states.To this
the rotation of the earth is an additional variable.All these factors
make the study of the ABL more complex.
1.4.2 Significance of the ABL
The role of the boundary layer on our lives is put into
perspective when we compare the characteristic of the boundary
layer and free atmosphere.The importance of boundary layer is
given in the following summary.
• People spend most of their lives in the boundary layer.
• Daily weather forescast of dew, frost and maximum and minimum
temperatures are really Boundary layer forecast.
• The primary energy source for the whole atmosphere is solar
radiation. Major part of this radiation is absorbed at the ground and
transmitted back to the atmosphere by boundary layer processes.
• Pollution is trapped in the boundary layer
• Fog occurs within the boundary layer
• Some aviation, shipping and other commerce activities conducted
within it.
1.4.3 Vertical structure of the ABL

From bottom up:

• Interfacial layer (0-1 cm): molecular transport, no turbulence

• Surface layer (0-100 m): strong gradient, very vigorous turbulence
• Mixed layer (100 m - 1 km): well-mixed, vigorous turbulence
• Entrainment layer: inversion, intermittent turbulence
• Surface layer
It has a height between 20 to 100 m above the surface of the earth.
The potential temperature slightly decreases with height with a sharp
decrease in moisture content.
• (b) Mixed layer
The thickness of this layer is from the top of the surface layer to
about 100m below cloud base. Nearly constant potential temperatures and
constant or slightly decreasing moisture contents are the main features of
this layer. The MLDs are estimated directly on individual profiles with data at
observed levels. The MLD is defined through the threshold method with a
finite difference criterion from a near-surface reference value.
(c) Transition layer
It extends from the top of the mixed layer to the cloud base. This layer
is marked by stable potential temperature with a marked decrease in moisture
content.

(d) Cloud layer

Extent of this layer is from cloud base to the base of the inversion.
Nearly moist adiabatic temperature lapse rate and a decrease in moisture
content are the main features of this layer.
(e) Inversion layer
This layer tops the undisturbed boundary layer. Extremely stable
potential temperature gradients and a strong decrease in humidity
characterize this layer. Temperature inversion layers, also called thermal
inversions or just inversion layers, are areas where the normal decrease in
air temperature with increasing altitude is reversed and air above the
ground is warmer than the air below it. Inversion layers can occur anywhere
from close to ground level up to thousands of feet into the atmosphere.
1.5 Clouds in the ABL
The water vapour is present in the ABL varies with space and time as
mentioned in the previous section. When this water vapour is transported
upward adiabatically it cools and saturates the atmosphere. When it is
saturated the extra water vapour condenses and the cloud drops are
formed. Thus clouds are the indicators of the existence of water vapour in
the atmosphere. Clouds are of different shapes and they are found at
different heights. Thus depending on their shapes and height of occurrence
the clouds can be divided into the following categories.
1.5.1 Low clouds: These clouds are found below 3 km
Stratus Clouds (St)

The word stratus comes from the Latin word that means “to
spread out.” Stratus clouds are horizontal, layered Clouds that stretch
out across the sky like a blanket. Sometimes a layer of warm, moist
air passes over a layer of cool air. Stratus clouds often form at the
boundary where these layers meet. Where two such layers of air
meet, the warm air is cooled. If the warm air is cooled below its dew
pint, the excess water vapor condenses to form a blanket- like layer of
stratus clouds. If the layers of air are very large, the stratus clouds
may extend for many kilometers across the sky.
• Cumulus clouds (Cu)
The word cumulus comes from the Latin word for a heap or a
pile. Cumulus clouds are puffy in appearance. They look like large
cotton balls. Cumulus clouds usually form when warm, moist air is
forced upward. As this air rises, it is cooled. If it is cooled below its
dew- point temperature, condensation will occur. The size of a
cumulus cloud depends on the force of the upward movement of air
and the amount of moisture in the air. The largest cumulus clouds are
caused by very strong upward movements of warm, moist air. The
clouds that produce heavy thunderstorms in summer are a form of
cumulus clouds called cumulonimbus. Cumulonimbus clouds may
extend upward for hundreds of meters.
Cumulonimbus (Cb)
This is the king of clouds. They are very tall and stretch from the lower
layer to the top of the upper. This is storm cloud which can produce violent
showers hail and lightning.
• Nimbostratus (Ns)
This is the common rain or snow cloud. It blocks out the sun or moon and is dark
grey, with small ragged black clouds below it.
• Stratocumulus (Sc)
These clouds form a layer at about the same level. The sun may shine through
gaps between the clouds
Stratus stratocumulus
 The planetary boundary layer
(PBL),
• The planetary boundary layer (PBL), also known as
the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL), is the lowest
part of the atmosphere and its behavior is directly
influenced by its contact with a planetary surface. On
Earth it usually responds to changes in surface forcing in
an hour or less. In this layer physical quantities such as
flow velocity, temperature, moisture etc., display rapid
fluctuations (turbulence) and vertical mixing is strong.
Above the PBL is the "free atmosphere" where the wind
is approximately geostrophic (parallel to the isobars)
while within the PBL the wind is affected by surface drag
and turns across the isobars. The free atmosphere is
usually nonturbulent, or only intermittently turbulent.
 Layers within PBL

• As Navier-Stokes equations suggest, the planetary boundary layer

turbulence is produced in the layer with the largest velocity gradients
that is at the very surface proximity.
• This layer - conventionally called a surface layer - constitutes about
10% of the total PBL depth. Above the surface layer the PBL
turbulence gradually dissipates, losing its kinetic energy to friction as
well as converting the kinetic to potential energy in a density
stratified flow.
• The balance between the rate of the turbulent kinetic energy
production and its dissipation determines the planetary boundary
layer depth.
• The PBL depth varies broadly. At a given wind speed, e.g. 8 m/s,
and so at a given rate of the turbulence production, a PBL in
wintertime Arctic could be as shallow as 50 m, a nocturnal PBL in
mid-latitudes could be typically 300 m in thickness, and a tropical
PBL in the trade-wind zone could grow to its full theoretical depth of
2000 m.
• In addition to the surface layer, the
planetary boundary layer also comprises
the PBL core (between 0.1 and 0.7 of the
PBL depth) and the PBL top or
entrainment layer or capping inversion
layer (between 0.7 and 1 of the PBL
depth)
• Four main external factors determine the
PBL depth and its mean vertical structure:
(1) the free atmosphere wind speed;
• (2) the surface heat (more exactly
buoyancy) balance;
• (3) the free atmosphere density
stratification;
• (4) the free atmosphere vertical wind
shear or baroclinicity.
 Principal types

• Convective planetary boundary layer

– (CBL, see also convection) is the PBL where positive
buoyancy flux at the surface creates a thermal
instability and thus generates additional or even major
turbulence. The CBL is typical in tropical and mid-
latitudes during daytime. Solar heating assisted by
the heat released from the water vapor condensation
could create so strong convective turbulence that the
CBL comprises the entire troposphere up to 10 km to
18 km (Intertropical convergence zone).
• Stably stratified planetary boundary layer
– (SBL) is the PBL where negative buoyancy flux at the
surface damps the turbulence. The SBL is solely
driven by the wind shear turbulence and hence the
SBL cannot exist without the free atmosphere wind.
The SBL is typical in nighttime at all locations and
even in daytime in places where the Earth's surface is
colder than the air above. The SBL plays a
particularly important role in high latitudes where it is
often prolonged (days to months), resulting in very
cold air temperatures.
• Physical laws and equations of motions, which
govern the planetary boundary layer dynamics
and microphysics, are strongly non-linear and
considerably influenced by properties of the
Earth's surface and evolution of the processes in
the free atmosphere. To deal with this
complicity, the whole array of turbulence
modelling has been proposed. However, they
are often not accurate enough to meet practical
requests. Significant improvements are expected
from application of a large eddy simulation
technique to problems related to the PBL.
• Perhaps the most important processes,
which are critically dependent on the
correct representation of the PBL in the
atmospheric models (Atmospheric Model
Intercomparison Project), are turbulent
transport of moisture (evapotranspiration)
and pollutants (air pollutants). Clouds in
the boundary layer influence trade winds,
the hydrological cycle, and energy
exchange.
 Air Flow Near the Ground
• Typically, due to aerodynamic drag, there
is a wind gradient in the wind flow just a
few hundred meters above the Earth's
surface—the surface layer of the planetary
boundary layer
• Wind speed increases with increasing height
above the ground, starting from zero[1] due to
the no-slip condition.[2] Flow near the surface
encounters obstacles that reduce the wind
speed, and introduce random vertical and
horizontal velocity components at right angles to
the main direction of flow.[3] This turbulence
causes vertical mixing between the air moving
horizontally at one level and the air at those
levels immediately above and below it, which is
important in dispersion of pollutants[4] and in
soil erosion.[5]
• The reduction in velocity near the surface is a function of
surface roughness, so wind velocity profiles are quite
different for different terrain types.Rough, irregular
ground, and man-made obstructions on the ground,
retard movement of the air near the surface, reducing
wind velocity. Because of low surface roughness on the
relatively smooth water surface, wind speeds do not
increase as much with height above sea level as they do
on land. Over a city or rough terrain, the wind gradient
effect could cause a reduction of 40% to 50% of the
geostrophic wind speed aloft; while over open water or
ice, the reduction may be only 20% to 30%.These effects
are taken into account when siting wind turbines.
 Ekman Layer
• The Ekman Layer is the layer in a fluid
where there is a force balance between
pressure gradient force, Coriolis force and
turbulent drag. It was first described by
Vagn Walfrid Ekman.
• Ekman developed the theory of the Ekman
layer after Fridtjof Nansen observed that
ice drifts at an angle of 20°-40°to the right
of the prevailing wind direction while on an
Arctic expedition aboard the Fram.
Nansen asked his colleague, Vilhelm
Bjerknes to set one of his students upon
study of the problem. Bjerknes tapped
Ekman, who presented his results in 1902
as his doctoral thesis.[1]
The Ekman Layer is the layer in a fluid where the
flow is the result of a balance between pressure
gradient, Coriolis and turbulent drag forces. In the
picture above, the wind blowing North creates a
surface stress and a resulting Ekman spiral is
found below it in the column of water.
 Mathematical Formulation

• The mathematical formulation of the Ekman layer can be found by

assuming a neutrally stratified fluid, with horizontal momentum in
balance between the forces of pressure gradient, Coriolis and
turbulent drag.

where is the diffusive eddy viscosity, which can be derived using mixing length theory.
 Mixing length theory

• In fluid dynamics, mixing length theory is a

method attempting to describe momentum
transfer by turbulence Reynolds stresses within
a fluid boundary layer by means of an eddy
viscosity. The theory was developed by Ludwig
Prandtl in the early 20th centuryPrandtl himself
had reservations about the theory,describing it
as, "only a rough approximation," but it has been
used in numerous fields ever since, including
atmospheric science, oceanography and stellar
structure
Physical intuition
 Richardson number

• The Richardson number is named after

Lewis Fry Richardson (1881 – 1953). It is
the dimensionless number that expresses
the ratio of potential to kinetic energy [1]

where g is the acceleration due to gravity, h a

representative vertical lengthscale, and u a
representative speed.
• where g is the acceleration due to gravity,
h a representative vertical lengthscale,
and u a representative speed.
• When considering flows in which density
differences are small (the Boussinesq
approximation), it is common to use the
reduced gravity g' and the relevant
parameter is the densimetric Richardson
number
• which is used frequently when considering
atmospheric or oceanic flows.
• If the Richardson number is much less than
unity, buoyancy is unimportant in the flow. If it is
much greater than unity, buoyancy is dominant
(in the sense that there is insufficient kinetic
energy to homogenize the fluids).
• If the Richardson number is of order unity, then
the flow is likely to be buoyancy-driven: the
energy of the flow derives from the potential
energy in the system originally.
• In aviation, the Richardson number is used
as a rough measure of expected air
turbulence. A lower score indicates a
higher degree of turbulence. Values in the
range 10 to 0.1 are typical, with values
below unity indicating significant
turbulence.
 Thermal wind

• The thermal wind is a vertical shear in the

geostrophic wind caused by a horizontal
temperature gradient. Its name is a
misnomer, because the thermal wind is
not actually a wind, but rather a wind
gradient.
The jet stream (shown here in
pink) is a well-known example of
the thermal wind. It arises from
the horizontal temperature
gradient from the warm tropics to
the cold polar regions.
 Physical Intuition

• The geostrophic wind is proportional to the slope of geopotential on

a surface of constant pressure. In a barotropic atmosphere, one
where density is a function only of pressure, the slope of isobaric
surfaces is independent of temperature, so geostrophic wind does
not increase with height.
• This does not hold true in a baroclinic atmosphere, one where
density is a function of both pressure and temperature. Horizontal
temperature gradients cause the thickness of gas layers between
isobaric surfaces to increase with higher temperatures. When
multiple atmospheric layers are stacked upon each other, the slope
of isobaric surfaces increases with height. This also causes the
magnitude of the geostrophic wind to increase with height.
The vertical variation of geostrophic wind in a barotropic
atmosphere (a) and in a baroclinic atmosphere (b). The blue
portion of the surface denotes a cold region while the
orange portion denotes a warm region. The temperature
difference is restricted to the boundary in (a) and extends
through the region in (b). The dotted lines enclose isobaric
surfaces which remain at constant slope with increasing
height in (a) and increase in slope with height in (b). This
causes thermal wind to occur only in a baroclinic
atmosphere.
Mathematical Formalism
 Advection Turning

• If a component of the geostrophic wind is

parallel to the temperature gradient, the
thermal wind will cause the geostrophic
wind to rotate with height. If the
geostrophic wind blows from cold air to
warm air (cold advection) the geostrophic
wind will turn counterclockwise with height,
a phenomenon known as wind backing
• Otherwise, if the geostrophic wind blows
from warm air to cold air (warm advection)
the wind will turn clockwise with height,
also known as wind veering.
• Wind backing and veering allow us to
estimate the horizontal temperature
gradient with data from an atmospheric
sounding.
 veering

backing

• In (a), cold advection is occurring, so the thermal wind causes

the geostrophic wind to rotate counterclockwise (for the
northern hemisphere) with height. In (b), warm advection is
occurring, so the geostrophic wind rotates clockwise with
height.