Oc

Optical fiber communication
By
Mrs. R. S. Khedikar
Unit 1
Basics of fiber Optics
2
3
HISTORY
HEINRICH LAMM
MADE THE FIRST
BUNDLE OF FIBERS
IN 1929.
IT WAS
IMPLEMENTEDTED
AROUND 30 YEARS
AGO IN R & D
LABS.
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Overview
Introduction
Composition of optical fibre
Operation of the fibre optic system
Advantages and disadvantages
Analog and digital communication
Two main types of cables
Pulse Spreading
Transmission Loss
Conclusions
Introduction
Fibre optics is being used to transmit television,

voice, and digital data signals by light waves
over flexible hair like threads of glass and
plastic. It has evolved into a system of great
importance and use since the 1980’s.
The advantages of fibre optics compared to
coaxial cable or twisted pair cable, are endless.
Millions of dollars are being spent to put light
wave communication systems into operation, as
a result of its performance.
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Composition of optical fibre
Silica based glass or plastic filaments are

spun and packed into bundles of several
hundreds or thousands.
thousands. Bundles may be
put together as rods or ribbons and sheets.
sheets.
These bundles are flexible and can be
twisted and contorted to conduct light and
images around corners Cross section of a bundle
The thin glass center of the fibre where the

light travels is called the “core”.
The outer optical material surrounding the
core that reflects the light back into the core
is called the “cladding”.
“cladding”.
In order to protect the optical surface from
moisture and damage, it is coated with a
layer of buffer coating.
coating. B.E/VIII/ETC/OC/NVG
Optical Fiber
Core
Glass or plastic with a higher index of
refraction than the cladding
Carries the signal
Cladding
Glass or plastic with a lower index of
refraction than the core
Buffer
Protects the fiber from damage and
moisture
Jacket
Holds one or more fibers in a cable
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Light is ejected into the glass

core at the correct angle and
transmitted;; it will reflect back
transmitted
repeatedly with internal
reflections, even when the rod
is curved
curved.. Light cannot escape
from a fibre optics cable.
cable. A
bundle of rods of fibres is
capable of taking an image
projected at one end of the
bundle and reproducing it at
the other end.
end. Reflected path of light in the glass rod
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TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT IS POSSIBLE

ONLY IF THE REFRACTIVE INDEX OF THE CORE
IS GREATER THAN THAT OF CLADDING.
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In a fibre optic system, there are a few major components to perform

the task of communication.
The Input Modulator is needed; this modulates the incoming signal
with a light beam.
A light emitting device is used; it can be either a light emitting diode
(LED) or a semiconductor laser diode.
A fibre optic cable is used as a transportation medium.
A fibre optic system converts an electrical signal to an infrared light
signal, and then transmits the signal onto an optical fibre.
An Output Modulator is used to separate the signal from the light
beam.
Special connectors must be used to couple the light from the source
to the fibre and from the fibre to the detector.
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Fig. 1-5: Major elements of an optical fiber link
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Fig. 1-6: Optical fiber cable installations
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TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS
ACCORDING TO MODE OF CAPACITY:

SINGLE-MODE FIBER
MULTI-MODE FIBER
ACCORDING TO REFRACTIVE INDEX:

STEP-INDEX FIBER
GRADED-INDEX FIBER
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Singlemode Fiber
Singlemode fiber has a core diameter of 8
to 9 microns, which only allows one light
path or mode
Images from arcelect.com (Link Ch 2a)
Index of
refraction
15
Multimode Step-
Step-Index Fiber
Multimode fiber has a core diameter of 50
or 62.5 microns (sometimes even larger)
Allows several light paths or modes
This causes modal dispersion – some modes take
longer to pass through the fiber than others because
they travel a longer distance
See animation at link Ch 2f Index of

refraction
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Step Index Fibre
This cable has a specific index of refraction
for the core and the cladding.
cladding. It causes
deformations due to the various paths lengths
of the light ray ray.. This is called modal
distortion.. It is the cheapest type of cabling.
distortion cabling.
Within the cladding and the core, the
refractive index is constant
constant..
Graded Index Fibre
In graded index fibre, rays of light follow
sinusoidal paths.
paths. Although the paths are
different lengths, they all reach the end of the
fibre at the same time.
time. Multimode dispersion
is eliminated and pulse spreading is reduced
reduced..
Graded Index fibre can hold the same
amount of energy as multimode fibre fibre.. The
disadvantage is that this takes place at only
one wavelength.
wavelength.
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Multimode Graded-
Graded-Index Fiber
The index of refraction gradually changes
across the core
Modes that travel further also move faster
This reduces modal dispersion so the bandwidth is
greatly increased
Index of
refraction
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Step--index and Graded-
Step Graded-index
Step index multimode was developed first,

but rare today because it has a low
bandwidth (50 MHz-
MHz-km)
It has been replaced by graded-
graded-index
multimode with a bandwidth up to 2 GHz-
GHz-
km
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Step--index Multimode
Step
Large core size, so source power can be

efficiently coupled to the fiber
High attenuation (4-
(4-6 dB / km)
Low bandwidth (50 MHz-
MHz-km)
Used in short, low-
low-speed datalinks
Also useful in high-
high-radiation environments,
because it can be made with pure silica
core
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Graded--index Multimode
Graded
Useful for “premises networks” like LANs,

security systems, etc.
62.5/125 micron has been most widely
used
Works well with LEDs, but cannot be used for
Gigabit Ethernet
50/125 micron fiber and VSELS are used
for faster networks
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Singlemode FIber
Best for high speeds and long distances

Used by telephone companies and CATV
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Multi--Mode vs Single-
Multi Single-Mode
Multi--Mode
Multi Single
Single--
Mode
Modes of light Many One

Distance Short Long
Bandwidth Low High
Typical Access Metro, Core
Application
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Advantages and Disadvantages

ADVANTAGES
Fibre optic cables have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables.
Fibre optic cable is less susceptible to signal degradation than copper wire.
Fibre optic cables weigh less than a copper wire cable.
Data can be transmitted digitally.
Lower-power transmitters can be used instead of the high-
Lower- high-voltage electrical
transmitters used for copper wires.
Unlike electrical signals in copper wires, light signals from one fibre do not
interfere with those of other fibres in the same cable.
Because no electricity is passed through optical cable it is non-
non-flammable,
and immune to lightning.
Impossible to tap into a fibre optics cable, making it more secure
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Advantages and Disadvantages
DISADVANTAGES
Fibre optics are that the cables are expensive to install.
The termination of a fibre optics cable is complex and requires

special tools.
They are more fragile than coaxial cable.
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Three Types of Dispersion
Dispersion is the spreading out of a light

pulse as it travels through the fiber
Three types:
Modal Dispersion
Chromatic Dispersion
Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)
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Modal Dispersion
Modal Dispersion
Spreading of a pulse because different modes
(paths) through the fiber take different times
Only happens in multimode fiber
Reduced, but not eliminated, with graded-
index fiber
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Chromatic Dispersion
Different wavelengths travel at different

speeds through the fiber
This spreads a pulse in an effect named
chromatic dispersion
Chromatic dispersion occurs in both
singlemode and multimode fiber
Larger effect with LEDs than with lasers
A far smaller effect than modal dispersion
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Polarization Mode Dispersion
Light with different polarization can travel

at different speeds, if the fiber is not
perfectly symmetric at the atomic level
This could come from imperfect circular
geometry or stress on the cable, and there
is no easy way to correct it
It can affect both singlemode and
multimode fiber.
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APPLICATION
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1. AS SENSORY TOOLS
SENSORY DEVICE
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FIBER OPTIC TEMPRATURE

SENSING
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2.IN MEDICAL APPLICATION
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Plastic optical fiber Optical fiber
ENDOSCOPE
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3.IN MILITARY AND DEFENCE
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4.FOR SECURITY
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SECURITY CAMERAS
SECURITY IN AIRPORT
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6.IN ROBOTS
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ROBOTS
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7.FOR DECORATION
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SHINING TREE
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CONCLUSION
DUE TO THE ADVANTAGES AND THE

APPLICATIONS FIBER OPTICS
TECHNOLOGY HAS GAIN
MOMENTUM.
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Optical Fiber Communication
Rakhi Khedikar
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Analog and Digital Communication
An analog signal changes continuously, while a digital signal can be

at only a certain number of discrete levels.
Conventionally, analog is used for audio and video communication.
Analog technology has been used because our ears detect
continuous fluctuations in sound levels, not just the presence or
absence of sound
sound..
Going through a system where the analog signal can not be
successfully reproduced outputs a distorted signal which is what
happens when we get a distorted voice on the telephone or radio.
radio.
Digital transmission works the best; both analog and digital signals
are found in audio and telephone systems.
Analog signals are converted to digital before transmission and then
back to analog signals.
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Overview
Communication systems
Analog Modulation
AM
FM
Digital Modulation
ASK
FSK
Modems
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Communication systems
Digital
Analog
The block diagram on the top shows the blocks common to all
communication systems
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Light sources
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Remember the components of a communications
system:
Input transducer: The device that converts a physical

signal from source to an electrical, mechanical or
electromagnetic signal more suitable for communicating
Transmitter: The device that sends the transduced signal

Transmission channel: The physical medium on which the
signal is carried
Receiver: The device that recovers the transmitted signal

from the channel
Output transducer: The device that converts the received

signal back into a useful quantity
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Light source
Block diagram of an optical communication system
Light source: modulation → spectrum of the RF signal will shift to the

optical frequencies
Intensity modulation is often used
Used wavelength is determined by
1. Transmission parameters
- attenuation
- dispersion
2. Availability, reliability, cost of:
- light sources
- detectors
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Fig. 1-5: Major elements of an optical fiber link
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Fig. 1-6: Optical fiber cable installations
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OPTICS
Reflection and Refraction
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Geometrical Optics
Optics is the study of the behavior of light (not

necessarily visible light).
This behavior can be described by Maxwell’s
equations.
However, when the objects with which light
interacts are larger that its wavelength,
the light travels in straight lines called rays,
and its wave nature can be ignored.
This is the realm of geometrical optics.
The wave properties of light show up in
phenomena such as interference and
diffraction.
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Geometrical Optics
Light can be described using geometrical optics, as long as the objects with
which it interacts, are much larger than the wavelength of the light.
This can be described This requires the use of full

using geometrical optics wave optics (Maxwell’s equations)
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Reflection and Transmission
Some materials reflect light. For example, metals reflect light

because an incident oscillating light beam causes the metal’s
nearly free electrons to oscillate, setting up another
(reflected) electromagnetic wave.
Opaque materials absorb light (by, say, moving electrons

into higher atomic orbitals).
Transparent materials are usually insulators whose electrons

are bound to atoms, and which would require more energy
to move to higher orbital than in materials which are
opaque.
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Geometrical Optics
θ1 = angle of incidence
θ1 Normal to surface
Incident ray
Surface
Angles are measured with respect to the normal to the surface
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Reflection
θ1 θ’1 The Law of

Reflection:
Light reflected from a

surface stays in the plane
formed by the incident ray
and the surface normal;
θ1 = θ’1 and the angle of reflection
equals the angle of
This is called “specular”
incidence (measured to
reflection the normal)
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Refraction
More generally, when light passes from one

transparent medium to another, part is reflected
and part is transmitted. The reflected ray obeys
θ1 = θ’1.
Medium 1
θ1 θ’1
Medium 2
θ2
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Refraction
More generally, when light passes from one

transparent medium to another, part is reflected
and part is transmitted. The reflected ray obeys
θ1 = θ’1.
Medium 1
θ1 θ’1
The transmitted ray obeys

Snell’s Law of Refraction:
Medium 2 It stays in the plane, and the angles are related
by
n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2
θ2
Here n is the “index of refraction” of a medium.
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Refraction
θ1 = angle of incidence
θ’1= angle of reflection
θ2 = angle of refraction
Medium 1
θ1 θ’1
Law of Reflection
Reflected ray θ1 = θ’1
Incident ray
Law of Refraction
Medium 2
n1 sinθ1= n2 sinθ2
Refracted ray n ≡ index of refraction

θ2
ni = c / vi
vi = velocity of light in
medium i
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Example: air-water interface
If you shine a light at an incident angle of 40o onto the

surface of a pool 2m deep, where does the beam hit the
bottom?
Air: n=1.00 Water: n=1.33

40
(1.00)sin40 = (1.33)sinθ
air sinθ=sin40/1.33 so θ=28.9o
water Then d/2=tan28.9o which gives

d=1.1 m.
2m
θ
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bottom?

40
(1.00)sin40 = (1.33)sinθ
air sinθ=sin40/1.33 so θ=28.9o
water Then d/2=tan28.9o which gives

d=1.1 m.
2m
θ
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bottom?

40
(1.00) sin(40) = (1.33) sinθ
air Sinθ = sin(40)/1.33 so θ = 28.9o
water Then d/2 = tan(28.9o)

which gives ⇒ d=1.1 m.
2m
θ
Turn this around: if you shine a light from the bottom at

this position it will look like it’s coming from further right.
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Air-water interface
Air: n1 = 1.00 Water: n2 = 1.33
n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2
n1/n2 = sinθ2 / sinθ1
θ1
air
When the light travels from air to
water water (n1 < n2) the ray is bent
towards the normal.
θ2
When the light travels from water
to air (n2 > n1) the ray is bent
away from the normal.
This is valid for any pair of materials with n1 < n2
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Total Internal Reflection
Suppose the light goes from medium 1 to

2 and that n2<n1 (for example, from water
to air).
Snell’s law gives sin θ2 = (n1 / n2) sin θ1.
Since sin θ2 <= 1 there must be a
maximum value of θ1.
At angles bigger than this “critical angle”,
the beam is totally reflected.
The critical angle is when θ2=π/2, which
gives θc=sin-1(n2/n1).
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Total Internal Reflection
n1 > n2
θ2
θ2 n2
θ1
θ1 θc
θ1 n1
n2sin π/2 = n1sin θ1

... sin θ1 = sin θc = n2 / n1
Some light is refracted Total internal reflection:

and some is reflected no light is refracted
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Laws of Reflection & Refraction
Reflection law: angle of incidence=angle of reflection
Snell’s law of refraction:
n1 sin φ1 = n2 sin φ 2 [2-18]
Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000
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Total internal reflection, Critical angle
Transmitted
(refracted) light
φ2
kt φ 2 = 90 o
n2 Evanescent wave
n 1 > n2
θ1
ki
φ1 kr φc
Critical angle
φ1 > φ c TIR
Incident Reflected
light light
n2 (c)
(a) sin φ c = (b )
n1
Light wave travelling in a more dense medium strikes a less dense medium. Depending on
the incidence angle with respect toφ c , which is determined by the ratio of the refractive
indices, the wave may be transmitted (refracted) or reflected. (a)φ1 < φ c (b) φ1 = φ c (c)
φ1 > φ c and total internal reflection (TIR).
n2
sin φ c = [2-19]
n1
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Phase shift due to TIR
The totally reflected wave experiences a phase shift

however which is given by:
δN n 2 cos2 θ1 − 1 δp n n 2 cos2 θ1 − 1
tan = ; tan = [2-20]
2 n sinθ1 2 sinθ1
n1
n=
n2
Where (p,N) refer to the electric field components

parallel or normal to the plane of incidence respectively.
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Optical waveguiding by TIR:
Dielectric Slab Waveguide
Propagation mechanism in an ideal step-index optical waveguide.
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Launching optical rays to slab waveguide

n2
sin φ min = ; minimum angle that supports TIR
n1
[2-21]
Maximum entrance angle, θ 0 max is found from

the Snell’s relation written at the fiber end face.
n sin θ 0 max = n1 sin θ c = n1 − n2

2 2
[2-22]
Numerical aperture:
NA = n sin θ 0 max = n1 − n2 ≈ n1 2∆
2 2
[2-23]
n1 − n2
∆= [2-24]
n1
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Example: Fiber Optics
An optical fiber consists of a core with index n1 surrounded by a cladding with index
n2, with n1>n2. Light can be confined by total internal reflection, even if the fiber is
bent and twisted.
Exercise: For n1 = 1.7 and n2 = 1.6 find the minimum angle of

incidence for guiding in the fiber.
Answer: sin θC = n2 / n1 ⇒ θC = sin-1(n2 / n1) = sin-1(1.6/1.7)
= 70o.
(Need to graze at < 20o)
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Dispersion
The index of refraction depends on
frequency or wavelength: n = n(λ ) n
1.55
Typically many optical
1.53
materials, (glass, quartz)
have decreasing n with 1.51
increasing wavelength in the

visible region of spectrum λ
400 500 600 700 nm
Dispersion by a prism:
700 nm
400 nm
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Step Index Fibre
This cable has a specific index of refraction
for the core and the cladding.
cladding. It causes
deformations due to the various paths lengths
of the light ray ray.. This is called modal
distortion.. It is the cheapest type of cabling.
distortion cabling.
Within the cladding and the core, the
refractive index is constant
constant..
Graded Index Fibre
In graded index fibre, rays of light follow
sinusoidal paths.
paths. Although the paths are
different lengths, they all reach the end of the
fibre at the same time.
time. Multimode dispersion
is eliminated and pulse spreading is reduced
reduced..
Graded Index fibre can hold the same
amount of energy as multimode fibre fibre.. The
disadvantage is that this takes place at only
one wavelength.
wavelength.
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Multi--Mode vs Single-
Multi Single-Mode
Multi--Mode
Multi Single
Single--
Mode
Modes of light Many One

Distance Short Long
Bandwidth Low High
Typical Access Metro, Core
Application
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Maximum angle to the axis of a
step mode fiber
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SKEW RAYS
A possible path of propagation of skew rays is shown

in Fig 2.4. view A, provides an angled view and view
B provides a front view.
Skew rays propagate without passing through the
axis of the fiber. The acceptance angle for skew rays
is larger than the accept angle of the merdional ray
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SKEW RAYS
This condition explains why skew rays outnumber

meridional rays. Skew rays are often used in the
calculation of light acceptance in an optical fiber. The
addition of skew rays increases the amount of light
capacity of a fiber. In large NA fibers, the increase
may be significant
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SKEW RAYS
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SKEW RAYS
The addition of skew rays also increases the

amount of loss in a fiber.
Skew rays tend to propagate in the annular
region near the edge of the fiber core and do not
fully utilize the core as a transmission medium.
A class of skew rays, known as leaky rays,
loses energy to the cladding or the surrounding
medium as they travel along the fiber.
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SKEW RAYS
Rays are complimentary to the meridional rays

in the sense that if the light input to the fiber is
non-uniform, skew rays will tend to have a
smoothing effect on the distribution of the light
as it is transmitted, giving a more uniform output.
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OPTICAL FIBER MODES
Light can be propagated down an optical fiber by

either reflection or refraction
refraction..Light propogation
depends on the modes of propogation and index
profile of the fiber
In fiber mode technology ,the word mode means
simply path
path..if there is only one path for light to
propogate ,it is called single mode .If there are more
than one path for light to propogate down the length
of fiber,it is called multimode
multimode..
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Modes
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Cut of Wavelengh
Single mode operation only occurs above the

cut of wavelength .
λ c=2∏ a n1 (2 ∆) 1/2/ V c
Where V c is the cut off frequency
λ c is the wavelengh above which a fiber

becomes single moded.
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Pulse Spreading
Optical fibres that carry data consist of pulses of light

energy following each other
other.. The fibre has a limit as to
how many pulses per second can be sent to it and be
expected to emerge intact at the other end end.. This is
known as pulse spreading which limits the Bandwidth of
the fibre
fibre..
The pulse sets off down the fibre with a square wave
shape.. As it travels along the fibre, it progressively gets
shape
wider and the peak intensity decreases
decreases..
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Transmission Loss
The transmission loss or attenuation of an optical fibre is

perhaps the most important characteristic of the fibre;fibre;
this determines if a system is practical
practical.. It controls (1)
spacing between repeaters and (2) the type of optical
transmitter and receiver to be used
used..
As light waves travel down an optical fibre, they lose part

of their energy because of various imperfections in the
fibre.. These losses are measured in decibels per
fibre
kilometers (dB/km).
(dB/km).
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Leaky modes
The boundary between the truly guided modes and

the leaky modes is defined by the cut off condition.
condition.
As β becomes smaller than n 2 K,power leaks out of
the core into the cladding
cladding..
Leaky modes can carry sufficient amount of optical
power in short fibers
fibers..
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Formulas to use in optical fibers
Numerical aperture :
NA=sin θin (max) = √
θin (max) = sin‫־‬
sin‫־‬¹ √n1² - n2²
Cut-off wavelength for single –mode fiber :

λc = 2 π a n1 √2 ∆ / 2.405 where
∆= n1-n2/n1 and a = core radius
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Formulas to use in optical fibers
Maximum fiber length (km):

z = 1 / 5B ∆t where
B = maximum bit rate (Mb/s)
∆t = dispersion (µ
(µs/km)
. Maximum data transmission rate for RZ:
fb (bps) = 1 / ∆t x L
. Maximum data transmission rate for NRZ:
fb (bps) = 1 / 2 ∆t x L where
∆t = pulse spreading constant (ns/km)
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Conclusion
The age of optical communications is a new era. era. In several ways
fibre optics is a pivotal breakthrough from the electric
communication we have been accustomed to. to. Instead of electrons
moving back and forth over a regular copper or metallic wire to carry
signals, light waves navigate tiny fibres of glass or plastic to
accomplish the same purpose.
purpose.
With a bandwidth and information capacity a thousand times greater
than that of copper circuits, fibre optics may soon provide us with all
the communication technology we could want in a lifetime, at a cost
efficient price.
Any new communication system that does not use fibre optics, or
consider its use, is obsolete even before it has been built. built. It is
apparent that the average technician may also become superseded
if he or she fails to master fibre optics.
optics. After all, the technician will be
responsible for repairing and maintaining fibre- optic systems
wherever they are used, not the engineer.
engineer.
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92
Optical Fibers: Structures, Waveguiding &
Fabrication
93
Theories of Optics
Light is an electromagentic phenomenon described by the same
theoretical principles that govern all forms of electromagnetic
radiation. Maxwell’s equations are in the hurt of electromagnetic
theory & is fully successful in providing treatment of light
propagation. Electromagnetic optics provides the most complete
treatment of light phenomena in the context of classical optics.
Turning to phenomena involving the interaction of light & matter,
such as emission & absorption of light, quantum theory provides
the successful explanation for light-matter interaction. These
phenomena are described by quantum electrodynamics which is
the marriage of electromagnetic theory with quantum theory. For
optical phenomena, this theory also referred to as quantum optics.
This theory provides an explanation of virtually all optical
phenomena.
94
Electromagnetic Optics
Electromagnetic radiation propagates in the form of two mutually coupled
vector waves, an electric field wave & a magnetic field wave. Both are
vector functions of position & time.
In a source-free, linear, homogeneous, isotropic & non-dispersive media,
such as free space, these electric & magnetic fields satisfy the following
partial differential equations, known as Maxwell’ equations:
r
r ∂E [2-1]
∇×H =ε
∂t
r
r ∂H [2-2]
∇ × E = −µ
∂t
r
∇⋅E = 0 [2-3]
r
∇⋅H = 0 [2-4]
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In Maxwell’s equations, E is the electric field expressed in [V/m], H is the

magnetic field expressed in [A/m].
ε [F/m] : Electric permittivity

µ [H/m]: Magnetic permeability
∇ ⋅ : is divergence operation
∇×: is curl operation
The solution of Maxwell’s equations in free space, through the wave

equation, can be easily obtained for monochromatic electromagnetic
wave. All electric & magnetic fields are harmonic functions of time of the
same frequency. Electric & magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other
& both perpendicular to the direction of propagation, k, known as
transverse wave (TEM). E, H & k form a set of orthogonal vectors.
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Electromagnetic Plane wave in Free space
Ex
Direction of Propagation k
x
z z
y
By
An electromagnetic wave is a travelling wave which has time

varying electric and magnetic fields which are perpendicular to each
other and the direction of propagation, z.
S.O.Kasap, optoelectronics and Photonics Principles and Practices, prentice hall, 2001
97
Linearly Polarized Electromagnetic Plane wave

r
E = e x E0 x cos(ωt -kz ) [2-5]
r
H = e y H 0 y cos(ωt − kz ) [2-6]
where:
ω = 2π f : Angular frequency [rad/m] [2-7]
k: Wavenumber or wave propagation constant [1/m]

2π
λ= : Wavelength [m]
k
E µ
η = 0x = [Ω] : intrinsic (wave) impedance [2-8]
H0 y ε
1
v= [m/s]: velocity of wave propagation [2-9]
µε
98
E and B have constant phase
in this xy plane; a wavefront
z E
E
k
Propagation
B
Ex
Ex = Eo sin(ωt–kz)
A plane EM wave travelling alongz, has the same Ex (or By) at any point in a
given xy plane. All electric field vectors in a givenxy plane are therefore in phase.
The xy planes are of infinite extent in thex and y directions.
99
Wavelength & free space
Wavelength is the distance over which the phase changes by 2π .

v
λ = [2-10]
f
In vacuum (free space):
10−9
ε0 = [F/m] µ 0 = 4 ×10−7 [H/m]
36π [2-11]
v = c ≅ 3 ×108 m/s η0 = 120π [Ω]
100
EM wave in Media
Refractive index of a medium is defined as:
c velocity of light (EM wave) in vacuum µε

n= = = = µ rε r
v velocity of light (EM wave) in medium µ 0ε 0
[2-12]
µ r : Relative magnetic permeability
ε r : Relative electric permittivity
For non-magnetic media ( µ r = 1) :
n = εr [2-13]
101
Intensity & power flow of TEM wave
1r r
The poynting vector S = E × H∗ for TEM wave is parallel to the
2
wavevector k so that the power flows along in a direction normal to the
wavefront or parallel to k. The magnitude of the poynting vector is the
intensity of TEM wave as follows:
2
E0
I= [W/m2 ] [2-14]
2η
102
Connection between EM wave optics & Ray optics
According to wave or physical optics viewpoint, the EM waves radiated by

a small optical source can be represented by a train of spherical wavefronts
with the source at the center. A wavefront is defined a s the locus of all
points in the wave train which exhibit the same phase. Far from source
wavefronts tend to be in a plane form. Next page you will see different
possible phase fronts for EM waves.
When the wavelength of light is much smaller than the object, the
wavefronts appear as straight lines to this object. In this case the light wave
can be indicated by a light ray, which is drawn perpendicular to the phase
front and parallel to the Poynting vector, which indicates the flow of
energy. Thus, large scale optical effects such as reflection & refraction can
be analyzed by simple geometrical process called ray tracing. This view of
optics is referred to as ray optics or geometrical optics.
103
Wave fronts
(constant phase surfaces) Wave fronts
Wave fronts
k
λ λ P E
r
rays k
P λ
O
z
A perfect plane wave A perfect spherical wave A divergent beam
(a) (b) (c)
Examples of possible EM waves
104
General form of linearly polarized plane waves
Any two orthogonal plane waves

Can be combined into a linearly
Polarized wave. Conversely, any
arbitrary linearly polarized wave
can be resolved into two
independent Orthogonal plane
waves that are in phase.
r
E = e x E0 x cos(ωt − kz) + e y E0 y cos(ωt − kz)
r
E = E = E0 x + E0 y
2 2
[2-15]
E0 y
θ = tan−1 ( )
E0 x
105
Elliptically Polarized plane waves
r
E = e x Ex + e y E y
= e x E0 x cos(ωt − kz) + e y cos(ωt − kz + δ )
2 2
 Ex   Ey    E y 
  +   − 2 E x   cos δ = sin 2 δ
  E  
 E0 x  E0 y   0x  E0 y  [2-16]
2 E0 x E0 y cos δ
tan(2α ) =
E0 x − E0 y
2 2
106
Circularly polarized waves
π
Circular polarization : E0 x = E0 y = E0 & δ = ± [2-17]
2
+ : right circularly polarized, - : left circularly polarized
107
EM analysis of Slab waveguide
For each particular angle, in which light ray can be faithfully transmitted
along slab waveguide, we can obtain one possible propagating wave
solution from a Maxwell’s equations or mode.
The modes with electric field perpendicular to the plane of incidence (page)
are called TE (Transverse Electric) and numbered as: TE0 , TE1 , TE2 ,...
Electric field distribution of these modes for 2D slab waveguide can be
expressed as:
r
E m ( x , y , z , t ) = e x f m ( y ) cos( ω t − β m z ) [2-26]
m = 0,1, 2,3 (mode number)
wave transmission along slab waveguides, fibers & other type of optical
waveguides can be fully described by time & z dependency of the mode:
cos( ω t − β m z ) or e j (ωt − β m z )
108
TE modes in slab waveguide
r
E m ( x, y, z, t ) = e x f m ( y ) cos(ωt − β m z )
m = 0,1,2,3 (mode number)
109
Modes in slab waveguide
The order of the mode is equal to the # of field zeros across the guide. The
order of the mode is also related to the angle in which the ray congruence
corresponding to this mode makes with the plane of the waveguide (or axis
of the fiber). The steeper the angle, the higher the order of the mode.
For higher order modes the fields are distributed more toward the edges of
the guide and penetrate further into the cladding region.
Radiation modes in fibers are not trapped in the core & guided by the fiber
but they are still solutions of the Maxwell’ eqs. with the same boundary
conditions. These infinite continuum of the modes results from the optical
power that is outside the fiber acceptance angle being refracted out of the
core.
In addition to bound & refracted (radiation) modes, there are leaky modes
in optical fiber. They are partially confined to the core & attenuated by
continuously radiating this power out of the core as they traverse along the
fiber (results from Tunneling effect which is quantum mechanical
phenomenon.) A mode remains guided as long as n2k < β < n1k
110
Modal Theory of Step Index fiber
General expression of EM-wave in the circular fiber can be written as:
r r r
E ( r , φ , z , t ) = ∑ Am E m ( r , φ , z , t ) = ∑ AmU m ( r , φ )e j ( ωt − β m z )
m m
r r r
H ( r , φ , z , t ) = ∑ Am H m ( r , φ , z , t ) = ∑ AmVm ( r , φ )e j ( ωt − β m z )
m m
[2-27]
r r
Each of the characteristic solutions E m ( r , φ , z , t ) & H m ( r , φ , z , t ) is
called mth mode of the optical fiber.
It is often sufficient to give the E-field of the mode.
r
U m (r , φ )e j ( ωt − β m z ) m = 1,2,3...
111
r
The modal field distribution, Um (r,φ) , and the mode
propagation constant, β m are obtained from solving the
Maxwell’s equations subject to the boundary conditions given
by the cross sectional dimensions and the dielectric constants
of the fiber.
Most important characteristics of the EM transmission along the fiber are

determined by the mode propagation constant, β m (ω) , which depends on
the mode & in general varies with frequency or wavelength. This quantity
is always between the plane propagation constant (wave number) of the
core & the cladding media .
n2 k < β m (ω) < n1 k [2-28]
112
At each frequency or wavelength, there exists only a finite number of
guided or propagating modes that can carry light energy over a long
distance along the fiber. Each of these modes can propagate in the fiber
only if the frequency is above the cut-off frequency, ω c , (or the source
wavelength is smaller than the cut-off wavelength) obtained from cut-off
condition that is:
β m (ωc ) = n2 k [2-29]
To minimize the signal distortion, the fiber is often operated in a single

mode regime. In this regime only the lowest order mode (fundamental
mode) can propagate in the fiber and all higher order modes are under cut-
off condition (non-propagating).
Multi-mode fibers are also extensively used for many applications. In
these fibers many modes carry the optical signal collectively &
simultaneously.
113
114
115
Prove that step index fiber remains guided when ɳ2K<β<ɳ1k
116
117
118
Fundamental Mode Field Distribution
Mode field diameter

Polarizations of fundamental mode
119
Ray Optics Theory (Step-Index Fiber)
Skew rays
Each particular guided mode in a fiber can be represented by a group of rays which
Make the same angle with the axis of the fiber.
120
Mode designation in circular cylindrical waveguide (Optical Fiber)
TE lm modes : The electric field vector lies in transverse plane.

TM lm modes : The magnetic field vector lies in transverse plane.
Hybrid HE lm modes :TE component is larger than TM component.
Hybrid EH lm modes : TM component is larger than TE component.
y
l= # of variation cycles or zeros in φ direction. r
m= # of variation cycles or zeros in r direction. φ
x
z
Linearly Polarized (LP) modes in weakly-guided fibers ( n1 − n2 << 1 )
LP0 m (HE1m ), LP1m (TE 0 m + TM 0 m + HE 0 m )
Fundamental Mode: LP01 ( HE 11 )
121
Two degenerate fundamental modes in Fibers (Horizontal & Vertical

Modes)
HE11
122
Mode propagation constant as a function of frequency
Mode propagation constant, β lm (ω), is the most important transmission

characteristic of an optical fiber, because the field distribution can be easily
written in the form of eq. [2-27].
In order to find a mode propagation constant and cut-off frequencies of
various modes of the optical fiber, first we have to calculate the
normalized frequency, V, defined by:
2πa 2πa
V= n1 − n2 =
2 2
NA [2-30]
λ λ
a: radius of the core, λ is the optical free space wavelength,
n1 &n2 are the refractive indices of the core & cladding.
123
Plots of the propagation constant as a function of normalized frequency for a few of the lowest-
order modes
124
Single mode Operation
The cut-off wavelength or frequency for each mode is obtained from:
2π n 2 ω c n2
β lm ( ω c ) = n 2 k = = [2-31]
λc c
Single mode operation is possible (Single mode fiber) when:
V ≤ 2 . 405 [2-32]
Only HE 11 can propagate faithfully along optical fiber
125
Single-Mode Fibers
∆ = 0.1% to 1% ; a = 6 to 12 µm ;
V = 2.3 to 2.4 @ max frequency or min λ
Example: A fiber with a radius of 4 micrometer and n1 = 1.500 & n2 = 1.498

has a normalized frequency of V=2.38 at a wavelength 1 micrometer. The
fiber is single-mode for all wavelengths greater and equal to 1 micrometer.
MFD (Mode Field Diameter): The electric field of the first fundamental
mode can be written as:
r2
E(r ) = E0 exp(− 2
); MFD = 2W0 [2-33]
W0
126
Birefringence in single-mode fibers
Because of asymmetries the refractive indices for the two degenerate modes
(vertical & horizontal polarizations) are different. This difference is referred to as
birefringence, Bf :
B f = n y − nx [2-34]
127
Fiber Beat Length
In general, a linearly polarized mode is a combination of both of the

degenerate modes. As the modal wave travels along the fiber, the
difference in the refractive indices would change the phase difference
between these two components & thereby the state of the polarization of
the mode. However after certain length referred to as fiber beat length, the
modal wave will produce its original state of polarization. This length is
simply given by:
2π
Lp = [2-35]
kB f
128
Multi-Mode Operation
Total number of modes, M, supported by a multi-mode fiber is

approximately (When V is large) given by:
V2
M ≈ [2-36]
2
Power distribution in the core & the cladding: Another quantity of
interest is the ratio of the mode power in the cladding, Pclad to the total
optical power in the fiber, P, which at the wavelengths (or frequencies) far
from the cut-off is given by:
Pclad 4
≈ [2-37]
P 3 M
129
Optical fiber connections

Joints
Connector
By
Rakhi Khedikar
130
131
Joint Loss:
For identical fiber ,a joint loss is the addition of the

alignment losses and the reflection loss .The total loss
can be derived by estimating geometry including the
reflection effects, the ray transfer from input fiber to
output fiber
fiber..Three type of misalignment exist end
seperation ,axial displacement and the axial angular
tilt.
tilt.
In practical cases all three types of misalignment
occur simultaniously
simultaniously..
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Mechanical misalignments
133
Joint Loss
Even when the two fiber ends are smooth and

perpendicular to the fiber axis are perfectly aligned ,a
small portion of light is reflected back into the
transmiting fiber causing attenuation at the joint.
joint. This
phenomenon is known as fresnel reflection
reflection..
Fresnel reflection is associated with the step changes
in refractive index (ie glass error interface)
interface)..
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Joint Loss
The magnitude of this partial reflection of the light

transmitted through the interface may be estimated
using the classical formula for light of normal
incidence and is given by
r =[ n1-n]2/[nn1+n] 2
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Joint Loss
Where r is the fraction of light at a single interface .

N1 is the refractive index of the fiber core
core..
N is the refractive index of the media between two
joined fiber ends for air n=
n=11)
Loss in decibel due to fresnel reflection at a
single interface is given by
Loss free= -10 log 10 (1-r)
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Optical fiber splicing
An optical fiber splice is a permanent fiber to fiber

joint.
A splice is required in the fiber manufacturing stage
as a means for increasing the fiber length .
It is used to make a joint or to repair a broken fiber.
An ideal fiber end for splicing is one which is flat &
perpendicular to the fiber axis and that has a minor
smooth finish.
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Fusion Splicing
Fusion splices are made by thermally bonding

together prepared fiber ends .
In this method the fiber ends are pre aligned and
butted together in order to achieve good continuity of
the transmission medium at the junction point
point.. This is
done in either a groved fiber holder or under a
microscope with micromanipulator.
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Fusion Splicing
The butt joint is then heated with an electric arc or a

laser and hence butted together
together..This technique can
produce very low splice loss less than 0.06 db
db..
This technique offers advantages of consisitant ,easily
controlled heat with adaptability for use under field
conditions..
conditions
In this technique care must be taken since surface
damage due to handling ,surface defect growth
created during heating and residual
residual..
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Fig. 5-16: Fiber end defects
140
Fusion Splicing
Stresses induced near the joint as a result of changes

in the chemical composition arises from the material
melting can produce a weak slice.
141
Fiber splicing
Fusion splice
V-groove mechanical splice
Elastic-tube splice
142
Fiber fusion splicing
A fiber splice sutable for silica fiber may be made by

using an electric arc , a plasma torch or oxyhydrogen
torch to fuse or weld the fiber ends together
together..
Fiber with prepared ends are first aligned by
micropositioners and then heat is applied ,fusing the
ends together
together..
Mean losses around of 0.2 db are readily achievable
for multimode graded index fiber with 50 micrometer
core..
core
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Fusion splicing
144
Fujikura Fusion Splicers
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Fusion Splicers
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146
Fiber fusion splicing
Mechanical strength of fusion splice can be made to

withstand an average of 1 to 2 % elongation
elongation..
Fusion splice may be readily implemented for both
multimode & single mode fiberfiber..
It is perticularly suited to fibers with a lower melting
points & higher expansion core gas in a silica outer
structure..
structure
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V Grove splicing
In the V Grove splicing technique ,the prepared fiber

ends are first butted together in a V shaped grove
grove..
They are then bonded together with an adhesive
adhesive..
The V Shaped channel could be either a groved
silicon ,plastic ,ceramic or metal substrate
substrate..This
technique can produce splice of around 0.1 dbdb..
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V-Groove fiber splicing
149
Elastic tube splicing
The elastic splice is shown in fig.

fig.is a unique device
that automatically performs lateral,logitudinal and
angular alignment.
It splices multimode fiber with losses around
0.25 db
db..
It requires much less equipment and skills as
compared to fusion splicing.
splicing.
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The splice mechanism is basically a tube made of an

elastic material .
The central hole diameter is slightly smaller than that
of the fiber to be spliced and is tapered on each end
for easy fiber insertion
insertion..
When a fiber is inserted ,it expands the hole diameter
.The symmetry feature allows an accurate an accurate
and automatic alignment of the axes of the two joined
fiber..
fiber
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Elastic –tube splice
152
A wide range of fiber diameter can be inserted

into the elastic tube
tube..Thus fiber to be spliced do
not have to be equal in diameter
diameter..Since each
fiber moves into position independently relative
to tube axis
axis..
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Connectors
fiber optic connector is a damageable device that

permits the coupling of optical power between two
optical fibers or two groups of fibers
fibers.. Designing a
device that allows for repeated fiber coupling without
significant loss of light is difficult
difficult.. Fiber optic
connectors must maintain fiber alignment and provide
repeatable loss measurements during numerous
connections.. Fiber optic connectors should be easy to
connections
assemble (in a laboratory or field environment) and
should be cost effective
effective..
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Connectors
They should also be reliable

reliable.. Fiber optic connections
using connectors should be insensitive to
environmental conditions, such as temperature, dust,
and moisture
moisture.. Fiber optic connector designs attempt
to optimize connector performance by meeting each
of these conditions
conditions..
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Connectors
It results from the same loss mechanisms

described earlier
earlier.. Coupling loss results from
poor fiber alignment and end preparation
(extrinsic losses), fiber mismatches (intrinsic
loss), and Fresnel reflection
reflection.. The total amount of
insertion loss for fiber optic connectors should
remain below 1 dB.
dB. Fiber alignment is the critical
parameter in maintaining the total insertion loss
below the required level
level..
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Connectors
There is only a small amount of control over

coupling loss resulting from fiber mismatches,
because the loss results from inherent fiber
properties.. Index matching gels cannot be used
properties
to reduce Fresnel losses, since the index
matching gels attract dust and dirt to the
connection..
connection
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Connectors
optic connectors can also reduce system performance

by introducing modal and reflection noise
noise.. The cause
of modal noise in fiber optic connectors is the
interfering of the different wavefronts of different
modes within the fiber at the connector interface
interface..
Modal noise is eliminated by using only single mode
fiber with laser sources and only low low--coherence
sources such as light
light--emitting diodes with multimode
fiber..
fiber
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Connectors
Fiber optic connectors can introduce reflection noise

by reflecting light back into the optical sourcesource..
Reflection noise is reduced by index matching gels,
physical contact polishes, or antireflection coatings
coatings..
Generally, reflection noise is only a problem in high
data rate single mode systems using lasers
lasers..
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Optical Connector
The principle requirement optical connector are as

follows.
1) Low coupling loss loss:: The connector assembly
must maintain stringent alignment to measure
low coupling loss
loss..
2) Interchangeability
Interchangeability::
Connector of the same type must be compatible
from one manufacturer to another
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160
Optical Connector
3) Ease of assembly:
A service technician should be readily install the
connector in a field environment ,that is a location
other than connector connector factory
factory..The connector
loss should be fairly insensative to the assembly skill
of the technician.
technician.
4) Low environmental sensitivity:
Conditions such as temperature ,dust moisture should
have small effect on connector loss
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161
Optical Connector
5) Low cost and reliable consideration:

The connector must have a presion suitable to
the application but its cost must be a major
factor in the system.
6) Ease of connection:
Generally one should be able to simply connect and
disconnect by hand.
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162
Types of connector
Connector are available in

1. Screw-on
2. Bayonet-mount
3. Push-pull configuration
These include both single channel & multi
channels assemblies for cable to cable &cable
to circuit card connection the basic coupling
mechanism used in this connector belong to
either butt joint or the expanded beam classes.
163
Connectors
Ferrule connectors use two cylindrical plugs

(referred to as ferrules), an alignment sleeve, and
sometimes axial springs to perform fiber
alignment.. Precision holes drilled or molded
through the center of each ferrule allow for fiber
insertion and alignment. Precise fiber alignment
depends on the accuracy of the central hole of
each ferrule. When the fiber ends are inserted, an
adhesive (normally an epoxy resin) bonds the fiber
inside the ferrule.
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164
Connectors
The fiber-end faces are polished until they are

flush with the end of the ferrule to achieve a low-
loss fiber connection. Fiber alignment occurs when
the ferrules are inserted into the alignment sleeve.
The inside diameter of the alignment sleeve aligns
the ferrules, which in turn align the fibers. Ferrule
connectors lock the ferrules in the alignment
sleeve using a threaded outer shell or some other
type of coupling mechanism.
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Connectors
Jointed connectors and expanded

expanded--beam connectors
are the two basic types of fiber optic connectors
connectors..
Fiber optic butt
butt--jointed connectors align and bring
the prepared ends of two fibers into close contact
contact..
The end-
end-faces of some butt
butt--jointed connectors touch,
but others do not depending upon the connector
design.. Types of butt
design butt--jointed connectors include
cylindrical ferrule and biconical connectors
connectors..
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Butt-Joint connector
167
Connectors
Fiber optic expanded

expanded--beam connectors use two
lenses to first expand and then refocus the light
from the transmitting fiber into the receiving
fiber.. Single fiber butt
fiber butt--jointed and expanded beam
connectors normally consist of two plugs and an
adapter (coupling device)
device).. Figure shows how to
configure each plug and adapter when making the
connection between two optical fibers
fibers..
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168
Connectors
expanded-beam connector uses two lenses to

expanded-
expand and then refocus the light from the
transmitting fiber into the receiving fiber fiber..
Expanded--beam connectors are normally plug
Expanded plug--
adapter--plug type connections
adapter connections.. Fiber separation
and lateral misalignment are less critical in
expanded--beam coupling than in butt
expanded butt--jointing
jointing..
The same amount of fiber separation and lateral
misalignment in expanded beam coupling
produces a lower coupling loss than in butt butt--
jointing..
jointing
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Expanded beam fiber optic connector
170
Connectors - contd.
Type: SC, FC, ST, MU, SMA
Favored with single-mode fibre
Multimode fibre (50/125um) and
(62.5/125um)
Loss 0.15 - 0.3 dB
Return loss 55 dB (SMF), 25 dB (MMF)
Single fibre connector
171
Connectors - contd.
Single-mode fiber
Multi-mode fiber (50/125)
Multi-mode fiber (62.5/125)
Low insertion loss & reflection
MT-RJ Patch Cord MT-RJ Fan-out Cord
172
Connectors
However, angular misalignment is more critical

critical..
The same amount of angular misalignment in
expanded--beam coupling produces a higher loss
expanded
than in butt
butt--jointing
jointing.. Expanded
Expanded--beam connectors
are also much harder to produce produce.. Present
applications for expanded-
expanded-beam connectors
include multifiber connections, edge connections
for printed circuit boards, and other applications
applications..
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Coupler
Coupler can be defined as devices with three or more

fibers interconnected to provide mutual coupling
between them.
Functionally coupler can be classified as directional
,distributive or wavelength dependent coupler.
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Diffusion Coupler:
The coupling mechanism emplyed in diffusion

coupler are evencent wave coupling and radiation
coupling .In evanescent wave coupling ,two or more
fibers to be coupled are placed side by side in close
proximity,such that the power of the guided wave in
the input fiber is coupled gradually into the output
fiber..
fiber
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175
Diffusion Coupler:
In this case ,the coupling is through the eventual field

that extends deeply in the clading region of single
mode fiber.
When two single mode fibers are placed in parallel
over a finite distance ,the evanscent field from
primary fiber builds up propagation field in the
secondary fiber to provide two outputs
outputs..
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176
Diffusion Coupler:
The evanescent field coupling cannot readily be used

in multimode fibers since the coupling is expected to
be very weak and mode selective
selective..
In radiative coupling the power leaks out of the input
fiber is made to radiate towards the output fiberfiber..In
this case the bend fibers couples to each other through
the radiated field
field..
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177
Diffusion Coupler
Another important example of a coupler designed on

the principle of radiative coupling is a simple and
radiative coupling is a simple and relatively efficient
directional coupler for multimode fibers
fibers..
This device is known as fused buconical taper
coupler..
coupler
The coupler is formed by twisting a pair of fibers
which are then fused and elongated .Light entering
the coupler along the one fiber core is radiated out of
the core .
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178
Diffusion Coupler
This power is trapped into in the clading .some

of the trapped radiations then reenters the fiber
core mode of each output fiber
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179
Coupler
Two types of fiber Coupler:

Passive Coupler
Active Coupler
An Active coupler converts the optical signal on the
data bus to its electrical base band converter before
any data processing is carried out.
out.
A passive coupler contains no electronic elements
elements..
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180
Coupler
Directional Couplers
The four
four--port directional coupler
coupler,, also denoted 2 x
2 coupler,
coupler, is the simplest coupler.
The light arrives for instance at port A and is split
between port C and D.
In the most common case, 50% of the light power
will go in C and D.
There are altogether eight possible ways for the light
to travel.
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Directional Couplers
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Basic passive fiber optic coupler design
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An optical combiner
An optical combiner is a passive device that

combines the optical power carried by two input
fibers into a single output fiber.
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An optical combiner
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An optical splitter
An optical splitter is a passive device that splits the

optical power carried by a single input fiber into two
output fibers
fibers.. Figure illustrates the transfer of optical
power in an optical splitter
splitter.. The input optical power
is normally split evenly between the two output
fibers.. This type of optical splitter is known as a Y-
fibers
coupler..
coupler
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An optical splitter
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An optical splitter
However, an optical splitter may distribute the optical

power carried by input power in an uneven manner manner..
An optical splitter may split most of the power from
the input fiber to one of the output fibers
fibers.. Only a
small amount of the power is coupled into the
secondary output fiber
fiber.. This type of optical splitter is
known as a T-coupler, or an optical tap
tap..
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X coupler
coupler combines the functions of the optical

splitter and combiner.
combiner. The X coupler combines
and divides the optical power from the two
input fibers between the two output fibers
fibers..
Another name for the X coupler is the 2 X 2
coupler..
coupler
Star and tree couplers
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multiport couplers
multiport couplers that have more than two

input or two output ports.
ports. A star coupler is a
passive device that distributes optical power
from more than two input ports among several
output ports.
ports. Figure shows the multiple input
and output ports of a star coupler.
coupler.
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Star & tree coupler
A tree coupler is a passive device that splits the

optical power from one input fiber to more than two
output fibers
fibers.. A tree coupler may also be used to
combine the optical power from more than two input
fibers into a single output fiber
fiber.. Figure illustrates
each type of tree coupler
coupler.. Star and tree couplers
distribute the input power uniformly among the
output fibers
fibers..
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Star coupler.
coupler.
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(1 X M) and (N X 1) tree coupler designs
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Fiber optic couplers
Fiber optic couplers should prevent the transfer of

optical power from one input fiber to another input
fiber.. Directional couplers are fiber optic couplers
fiber
that prevent this transfer of power between input
fibers.. Many fiber optic couplers are also
fibers
symmetrical.. A symmetrical coupler transmits the
symmetrical
same amount of power through the coupler when the
input and output fibers are reversed
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Passive fiber optic coupler fabrication techniques can

be complex and difficult to understand
understand.. Some fiber
optic coupler fabrication involves beam splitting
using micro lenses or graded
graded--refractive-
refractive-index (GRIN)
rods and beam splitters or optical mixers
mixers.. These
beamsplitter devices divide the optical beam into two
or more separated beams
beams..
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Fabrication of fiber optic couplers may also involve

twisting, fusing, and tapering together two or more
optical fibers
fibers.. This type of fiber optic coupler is a
fused biconical taper coupler
coupler.. Fused biconical taper
couplers use the radiative coupling of light from the
input fiber to the output fibers in the tapered region to
accomplish beam splitting
splitting.. Figure illustrates the
fabrication process of a fused biconical taper coupler
coupler..
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Fabrication of a fused biconical taper coupler
(star coupler).
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Basic passive fiber optic coupler design
Figure illustrates the design of a basic fiber optic

coupler. A basic fiber optic coupler has N input ports
and M output ports.
N and M typically range from 1 to 64. The number of
input ports and output ports vary depending on the
intended application for the coupler. Types of fiber
optic couplers include optical splitters.
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Couplers
The optical coupler is suitable for frequencies in the

low megahertz range
range.. The photodiode type shown
above can handle only small currents
currents;; however, other
types of couplers, combining phototransistors with
the SCR, can be used where more output is required
required..
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Couplers
Optical couplers are replacing transformers in low low--

voltage and low
low--current applications
applications.. Sensitive digital
circuits can use the coupler to control large current
and voltages with low
low--voltage logic levels
levels..
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Couplers
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Couplers
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Fiber Manufacture
By
Rakhi Khedikar
203
Selecting the material for optical fiber
It must be possible to make long, thin

flexible fiber from material.
The material must be transparent at a
particular optical wavelength in order for
the fiber to guide efficiently
Physically compatible materials that have
slightly different refractive indices for the
core & cladding must be available
204
Fiber material
The majority of the material are made of

glass of either silica (SiO2)or a silicate.
High loss glass fiber with large cores used
for short transmission distance.
Low- loss glass fiber used for Long haul.
Plastic fiber are used in short distance
(several hundred meters)
205
Example of fiber composition
1. GeO2-SiO2 Core; SiO2 Cladding

2. P2O5-SiO2 Core; SiO2 Cladding
3. SiO2 Core; B3O3-SiO2 Cladding
4. GeO2-B3O3-SiO2 Core; B3O3-SiO2
Cladding
206
Fiber fabrication
There are two basic methods fiber

fabrication.
1. Vapor phase oxidation process.
2. Direct melt method.
207
208
Drawing
The fiber is drawn from the

preform and then coated with
a protective coating
209
Schematic of fiber drawing apparatus
210
Three Methods
Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition

(MCVD)
Outside Vapor Deposition (OVD)
Vapor Axial Deposition (VAD)
211
Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (MCVD)
A hollow, rotating glass tube

is heated with a torch
Chemicals inside the tube
precipitate to form soot
Rod is collapsed to crate a
preform
Preform is stretched in a
drawing tower to form a
single fiber up to 10 km long
Image from thefoa.org
212
Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (MCVD)
213
Modified Chemical vapor Deposition
214
Outside Vapor Deposition (OVD)
A mandrel is coated with a porous preform

in a furnace
Then the mandrel is removed and the
preform is collapsed in a process called
sintering
Image from csrg.ch.pw.edu.pl
215
Outside Vapor Phase Oxidiation
216
Vapor Axial Deposition (VAD)
Preform is
fabricated
continuously
When the preform is
long enough, it goes
directly to the
drawing tower
Image from csrg.ch.pw.edu.pl
217
Vapor- Phase Axial Deposition
218
Plasma –Activated Chemical Vapor Deposition
219
Double-Crucible Method
220
UNIT 3
Signal Degradation
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Signal Degradation in Fibers
It is the reduction of light power over the length of the

fiber.
It’s mainly caused by scattering.
It depends on the transmission frequency.
It’s measured in dB/km
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Signal Degradation in Fibers
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Multimode Dispersion
Light rays are transmitted from the source at a

variety of angles and arrive at the receiver at
different times
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Multimode Dispersion
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Chromatic Dispersion (CD)
Light from lasers consists of a range of

wavelengths, each of which travels at a slightly
different speed. This results to light pulse
spreading o Chromatic Dispersion (CD) ver time.
It’s measured in psec/nm/km.
The chromatic dispersion effects increase for
high rates.
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Chromatic Dispersion (CD)
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Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)
Single-mode fibers support two orthogonal

polarizations of the transmitted signal.
Polarization modes travel with different
speeds resulting in dispersion.
This phenomenon is evident at bit rates of

10Gbps or more
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Polarization Mode Dispersion
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Transmission Bands
Band Wavelength (nm)

O 1260 – 1360
E 1360 – 1460
S 1460 – 1530
C 1530 – 1565
L 1565 – 1625
U 1625 – 1675
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Dispersion
In an optical fiber
fiber,, there are several significant
dispersion effects, such as material dispersion,
profile dispersion, and waveguide dispersion,
that degrade the signal
signal..
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Dispersion
Three types of dispersion, relating to optical

fibers, are defined as follows
material dispersion:
In optical fiber communication, the wavelength
dependence of the velocity of propagation (of
the optical signal) on the bulk material of which
the fiber is made
made.. Because every optical signal
has a finite spectral width, material dispersion
results in spreading of the signal
signal..
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Dispersion
Use of the redundant term "chromatic

dispersion" is discouraged.
In pure silica, the basic material from which the
most common telecommunication grade fibers
are made, material dispersion is minimum at
wavelengths in the vicinity of 1.27 m (slightly
longer in practical fibers)
fibers)..
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Dispersion
Profile dispersion
dispersion:: In an Optical fiber, that
dispersion attributable to the variation of
refractive index with wavelength
wavelength.. Profile
dispersion is a function of the profile dispersion
parameter..
parameter
Waveguide dispersion:
dispersion: Dispersion, of
importance only in single
single--mode fibers, caused
by the dependence of the phase and group
velocities on core radius, NA, and wavelengh
wavelengh..
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Dispersion
For circular waveguides, the dependence is on

the ratio, a / , where a is the core radius and is
the wavelength
wavelength..
Practical single
single--mode fibers are designed so
that material dispersion and waveguide
dispersion cancel one another at the wavelength
of interest
interest..
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Unit 4
OPTICAL SOURCES
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OPTICAL SOURCES
Can you tell a range of wavelength (in nm) of

visible light?
The visible wavelength region is between 380
nm and 780 nm
Light whose wavelength is shorter than 380nm
is called ultraviolet.
Light whose wavelength is longer than 780 nm is
called infrared.
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Spectrum
Continuous spectrum
slit prism screen Continuous spectrum
Line spectrum Line absorption spectrum
Line emission spectrum
300 800
4eV 3.5eV 3eV
nm 2.5e 2eV nm 1.5eV
V
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Difference between LED and LD?
LED is light emitting diode

LD is laser diode
Diode is a semiconductor device which has
an effect of rectification
Both LED and LD are semiconductor diode
with a forward bias
bias.. Both emit light
LED emits light by spontaneous emission
mechanism, while LD has an optical cavity
which enables multiplication of photon by
stimulated emission
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LED and LD
LD (laser diode) works as LED if the operating

current does not exceed the threshold value.
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LED and LD
LD (laser diode) works as LED if the operating current

does not exceed the threshold value.
Light Intensity
Laser action Laser action
With stimulated With stimulated
emission emission
Spontaneo
Spontaneo us
us Threshold current emission
emission
Forward bias current Wavelength

(a) (b)
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Important components for optical

communication
source：LD=laser diode
Light source：
pn junction, DH structure, DFB structure
Transmission line: Optical fiber
Total reflection, attenuation by Rayleigh
scattering and infrared absorption
Photo detector: PD=photodiode
Amplifier: EDFA=Erbium-
EDFA=Erbium-doped fiber amplifier
Elements: isolator, attenuator, circulator
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UNIT--5
UNIT
PHOTODETECTOR
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Photo detector on Silicon
Si Photodetector in 770 ~ 850 nm Range
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Photo detector
Essentially - p-n diode under the reverse bias

Operate in the photoconductive mode
Main usage - for the conversion of the optical
signal
works at 0.3 - 1.1 µm (peak responsivity at 0.8
µm).
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Photo detector
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Photo detector
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Photo detector
Electric field is developed across PN jun ction

diode..PN junction sweeps the mobile carriers
diode
(hole & electrons) to their respective majority
sides .A deplection region is created on either
side of junction .Field accelerates minority
carriers from both sides to the opposite side of
the junction forming the reverse current diode
diode..
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Photo detector
A photon incident in or near the depletion region

of the device which has an energy grater than or
equal to the band gap energy E g of the
fabricating material (hf> Eg) will excite an
electron from the valance band to conduction
band .This process leaves an empty hole and is
known as photogeneration of an electron hole
pair..
pair
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Photo detector
Carrier pairs so generated near the junction are

seperated and drift under the influence of
electric field to produce the displacement by a
current in the external circuit in excess of any
reverse leakage current
current..
Thus depletion region must be sufficiently thick
to allow a large fraction of the incident light to be
absorbed in order to achieve maximum carrier
photogeneration..
photogeneration
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Photo detector
Quantum efficiency
The Quantum efficiency is defined as the
fraction of the incident photon absorbed by a
photoelectron and generates electron which
are collected at the detector terminal
n= r e / r p
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Responsivity
The expression for responsivity of a

photodetector is
R = I p/P o (A/W)
Where I p is the output photocurrent in Ampers.
Po is the incident optical power.
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Responsivity
Incident photon rate r p in terms of incident

optical power and the photon energy
Rp=P o / hf …………….(2
…………….(2)
Electron rate rp in terms of incident optical
power and photon energy
Rp=Po / hf ………………..(3
………………..(3)
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Responsivity
The electron rate is given by

Ip=Re.e
= nPo/ hf.e…………………(4)
Where e is the electron charge.
Responsivity can be written as
R= ne/ hf
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Responsivity
Frequency f of the incident photon is related to

their wavelengh
F= c / λ final expression of responsivity

R= ne λ /hc
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Problem
Ex (1) A photodiode has a quantum efficiency of

65% .When a photon of energy 1.5* 10 -19 are
65%
incident on it
it..
1) At what wavelength is the photodiode
operating?
2) Calculate the incident optical power required
to obtain a photocurrent of 2.5 microampere ?
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Problem
2) When 6*10 3 photons each with a

Wavelengh of 0.85 micrometer are
incident on a photodiode >on an average
1.2*10 11 electrons are collected at the
terminals of the device .Determine the
quantum efficiency of the photodiode at
0.85 micrometer ?
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PIN PHOTODIODE
The basic structure of PIN Photodiode is shown

in figure.
figure.The main feature of this photodiode is
that it consist of a thick lightly doped intrinsic
layer sand witched between thin P layer & N
layer..
layer
PiN means positive intrinsic negative .There are
two major types of photodiode
Front elliminated & rear elliminated
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Front illuminated photodiode
Metal Eg
contact
Antirelection
P coating
5 micrometer
i
Metal
Contact
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PIN PHOTODIODE
In rear eliminated photodiode light enters the

active region through a heavily doped n+ layer
.This layer is transparent to the incident light
because its energy gap is larger than the energy
of the incident photons .All these processes are
similar to those that takes place in front
elliminated photodiode
photodiode..
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PIN PHOTODIODE
The major feature of PIN photodiode is that the

intrinsic layer is its depletion layer where
absorption of photon takes place
place..
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Optical Receiver
Optical Receiver:
Decis
ion
Photodiode Preamplier Post Amplifier
Decision Filter
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Optical Receiver
The optical receiver is treated as optical to

electrical converter .The receiver is designed
with the aim to achieve maximum sensitivity for
a given bit error rate
rate..
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Unit 6
Transmission Link
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POINT TO POINT LINK
A point
point--to-
to-point fiber optic data link consists
of an optical transmitter, optical fiber, and an
optical receiver.
receiver. In addition, any splices or
connectors used to join individual optical fiber
sections to each other and to the transmitter
and the receiver are included
included..
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POINT TO POINT LINK
A common fiber optic application is the full duplex

link.. This link consists of two simple point-
link point-to-
to-point
links.. The links transmit in opposite directions
links
between the equipments.
equipments. This application may be
configured using only one fiber
addition, any splices or connectors used to
join individual optical fiber sections to each
other and to the transmitter and the receiver
are included
included.. Figure 8-1 provides a schematic
diagram of a point-point-to-
to-point fiber optic data
link..
link
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POINT TO POINT LINK
All fiber optic systems are simply sets of

point--to-
point to-point fiber optic links.
links.
The term topology, as used here, refers to
the configuration of various equipments and
the fiber optic components interconnecting
them.. This equipment may be computers,
them
workstations, consoles, or other equipments
equipments..
Point--to-
Point to-point links are connected to produce
systems with linear bus, ring, star, or tree
topologies.. Point-
topologies Point-to-
to-point fiber optic links are
the basic building block of all fiber optic
systems
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A LINEAR BUS TOPOLOGY
A linear bus topology consists of a single

transmission line that is shared by a number
of equipments
Optical taps (optical splitters) are used by

each equipment to connect to each line. line. For
each line, the optical tap couples signals from
the line to the equipment receiver and from
the equipment transmitter onto the line.
line.
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A ring topology
A ring topology consists of equipments

attached to one another in a closed loop or
ring
The connection between each equipment is a
simple point
point--to-
to-point link
link.. In some systems
each equipment may have an associated
optical switch
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A ring topology
In normal operation, the switch routes signals

from the fiber connected to the previous
equipment to the receiver.
receiver. It also routes
signals from the transmitter to the fiber
connected to the next equipment
equipment..
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Optical fibers vs. Transmission lines
Dispersion limits the bandwidth of the fiber

because the spreading optical pulse limits the
rate that pulses can follow one another on the
fiber and still be distinguishable at the receiver
receiver..
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Because the effect of dispersion increases with

the length of the fiber, a fiber transmission
system is often characterized by its bandwidth
bandwidth--
distance product
product,, often expressed in units of
MHz ×kmkm.. This value is a product of bandwidth
and distance because there is a trade off
between the bandwidth of the signal and the
distance it can be carried
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For example, a common multimode fiber with

bandwidth--distance product of 500 MHz
bandwidth MHz× ×km
could carry a 500 MHz signal for 1 km or a 1000
MHz signal for 0.5 km
km..
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In single
single--mode fiber systems, both the fiber
characteristics and the spectral width of the
transmitter contribute to determining the
bandwidth--distance product of the system
bandwidth system..
Typical single
single--mode systems can sustain
transmission distances of 80 to 140 km (50 to 87
miles) between regenerations of the signal
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By using an extremely narrow

narrow--spectrum laser
source, data rates of up to 40 gigabits per
second are achieved in real
real--world applications
applications..
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UsingWDM, the bandwidth carried by a single

fiber can be increased into the range of terabits
per second
second.. This is accomplished by transmitting
many wavelengths at once on the fiber fiber..
Wavelength division multiplexers and
demultiplexers are used to combine and split up
the wavelengths at each end of the link link.. In
coarse WDM (CWDM) only a few wavelengths
are used
used.. One use of CWDM is to allow
bidirectinal communications over one fiber
fiber..
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RING BUS TOPOLOGY
In bypass operation, the switch routes signals

from the fiber connected to the previous
equipment to the fiber connected to the next
equipment.. In each case, the connection
equipment
between adjacent equipments on the ring is a
simple point-
point-to-
to-point link through fiber,
connectors, and switches
switches..
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BIREFRIGENCE:
The material inhomogenity and more perticularly

the difference in thermal expansion
coefficient of the core and cladding material
can give rise to local birefrigennce within the
fiber..The effect of birefrigence is to cause
fiber
polarization fluctuation and in the case of the
single mode fiber,bandwidth narrowing due to
different group velocities of the modes
associated with the two polarisation
directions..
directions
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BIREFRIGENCE:
The deliberate introduction of Birefrigence in a

single mode fiber can again be used to define
the polarization of transmission within such fiber
fiber..
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Wavelength-
Wavelength -division multiplexing
In telecommunication, wavelength wavelength-

-division
multiplexing (WDM
WDM)) is a technology which
multiplexes several optical carrier signals on a
single optical fiber by using different
wavelengh(colours) of laser light to carry
different signals
signals..
Time division multiplexing is not the only way
that system can exploit the full potential of
the enormous bandwidth of optical fiber
links..Another technique which can be used in
links
conjuction with B.E/VIII/ETC/OC/NVG
TDm is wavelenth division
multiplexing
280
Wavelength-
Wavelengh is the reciprocal of frequency ,so

WDM is really another name for FDM.
Optical community charactersies signals by their
wavelength rather than frequency so WDM is
really another name for FDM.
In WDM,one signal modulates a laser diode
which is designed to operate at specific
wavelengh output,while another serial data
signal modulates a laser diode that operates at
nearby another wavelength & so on.on.
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Wavelength-
The individual modulated signals are then

combined within a special optical device is
called interleave which is the optical
equivalent of of a summing or multiplexing
circuit..
circuit
The resulting modulated signal is launched
into the fiber which now will carry multiple
bit stream in parallel.
parallel.
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Wavelength-
At the receiving end ,optical filters –special

crystals tuned to specific optical
wavelengths just like pass band filter for
electrical signals separates the numerous
WDM signals and then demultiplex them
Each demultiplex signal then goes to its
own path ,where it can be carried by
another optical fiber or converted to an
electrical signal and then decoded.
decoded.
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Wavelength-
One attractive aspects of WDM is that it is

not necessary to multiplex or demux all the
optical signal's at the same end location
such that fiber acts as entirely point to
point link.
link.
It is possible to built special interleave that
multiplexes in just a few designed signal
,or that filters out just a few specific ones.
ones.
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Wavelength-
These specific components are called as add

drop components .Using this system ,a single
fiber can pick up and drop off some of its trafic at
specific locations as it wind its way through a city
or crowded area
area..
ITU standards for WDM is 1550 nm optical
window range are centered around 193 193..1 T Hz
reference frequency with 100 GHz spacing
spacing..
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Wavelength-
This allows for a multiplication in capacity, in

addition to making it possible to perform
bidirectional communications over one strand
of fiber
fiber..
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Wavelengths Division Multiplexing
Data Sources 1
Laser Diode1
PIN Diode
Data
source 2
Laser Diode 2 Mux
Demux PIN Diode
Amplifier
PIN Diode
n
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DENSE WAVELENGH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
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Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing

(DWDM) usually involves transmitting and
receiving more than eight "windows" of light light..
Sixteen, 40,
40, and 80 windowed systems are
common.. Mathematically, 111 windows are
common
possible over a single pair of optical fibers at the
wavelengths used today
today..
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The range of long-

long-range systems is extended by the use
of repeaters and optical amplifiers
amplifiers.. A repeater is
essentially a back-
back-to-
to-back receiver and transmitter,
which regenerates the optical signal, eliminating or
reducing the degradations resulting from transmission
through the fiber
fiber.. An optical amplifier is typically made by
doping a length of fiber with the rare rare--earth mineral
erbiuym, and pumping it with light from a laser with a
shorter wavelength than the communications signal
(typically 980 nm)nm).. Because of their greater reliability,
amplifiers have largely replaced repeaters in new
installations..
installations
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Optical Fiber Multiplexer
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291

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Optical fiber communication

Basics of fiber Optics

Fibre optics is being used to transmit television,

Silica based glass or plastic filaments are

The thin glass center of the fibre where the

Light is ejected into the glass

TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT IS POSSIBLE

In a fibre optic system, there are a few major components to perform

Fig. 1-5: Major elements of an optical fiber link

TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS

ACCORDING TO MODE OF CAPACITY:

ACCORDING TO REFRACTIVE INDEX:

See animation at link Ch 2f Index of

Step index multimode was developed first,

Large core size, so source power can be

Useful for “premises networks” like LANs,

Best for high speeds and long distances

Modes of light Many One

Advantages and Disadvantages

Fibre optics are that the cables are expensive to install.

The termination of a fibre optics cable is complex and requires

They are more fragile than coaxial cable.

Three Types of Dispersion

Dispersion is the spreading out of a light

Different wavelengths travel at different

Light with different polarization can travel

FIBER OPTIC TEMPRATURE

Plastic optical fiber Optical fiber

DUE TO THE ADVANTAGES AND THE

Optical Fiber Communication

An analog signal changes continuously, while a digital signal can be

Input transducer: The device that converts a physical

Transmitter: The device that sends the transduced signal

Receiver: The device that recovers the transmitted signal

Output transducer: The device that converts the received

Light source: modulation → spectrum of the RF signal will shift to the

Fig. 1-6: Optical fiber cable installations

Reflection and Refraction

Optics is the study of the behavior of light (not

This can be described This requires the use of full

Reflection and Transmission

Some materials reflect light. For example, metals reflect light

Opaque materials absorb light (by, say, moving electrons

Transparent materials are usually insulators whose electrons

Angles are measured with respect to the normal to the surface

θ1 θ’1 The Law of

Light reflected from a

More generally, when light passes from one

More generally, when light passes from one

The transmitted ray obeys

Here n is the “index of refraction” of a medium.

Refracted ray n ≡ index of refraction

Example: air-water interface

If you shine a light at an incident angle of 40o onto the

Air: n=1.00 Water: n=1.33

water Then d/2=tan28.9o which gives

If you shine a light at an incident angle of 40o onto the

Air: n=1.00 Water: n=1.33

water Then d/2=tan28.9o which gives

Example: air-water interface

Air: n=1.00 Water: n=1.33

water Then d/2 = tan(28.9o)