UNIT 2 UNDERSTANDING COUNSELLING

Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 The Meaning of Counselling
2.3.1 Definitions of Counselling
2.3.2 Counselling and Related Fields
2.4 Principles of Counselling
2.5 The Goals of Counselling
2.6 The Major Approaches to Counselling
2.6.1 The Directive Approach
2.6.2 The Non-directive Approach
2.6.3 The Eclectic Approach
2.7 Counselling Process
2.7.1 Concepts
2.7.2 Stages
2.8 Characteristics of An Effective Counsellor
2.9 Group Counselling
2.9.1 The Meaning of Group Counselling
2.9.2 The Assumptions of Group Counselling
2.9.3 Structuring of Groups
2.9.4 The Process of Group Counselling
2.9.5 Advantages and Limitations of Group Counselling
2.1 0 Specialised Areas in Counselling
2.1 0.1 Family Counselling
2.1 0.2 Career C:ounselling
2.10.3 Counsell~ngDrug Addicts and Alcoholics
2.11 Evaluation of Counselling
2.12 Let Us Sum Up
2.13 IJnit-end Exercises

2.1 INTRODUCTION
You have already studied the unit one titled Understanding Guidance and it will help
you to understand the concept of Counselling better. In fact, Counselling is considered
the central and most important part of the whole Guidance Programme in the school. All
other activities and services of a School Guida~lceProgramme leads to and help in the
counselling process. And it is through counselling that the individual is ultimately helped.
Therefore, it is very essential to understand the concept of Counselling clearly. The
meaning of Counselling in the professional sense differ very much from the popular
understanding of the term. For the layman it means a piece of advice, a suggestion,
recomrnendatioli or providing some information. But professionally, Coullsellillg is the
scientific process of helping the individual to understand himlherself better in relation
to liislher environment so that helshe becomes self-dependent, sclf-directed and self-
sufficient and is able to lead a better and meaningful life. Coullselli~lgis aimed at helping
the individual in solving problems that are already present, preventing the occurrence of
probleins in future and also enhancing personal, social, emotional, educational and
vocational development. Thus, Counselling has remedial, preventive and develop~ne~ltal
aspects.
Introduction to Guidance and In this /unit, we will provide you with a clear understanding of the concept and meaning
Cou~lselling
of Counselling. Later on we will discuss the Priilciples and Goals of Counselling,
theoretical orientations, techniques and the process of Counselling in detail. Then we
will examine the qualities and characteristics of an Effective Counselling. Since Group
Counselling is emerging as a separate field in recent time, we will also discuss it . We
will also discuss briefly the special areas in counselling as well as the importance of
Evaluation of Counselling Services.

You should remember that the purpose of this unit is not merely creating an awareness
but alsb, you should be able to make practical applications.

2.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
explain the term counselling and its relation to various fields;
state the goals of counselling;
describe the principles of counselling;
compare the various approaches to counselling;
describe and discuss the process of counselling;
differentiate various areas of counselling;
list the characteristics of an Effective Counsellor;
identify cases requiring help through counselling; and
select the appropriate approach(es) and technique(s) for dealing with a given case.

2.3 THE MEANING OF COUNSELLING

2.3.1 Definitions of Counselling
We have already stated that counselling is the most important part of the Guidance
Progradme. We have also seen that the meaning of counselling in the professional sense
differ from the popular understanding of the term. Now let us examine the meaning of
counselling more closely. For this purpose we shall analyze the various definitions of
cou~lselling.It will help us clarify the concept.

Rogers (1952) describes counselling as " The process by which the structure of the self
is relaxed in the safety of the clients relationship with the therapist and previously desired
experiedces are perceived and then integrated into an altered self'.

Accordiilg to Halm and Mcheall (1955) "Counselling is a one to one relationship between
an individual trouhled by problems with which he cannot cope alone and a professional
worker hhose training and experience have qualified him to help others reach solutions
to various types of personal difficulties".

Smith (1955) defines "Counselling is a process in which the counsellor assists the
counsell~ingto make interpretations of facts relating to a choice plan or adjustments
which h$ needs to make".

Pepisky and Pepisky (1954) deiined "Counselling as that interactio~lwhich occurs

between two iildividuals called counsellor and client, takes place in a professional setting
and is injtiated and maintained to facilitate changes in the behaviour of a client".

Accordi~gto Stefflre (1970) "Counselliog is a learning-teaching process".

Gustad (1953) stated that " Counselling is a learning oriented process carried in a simple
one to ople social environ~nentin which the counsellor, professionally competent in
relevant psychological skills and knowledge seeks to assist the client by methods
appropribte to the latter's needs and within the context of the total personnel programme,
to learn bow to put such understa~ldinginto effect in relation to morq clearly perceived,
20 I
realistically defined goals to the end that the client may become a happier and more
productive member of society".
From the several definitions given above it call be seen that "Counselling involves a
relationship. It involves a relationship hetween a professionally trained, competent
counsellor and an individual seeking help. This relationship is not casual, matter of fact
or business like. It is characterized by warmth, understanding, acceptance and trust".

2.3.2 Counselling and Related Fields

For a better understanding of counselling it is necessary to study its relationship with
some other fields.
Counselling and Psychotherapy

Psychotherapy is the treatment of problems of an emotional nature by psychological

means. The fields of counselling and psychotherapy are having a lot of similarities as
well as differences. Rogers help the view that counselli~lgand psychotherapy are exactly
the same. However it is not totally true. We can distinguish both on the basis of individuals
receiving help, persons giving help, severity of the problems covered, etc. In
psychotherapy the person receiving help is generally collect a patient who is suffering
from some kind of a mental illness. But in counselling the person receiving help is
generally a normal person facing some difficulties of adjustment or developmental
problems. Secondly, the person(s) who is giving psychotherapy is called psychiatrist
who has a basic medical background where as the counselling do not have ally medical
background but has extensive training on tho field of psychology. Moreover, in
psychotherapy the aiin is to cure a certain ailment. But in counselling the aim is to help
in self-understanding. It is more of a learning process.
Inspite of the distinctions mentioned above, it is very difficult to separate these two
fields. There is more overlap than differences. In both the aim is to assist the person to
lead a more adjusted and satisfying life. In both counselling and psychotherapy the
relationship between the client and the therapist/counsellor is of vital importance.
Moreover while handling emotional problem of a deep nature, counselling approaches
psychotherapy very closely.
Guidance and Counselling

Guidance and counselling terms have been in use interchangeably. Laymen and sometimes
even counsellors use these terms as if they are synonymous. But it is not correct. Both
counselling and guidance are mutually related processes but not the same. Guidance is a
more comprehensive process which includes counselling. Guidance services includes
many other services apart from counselling. We may say that counselling is the most
specialized and most important service in the whole guidance programme.
Instruction and Counselling

Another term closely related to counselling is instruction. There are soine basic differences
between instruction and counselling. Instruction is usually obligatory to be followed hy
the person who receives it where as in the case of counselling the counselee is not obliged
to act according to anything said by the counsellor. Actually nothing is told to be done
in counselling. Similarly although the ultimate aim of instruction is the development of
the individual. The immediate aim is the learning of a subject, skill, etc. But this is not
so in the case of counselling. Moreover, the instructional programme is time bound and
structured but counselling on the other hand is not structured and no time limit is also
fixed in the case of counselling.
Advice and Counselling

Counselling is sometimes confused with advice giving. It is necessary to dispel this

confusion. Advice is sought with lhe conviction of being told what to do and advice is
given with the expectation that what is told will be done. The persoil seeking advice is
not really responsible for the course of action and the consequence there 01'. It is not
always necessary for the individual to understand all factors related to hislher action. In
counselling on the other hand the very understanding of all related factors is the crucial
matter. Moreover, in advice giving the advisor is making decisions for the individual
where as in counsellin$, decision making is wholly the responsibility of the counselee.
Introd~ictiorrto Giiidarice ;ind Therefore, the counsellor is fully responsible for hislher actions too. ~ d v ~ giving
c e may
Courisellilig be an incident and will be over i n n brief meeting. But counsellin,o, as we h;~vi:seen, is a

I)) Con;p:u.r your i~rls:vcr.swill1 those given at t l ~ cend ol' thc block.
1. S1:rtc wlletl~crlhe f o l l o w i ~ ~slutcnlcnts
g :\re 'tl-uc' of 'I'aisc'.

ii) The l>urposeotlcounselli~lg1s to irnprovc the incnLal henl:li oi'tllc c l ~ e o t .

i i i ) Courlscllinp involves :I c:~sualrclationshil-, belw~een111ccounsle!lol- itrltl l l ~ c l i c ~ ~ t .
i\f) I t is c s a c ~ ~ t ito
a l liavc a ilasic nlcclii:\l hackgr-onncl to co:;nscllol..
~ C * C O I ~:I I L ~

v) G L I I ( ~ : L;IIIL\
I I ~c ~o t i ~ ~ x l l i n~11.c
g \~II(III~IIIOUS.
vi! 01lc i i i i ~ i~ >cfo i ~ r ~ s e l l is
i ~to
~ gI I I : I ~ C ciceisio~~s
l'or 111ecIic111"

I) 'l'hc rclationsliip hrt\vc.cn [hc c o u ~ ~ s c l l oand ~ . the ciicnt is c h u ~ a ~ t c i . ~ >by

ccl
................................. .all11 ..................... .
..........

i i i ) T l ~ eperson who givcs psycliotllcrap)l is ci~lleda .................... :111ci ~ h cperson

i-ecci\.ir~ghelp i s callc~l:I ...................................

.............................................................................................................................

ii) S ~ ~ r:me
l c r~laiol.tlit'fcrer~ccI~clwccncc)t~nsellingarid InsU.Lii'llon.
................................................................................................................................

i i i ) De!'iric co~rnsclling.
................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................

i v ) How is ad\;ising dil'I-el.cnt I'ror~lc o u n ~ e l l i n y ?

................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................

nselling is based on n number of principles. These principles are:

Counselling is a process. It is necessary for the counsellor to understand that

cotinselling is a process and a slow process. Failure lo understand this will result in
annoyance ant1 disappoint~nent.
Counselli~igis for all. Especially in the school situation counselling is rneanr for all
the students and not only far those who art: Ihcing prohlems or other cxceplional
I studrnts. As we have already discusscd in the school situation cou~isellingis more
 3. Counselling is based on certain fundamental assumptions.

a) every individual in this world is capable of taking responsibilities for Iii~nther-

self.

b) every individual has a right to clioose histher own path, based on the principles
of democracy.

4. Counsellor does not deprive the right of self-choice but simply l'acilitalcs choice.
Tht: counsellor should give due respect to the individual and accept hi~ntheras
hetshe is.

5. Counselling is not advice giving.

6. Counselling is not thinking for the client, but thinking with the client. Counselling
is for enabling the client to do judicious thinking.

7. Counselling is not proble~iisolving. The counselior simply assist the person to find
solution on histher own.

8. Counselling is not interviewing but co~)versingwith the client in orclcr to help

himtlier develop self-understanding,

9. The counsellor sliould determine individual differences and provide for them.

10. The courlsellor has to prepare the client to open to criticism including self-criticism.

I I . The counsellor acts as a facilitator or catalyst only. Hc creates an atmosphere which

i s perniiss~veand non-threatening, through his war111 and accepting relationship
with the client which lielps [he client to cxplore himselftlierself and i~ndcrstantl
hiniselftherself better.

Wrilc your iuiswcrs ill tllc sl)acc glven below.

I 1-1) C ' o ~ ~ ~ l xyour

~ r l :answers WIIII [how g ~ v c :I\~ ltlic c~ic!i!I'~!lcblock

I i~i? ?II coi~n~ullinp

situi~tioilsthe c o u ~ ~ s c l ll .o~~~~~ ~ c :IS
t i o;I ~~.t[;rl!s[
;s

I iv) (,'ounsc.llir~gi h thinking for tlic clic111; I I I ~ I 111;1hii1gilci.isi(~!~s

Rllcn~io~l
two fundamcntul assc~nptionsol'coi~nsellin~.
101. Iliill

........................................................................................................................................
I

2.5 THE GOALS OF COUNSELLING

Many consider counselling a panacea for all ills, which is not true. Individuals have
wide ranging ant1 many a time unrealistic expectations regarding counselling. 'This in
turn lead to disappoiiltment. The reason for this state of affairs is lack 01' proper
understanding as to what exactly are the goals of counselling. Sorne of thc mii,jor goals
of counselling generally accepted by counscllor are given below:
I ~ i t r u d u c t i oto
~ ~Guidance and 1. Achievement of positive mental henlth
Cu~~~isclli~ig
An individual is said to have positive mental health when he is able to relate
Qenningfully with others and lead a fulfilling life. He is able to love and be loved.
One goal oi'counselling is to help the intlividual to attain this state.
2. Probleiii resolution
gnother goal of counselling is to help the individual to come out of a dii'ticult
situation or problem. It must be remembered that the individual is only ass~stedand
he himself find solution for lhe problems.
3. ~ o u n s e l l i n gfor decision-ninlting
Ability to ~riakeright and timely decisiorls is crucial for success In life. One major
goal of counselling is to make individual capable of making independent decisions.
Counsellor may assist the individual by providing necessary inforn~at~on or clar~fying
the counselee's goals, etc. but the decision should be taken by the counselee hrrnselfl
herself.
4. Iniproving personal effectiveness
As effective person is one who is able to control impulses, think in creative ways
aind has the competence to recognize, define and solve problems. It can bc seen that
these diil'erent goals are not exclusive. These are all interdependent and ovcrlapping.
5. Help change
For development, change is always necessary. Counselling helps individual to niake
changes i n their attitudes, ~)crccplionsor personality.

Another aim oi' counselling is to help I n ~ n o d i f y ~ nbehaviour.

g Rc~novalof
undesirable behaviour or sell-defcctrng behaviour and leani~ngdes~rnblebehav~our
iS consiclcred necessary for atta~ningeffectiveness and good acijustment. The
behaviourally oriented counsellors :ire the chiei proponents of this vlew.

Cherlc Your I'rogress

Notes : a ) U'rric j our aliswcr.\ 111 illc >p;icc glvcn bclo\v.

b) Coml~urc:your ;~ns\+cl->
w ~ t htllo\c I Itlic
~ I V ~ 31 cncl ol'tllc l,lucI\
6. Slate wl~ctlicrtllc I'ollowing statclncnts arc true ol' false.
I
11) P o \ ~ l ~ vn~cnl:~l
c Ilc.~lth IIIL.;III.\ tlic :ih\c.~~cc
ot' rllcr~lalilll~c\\

2.6 THE MA JOK APPROACHES TO COUNSELLING

Thc procticc of any profession is basctl on a system of beliefs and assumptions, generally
callecl a theory. Counselling is no cxccptlon. In the casc of cou~~selling, though Inany
elabotate tlreories have been proposed, no s ~ n g l etheory explains all aspects of the
couns~lling.Therefore, the term approach is generally preferred because i t is n more
cornptehensive tery.

An aplproach provides a coherent definition for the counselling process, :I clear statement
ol'co~nsellinggoals, :I rationale for selection OF a particular counselling techoiques. etc.
There are three major approaches to counselling. The directive approach, the non-directive Understanding Counselling
approach and the eclectic approach.

2.6.1 The Directive Approach

As the name itself implies this approach envisages a more active role for the counsellor.
The counsellor employs varying degrees of direction to help the counselee to reach sound
solutions. Also, through his own specialised knowledge and experience in scientific
diagnosis and interpretation of data, counselees are helped to reach earlier solutions for
their problems.
According to Frederick Thorne, the proponent of this approach, the need for direction
by the counsellor is inversely proportional to the individual counselee's potentialities
for self-regulation. Though the basic responsibility for reaching the solution is primarily
with the counsellor as the counselling proceeds. Counselees are encouraged more and
more to take up increased responsibility for self-direction. This approach presupposes a
more personalised relation with the counselee where the counsellor strives to identify
psychologically with the counselee so that he can be understood better.
Counselling Steps
Directive counselling involves six stages. They are as follows:
a) Analysis
This involves collecting from various sources the data needed for an adequate
understanding of the client. This include administration of psychological tests, etc.
However, such testing and form filling should not come between the counsellor and
counselee and its importance should be limited to the extend that it gives a better
idea about the counselee.
b) Synthesis
This refers to summarising and organising the data so obtained, as to reveal the
assets, liabilities, adjustments and maladjustments of the counselee. This includes
of the data obtained through psychological testing also.
c) Diagnosis
This stage is concerned with formulating conclusions regarding the nature and the
course of the problems exhibited by the student. Drawing conclusions from the
results of psychological testing, administration of questionnaires etc. are done here.
d) Prognosis
This refers to predicting the future course of development of the counselee's problem
in the light of conclusions as made earlier.
e) Counselling
This is the most important and time consuining step in the whole process. This is
where the expertise of the counsellor is needed most. It is a highly persoi~alised
teaching and learning process. It may be direct teaching through explicit
explanations, assistance in searching for relevant aptitudes, interests, etc. that
illuminate the counselee's problems and so on. Sometimes the counsellor listens in
a friendlytencouraging way. It may also involve practice sessions where with the
warm support of the counsellor the counselee acts out the way hetshe should. Thus
hetshe becomes histher own teacher to the extend histher capabilities and
circumstancespermits. Success thus achieved reinforces and retains those successful
behaviours which in turn establishes an adjusted way of life.
Thus counselling involves (a) assisting the student in self-appraisal, i. e. identifying
hisher interests motives and capabilities (b) helping himther to plan a course of
action which utilizes the capabilities and potentialities so identified and (c) finally
in establishing an adaptive life style.
To help the counselee appraise himtherself two types of data are needed - self
perceived data and data from external appraisal. The counselee himself is the best
Introduction to Guidance and saurce of certain type of infonnatioo. However the counsellors should also
Cou~~selling
cqmmunicate those information obtained through ailalysis and diagnosis. However,
helshe should be cautious enough not to make the counselee think that both of them
are in the sane state of ignorance. Couilsellor doesiiot enumerate in detail the steps
of hislher analysisldiagnosis, etc. But the couilselee is given an overall idea.
HeIShe should avoid a dogmatic position but through hislher theoretical knowledge,
eNperience and judgment, assist the counselee. The counsellor should not at any
time appear indecisive because it can cause loss of confidence in himther. He should
maintain a varied and running discussion of the case-data taking clue from the
caunselee changing facial and verbal expressions. Thus the counsellor co-operate
with the counselee to reach a valid interpretation of the case and an effective
prlogramme of adaptive behaviour changes.
2.6.2 Non-directive Counselling
In this approach, the counsellor provides an atmosphere in which the client can fully
explore hislher own thoughts and feelings freely without any fear or pressure. This by
mikin$ the counselee understand hislher potentialities the counsellor acts as a catalytic
agent. Here tile source of data is the client himlherself and the responsibility for change
rests with the counselee rather than the counsellor. The counsellor should not be as
passive as trying to keep out clients way nor should be as active as to shift the focus
from client to counsellor.
Centrdl Hypothesis
Czirl RBgers, the chief proponent of the client centered approach has formulated a central
hypothesis as follows:
I
a) The individual has within himlherself the capacity latent if not evident to understand
those aspects of himlherself and of hislher life which are causing himlher
1
di$satisfaction anxiety or pain and the capacity and the tendency to reorganise him1 t

herself and hisfher relationship to life in the direction of self-actualization and 1

maturity in such a way as to bring a greater degree of internal comfort.
b) THis capacity will he realised when the therapist can create a psychological climate
chbracterised by genuine acceptance of the client as a person of unconditional worth,
a continuing sensitive attempt to understand the existing feelings and
communications of the client as a person of unconditional worth, a continuing
sensitive attempt to understand the existing feelings and communications of the
client and a continuing attempt to convey this empathetic understanding to the client.
C) It 11sfurther hypothesized that in such an acceptant understanding and non-threatening
amosphere the client will reorganise lliinlherself.
d) This adjusted way of life as achieved in the therapeutic relation with the counsellor
will be generalized to real life situations as a whole.
Thus the whole idea of the theory is that the clients are capable of correcting
misperceptions or incongruencies between self and experience, in the accepting
enviro+ent of a counselling situation. If the counsellor possess some personal qualities
like codgruency (counsellor being a genuine and integrated person), unconditional positive
regard {non evaluative attitude of the counsellor whereby client's thoughts, feelings or
behaviour are accepted without judging them as good or bad) and empathy (counsellor's
ability to know the client's world as helshe does and to convey this understanding).
However, this theory underestimates the need for the counsellor to be an expert in
behavipur dynamics, problem solving techniques or developmental processes, etc.
Moreover, Rogers rejects the use of diagnosis testing and other such techniques saying
that they hinder the client's natural growth. Instead helshe stresses listening, paraphrasing,
reflecting client's comments rather than interpreting direct questioning, etc.
2.6.3 Eclectic Approach
Here thk counsellor bases hislher counselliilg on concepts taken from various available
viewpoints. Helshe owes on specific theoretical allegiance. Instead, incorporates those
procedures and techniques which helshe believes to be most effective in the case of that
particular counselee, without any prejudice or bias to any particular school of thought.
According to Thorne, eclecticism is the most practicable and apt approach to counselling.
-
Counselling
Because no two people are able and as such no single theory of personality could explain
the various behavioural pattern exhibited by individuals. So also each problem is unique
in its content and intensity and a technique or approach suitable in one case need not
even he effective in the second case. These suggests an approach which is tailor made to
handle individual cases and eclecticism advocates this neopant.
Thorne has coined the word 'Integrated psychology' to express his eclectic view. .Its
theoretical foundations are based on the following postulates:
i) All psychological conditions are examples of disorders of integrations and the goal
of psychological counselling is to strengthen this integrative process, thus fostering
high levels of self-actualization. The focus is therefore, the person in the present
situation.

ii) The therapist has to assess whether [he client has the necessary resources to take on
the responsibilities of life.
iii) If the therapist is satisfied, he gives the client the responsibility of taking on some
routine tasks to start with.
iv) Therapy involves the training and reduction of the client in acquiring the controls
necessary for self-regulation.
Thorne uses tlle term psychological case handling instead of psychotherapy. Steps
involved in psycholo~icalcase handling are:

a) Systematic diagnosis lo ohtain a complete picture of the clients prohlem.

b) Understanding thc various counselling methods in term of their strengths and

limitations.

C) Concentrating on the underlying causes rather than symptoms.

d) Choosing a specific method suited to the needs of the client.

e) Evaluating the method on the basis of the results obtained.

f) Scientifically analyzing the data and evaluating the result.

'Multimodal therapy' originated by Arnold Lazarus is yet another exilmple of cclectic
approach. He explains seven major areas of personality function ( I ) behaviour (observable
action), (2) affective (emotional), (3) sensation (feelings), (4) images (imagination),
(5) cognition's (thought process), (6) interpersonal relationsliips (socii\l) and (7) drugs/
hiological (physical). He uses the acronym BASIC ID to encompass ill1 these modalities.
An important feature of this approach is the insistance that every individual is unique
with his own BASIC ID. Maladaptive behaviours are assumed to result frorn faulty
learning and the goal of counselling is to bring about client desired changes that will be
enduring and to acconlplish this is an efficient and humane way.
I
Check Your 1'1-ogress
I
Notes : a i W11tc yciur a n s w e r s In lhr space grvcn below.

h ) C'ulnl'arc. y o i ~ r;LIISWCI-s wiih 1110s~~ at the ellcl o!'~heblock.

I V C I ~
I
i) P~ycho1ogic;iliests are used ill non-tlil.cc.~ivccounselling.
ii) Eclcc~icappl.'onch i n counsellil~frncon trying orle apploacll ; I ~ ' L ~arlotllcl-
I. ti1
OElC gCIS SUCCCSS.

i i i ) Di,tsnosis is a stel-, in tlrc directive cSou~lsclling.

I
0. Fill i n 11lc blanks.

27
 1
to Guidalncc and
ii) 1ntcgrute.d psychology i s the term coined by ........................
........ to cxplain
his .......................
......... :.~l~lwo;idi
to cnunsellii~g.
Tllc nnmc (!I' Frcdel-~clcc l - h o r ~is~ cashocintcd with ..................................

I 10. ii R.lc.llli.on thc slcps inv!,l\ui i n Directive C:o~~nselling.

COUNSELLING PROCESS
Counsielling starts with i'illing out u l i l t history questionnaire where the effective in the
case o/f that particular counselee. It includes reinforcement procedures, assertiveness
trainitig, tlesensitization, feedback and cognitive restructuring especially i n hehaviours,
cffeclikc and cognitive modes. In physical ant1 imagery modes, he uses Gestall and holistic
tcchni~qucssuch as empty chair of role reverse dialogue, confronlation. abtlominal
b r c a ~ b i n g ,positive usual imagery and focussing. Self-management, instruction in
pal.enclnp and social skills arc used in ~nterpersoncil~nodes.In drugs and biologic:ll mode,
this iq for the use of appropriate medicines and curtailing inappropriate individual
behavbour are assulned to result from faulty social learning In the b a s ~ c .

The tqrm counsell~ngin the professional sense is always concerned wtth helping others
irresppct~veo f t h e contcxt i n which i t is used. Here. i t is all the more so, since the person
as a Gholc is our I'ocus of attention rather than a specific problem.

CounSelling can best be described as a process. It means that counselling involves a

seque~nceof identifiable cvents s]>re;~d
over a period of lime. The time taken, tlie sequence
oi'cvgnts and dynalnlcs involved, the nature and extent of exploration, ctc. differ from
individual to ~ndtvidual.Howcver there are certain basic stages which Ibrm tlie part and
parceb of each of such counsclling processes. But hcfore going into Ihe details of i t we
will qcquaint ourselves with some of the related concepts.

2.7.1 Concepts

Clicljts broadly hll under two broad categories, the first consisting of those who seeks
assistance volul~tarilyand thc second comprises those referred. Whatever the case be
coungelling presupposes a desire on the part of the counselee, that makes the client
comq for assistance. This tlesirc is referred to as 'readiness'.

Counter Will
Often people cxpcrience difficulty i n asking for help and accepting i t as well. Because
i n sqme cases, they are reluctant to fi~cethc consequences of change and for some
receilviny help means an admission ol'i~~adequacy of failure. Some feel that they need no
assisltance or cannot be helpetl at all. 'This negative feeling that holds back one from
seeking help is refel-red to as 'counter w ~ l l ' .

Case History

This 1s a tcrlli very often used i n this l'icld. A case history can he defined as a systematic
collqc~ionof facts about thc c l ~ e n present
i and past life. However, tlie focus of attention
varids with the tlieorellcal oricn~ationsorthc counsellor like a psycho:u~~a~lytlcally oriented
couqscllor looking for relev:uit cliiltlhootl cxpericnces, etc.
Rapport Understanding C o ~ ~ n s e l l i n g

The importance of rapport in counselling cannot be overen~phasized.It is a warm friendly

and understanding atmosphere created by the counsellor which is catalytical i n the
formation oS an effective counselling relationship. Warmth of relationship, comniunication
of this warmth to the counsel'ee and feeling oftrust which grows out of unconditional
acceptance are all important factors contributing to the establishrncnt of rapport. Moving
out to receive the client, greeting him warmly, putting him at ease and directing his
attention away from the prohlem initially, are some of the techniques th:~t can be used.

Transference

It refers to the client transi'erring to the therapist emotions originally felt toward significant
others in early life. This is quite natural in counselling situation because the clicnt trusts
counsellor and is encouraged to express histher feelings and emotions freely. As a
counsellor, one should acknowledge these feelings and should be handled in :i therape~~tic
wily lest tlie relation sho~rldbreak down.

Counter Transference

This pheno~nenonis said to occur when therapists project their s in resolved conflicts
upon the client. When counsellors feel ~~ncoml'ortable with the client or experience
irrational feelings of anger, resentment, etc. or when they tend to i'oster tlepentlence on
clients or become overemotionally involved. We can infer that counter transference has
set i n persistence of such i'eelings is not healthy and the counsellor himself should seek
professional help if reasoning out by self does not i~nprovehis condition.

Resistance

It refers to clients inclination to oppose the counsellors attempt to work towartls set
goals. Recent trend is to view this as an expected part of counselling and is found to
influence counselling outcolne positively. Resistance ranges frorn open hostility to
passively resistant behaviour like heing late for an appointment etc.

2.7.2 Stages
Thc process of counsclling passes through certain stages which can be broad1y classified
as follows:

I. Initial stage : Client self-exploration

Here, the clients are encouraged in self-exploration and their concern are clarified.
General counselling goals are set and thc working alliance is cstablishetl. Also by
gathering ~nfbnnationand observing the cl~ent,the counsellor :\wive at some tentative
hypothesis regarding the nature and complexity of thc problem. To help III these
decisions assessment devices like psycl~ologicaltests, questionnaires, inventories,
etc. are widely used.

The initial stage is sub-divided into (a) first interview and (b) initial counselling sessions.

a) First interview: It's prirnary objective is to set the foundation i'or an effective
working relationship. This is the most challenging stage. Client's appro;~chesthe
counsellor with a feeling of uncertainty and ambivalence. Counsellors tliro~~gh their
words, facial expressions and overall behaviour conveys his ~~ndcrstanding and
acceptance of tlie client and his sincere interest in his probte~n.Silnplc courtesies
like seating the clients comfortably, avoiding interrupting phone calls are very
important in the development of rapport. During this interview tlie counsellor needs
to make a tentative decision whether the task at hand is within his expertise. If not,
it is necessary to refer the client to an appropriate proltssional agency. Clients should
be made aware of what can be expected out of counselling and what they arc hoping
for. Confidentiality, rights of privacy, other ethical and legal considerations need to
be clarified. Discussion about the lensth of sessions, payment ol' fees, arrangement
of mutually appropriate meeting times, etc. are also done now.

b) Initial counselling sessions: Here, the counsellor mostly listen to the client's
concerns arid encourages the expression of feelings, witlio~11
~ ~ n d ucluestion:iing.
c
Introduction to Guidance and Thus information is gathered by active listening, attending to client's self talk,
Counselling ahserving his body behaviour and other reactions, to be used later in deeper
e8plorations. If client's have difficulty in expressing, non-threatening questions can
Help.

2. Middle stage :Deeper expioratio~land analysis

This stage is marked by a shift of counsellor attention from clients exrernal problem
tb his internal problems from primarily cognitive level to elnotional level. Thus, the
cllientsdisclose his feelings increasingly. Counsellors explore more intensively with
c~lients,confronts him with contradictions, stronger interpretations of client's
aomments, etc. At this poin~,some counsellors use more tests to further explore
ieto the clients intellectual or personality functioning. Thus as the clients move to
increased disclosure and awareness, counsellors and clients begin to dcvelop
qmotional interactions like transference, counter transference, resistance, etc. Though
rooted in psychoanalysis experts are of the opinion that these are universal
flhenomena in all coul~selling relationships.

3. Binal stage: Implementatio~lof goals through action

l#y this stage, clients would have started acting upon reality. They become more
dFlf aware, assertive and genuine and start generalising these to everyday life. This
is a working through phase in which understanding is put into constructive action.
amphasis is on making changes in behaviour, attitudes and skills, specified as goals
ih the initial stages. For those who delay decision-making, specific strategies like
role playing behaviour, rehearsal, assertiveness training, etc. are used.
4. Termination
If the goals as set in the beginning are met termination follows. If the counsellor
believes the problem has been solved, he rnay raise the issue directly. Or if the
olient is sure to have recovered he rnay bring up the idea. If the counsellor agrees,
termination proceeds. However, the counsellor must be alert to the possibility that
sffort to termination arise due to lack of progress. Also he should be aware that
clients signalling termination is a sign of resistance and should be handled carefully.
If termination is reasonable, counsellor must use last few sessions to wean the clients.
They often feel a renewal of symptoms, grieving, sadness or separation, anxiety.
when counsellor manages tern~inationsuccessfully he maximises counselling
qutcome as well as maintains new learning in later life situations.

Clneclc Your Progress i

I Notes : a) Write your iinsw~11>
i n the S P L I C ~given helow.
-. I
I1 b) Co1np;u.e you1 ans\4c1\ w ~ t htilose prven at the c11d of the block
I
I

1
1 1 . Siate whcthc~-thc followrng ~ ~ n t e m e narc
i \ truc or kilsc
Counselling is r.cl'cl.re<lt o as a process bcca~~st.
i t makes use 01' psyclloiogical
I
i)
I ICStS.

i I t is quite okay I'or the ccunsellor lo hccvmc emotionally involved o~.deprndcnt

o n thc client during cclunsell~ng.

!
I 12.
i i i j The nlail~purpose of the first in~crvicwis eslablishmcnt ol' rapporl.

pill i n the blanks.

I
I
) -1 he negntivc feeling that holds back n person f r o m sccl\ln:+:help from a
counsellor 1s called ...................................
13. i ) Whiil 1 5 res~stalrct'In thc context of counscll~ng?
 ii) What is counter transferrence?
...............................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE
!i
S
COUNSELLOR
There have been many attempts at identification of the characteristics of an effective
k
, counsellor.
I. General Characteristics
The National Vocational Guidance Association of USA has listed such characteristics
as interest in people, patience, sensitiveness. emotional stability and objectivity as
important. Harrnin and Paulsen (1950) listed understanding, sympathetic attitude.
friendliness, sense of humour, stability. patience, objectivity, sincerity, tact, fairness,
tolerance, neatness, calmness, broad, mindedness, kindness, pleasantness, social
intelligence and poise. According to Howrer (1951) personal niaturity is the most
important desirable characteristics to be an effective counsellor. Association for
counsellor education and supervision holds that there are six basic qualities viz.
belief in each individual, commitment to individual human values, alertness to
the world, open mindedness, understanding of self and professional commitment.
Variables likes age, sex, experience also to a certain extent are found to affect
counselling process. Clients were found to be confident in the ability of younger
counsellors. Experience increases with age and counsellor improves with experience.
Generally, female clients prefer to discuss emotionally loaded problems with female
counsellors. Sex of the counsellor is importance depending on the clients ease or
difficulty with which they can discuss their problem to the same or opposite sex.
Personality Clraracteristies
Several studies have been conducted to identify the personality characteristics basic
to effective counselling.
Weitz (1957), Snyder and Snyder (1961) and Styler (1961) have suggested the
following traits:

a) Interest in helping people -

If the counsellor has a basic interest i n helping
others, the clients will feel more comfortable in their presence and this will
increase the effectiveness.

b) Perceptual sensitivity -
Counsellors should perceive and understand the
thoughts and feelings of the clients as well as the clues given by him.

c) Personal adjustment -
Counsellor should be a well adjusted person if he
should be effective in solving other's problems.

d) -
Personal security Weitz (1957) suggests that the feeling of sccurity i n the
role of a counsellor is a very important factor in effective counselling even
though insecurities outside this area and other life situations is rather not that
important as far as effectiveness is concerned.

e) Genuineness -
Rogers (1958) suggests that counsellors should be able to
establish a genuine relationship with the client to achieve thc counselling goals
to the best.
Counsellors Attitudes and Beliefs
This is important because it determines the nature of the counselling relationships
formed. These are as follows:
 I

I) Ucliefs: Counsellor s h o ~ ~ lbcl~evc

tl i n 11-eatingthe clicnts with tlrgn~ty,ecluality
rind inclividu~~lity,
He should believe i n the worth of ant1 v a l ~ ~
ol'thc
c counselec
and i n his need for Frectloni and Ithcrty. Hcre liberty Inearls the power to strive
for goals without external co~\straint\.

hj Values: Willia~nson( 1958) points out that counsellors cannot bc irldifl'ercnt to

social rrnd inoral standrirds and 1101.sl~oultLthcy be neutral. Salmcr ( l0hO) states
) that counsellors SI~OLIICI be fully uwirrc ol' social values ant1 expose it also,
hcca~rsc,a change i n value constitute a n i~nportontcounselling foal.

Acceptance: Rogers (I 96 I) tlefincs i t us :I warn1 reg:trd lor the client as a p c r s o ~ ~

of unconcLitiona1 self-wortll ant1 of value, no matter what his condition liis
bchaviour or his feeling rrrc. It inlplics a respect rind liking I'or tlie client as a
person. Tyler ( I 9 6 l ) iclcnlil'ies two basic components o f acceptance
( i ) willingness to set indivitlur~lsdiffer from one nothe her i n their bclla~iourand
(ii) realization that experience of cacli person comprises a complcx pailern of
striving, thinking ant1 feeling. Thus the counsellor should have a non-
j ~ ~ i l g c ~ n c nattitude
tal and this implies helping run individual and not controlling
him.

d ) ! Underst:~riding: Tyler (1961) defines understanding as tlie abilily LO grasp

; clearly and conipletcly the meaning 11le client is trying to convey. Cou~isellor-
l d able to participate co~npletclyi n the clients cornmunicatio~lsand liis
s h o ~ ~ be
conllncnts S I I ~ L I I C I Ii:~r~liorlize
\villi wllr~tthe client is trying to co~ivcy.

IV. Cobrisullor Skills

Rapporl, attentiveness r ~ n t lcrnpalhy arc tlic three skills necdecl to Fl\crlitate

co~lnselling.'These are closely rclutcd to acceptance and understantling.

R 1 7 & ~ o rrefers
t to tliat atmospliese created by the counsellor iit the initial stage of
the(counsellingprocess by which a conilbrtable and ~~nconditional relation with the
coulnselec is established.

~ t g n t i v e n e s s :7'0 cst;iblisIi rapport tlie cou~iscllorhas to take into consideration

the ,needs, moods and conl'licts ol' the counselee into consitler:ition and For this a
frie/itlly nntl attentive attitude on tllc ptirt of the counsellor is necessary.

Enlpnthy refers to "feelinp into". Dy~ilond(1949) dcscribcs empntlty ns the

imabinative of onesell' into the ~hinkinp.fceling ant1 acting of anothcr and so
strutturing the world as lie does. This is a significant factor in counselling

S o far we had bcen discussing various cliaractcrstics which are reeded to be an effective
c o u n s e l l ~ in
r the view points of dil'fcre~rtperwns over a period of t ~ m eNow
. to sumnlarise
we can say that by looking a1 thrce factors, \4/e can distinguish an effective counsellor.

i) Espbrience: Wcll trained arid cl'fcctivc counsellor5 agree with each other on various
coumsell~ngconcepts a n d ol'ler more e ~ n p a l h yand are iiiore succes\ful in
cornlnunirating with their clrcnrs.

ii) Tbe rounselling relationship: I L is cliarac~erisedby a better understanding of their

clietits, thcy can mainta~nan appropriate emotional dista~iccand divest tliemselves
of status concerns.

i ~ i ) Nonrintellective f a c t o r s : This include tolerance for a ~ l i b i g u ~ t ya ,b ~ l i t yof

untlerst:ind~ng of the client. maturity and ability to establish gootl social ~clationship
with all. Also they arc found to be rnorc anxlous. scnsitrve to tlie expectations of
otheqs ant1 society, patient ant1 noo-aggressive I n i~~terpersonal relntionslrrps and
showbd appropriate sell-con11.01.
---
C'lkeck YO*~- f'rogrcss

Nolcs : ;I) Write your alls\\cl- 111 t l ~ c\i?:ICc yivc~lbelo\\,.

1 I
 Undcrst;ulding Counselling

I-
14. \i11.it!: 3lli)rt ;ln.;wcrs 01' the 1i)llowing.

I i i i ) \bllla~ i s acccl~li~~:cc'!

................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
I

2.9 GROUP COUNSELLING

Now you know what is counsclling, whi11 are thc principles governing it, the different
npproaches to counselling and the aclual process involved. As you have alreurly seen
from tlie definitions, counselling has generally been considered as LI one to one process.
However, due to various reasons, this concept has undergone change. Now. tlie concept
of 'group counselling' has gained wide acceptancc. One main reason for this is cconomic.

I There is shortage o f resources i n terms o f nioncy as well as trained personnel. Therefore,

if n group o1'individuals c;ili be helped at the sunie time, i t is a great advantage. 'Sliere are
other benefits also. In a group setting, the individual tends to loosc his identity and
I therefore resl~oodsInore nat,urally. Moreover group interaction llelps to cli;lnge some
attitudes, beliefs, feelings, needs, elc. Group co~lnsellingcan be 01' great atlvantagc to
persons who are shy or aggressive i n their interpersonal interactions. who are anxious or
uncomfortable i n groups or who are untluely resistant o f overconforming to social
expectations. Also special groups like alcoholics, bused and other groiIps can prollt
i Inore ~'rorng r o ~ ~
counselling.
p

2.9.1 The Meaning of Group Counselli~lg

Group c o u n s c l l i n ~is an extension o f individual counselling. I n group counselling a
number o f rndividuals work together with a professional counsellor to Icrun to resolvc
~~ersonal and interpersonal concerns. Thc primary goal o f group counsclling is the creation
of an interpersonal climate which helps each i n d ~ v ~ t l uto
a l develop ~ Iinsight
I Into himsell'.
I t is a process i n which free communication among members is encouraged and
lnaintained. leading to an understanding and evaluation o f each other's point o f view. I t
iu a means o f helping to resolve proble~nsby enjoying the social process o f g r o i ~ p
dynaniics and social facilitation. I t is calculated to attain rapid a~ncliorationi n personality
and behnv~ouro f individual members througli specifictl and controlled group interaction.

I n group counselling individuals explore and analyse their problems together so thiit
they liiay understand them better, learn to cope witli them and learn to makc valid cho~ces
and decisions. The group experience helps them to feel closer to olhers to l'ind i w d give
emotional support and to understand and accept thelnselvcs and others. Feelings o f
cOmmon direction and purpose develop, as group cohesiveness increases.

Group counselling has all the three dimensions o f inclividual counselli~lgviz. remedial,
preventive and developmental. However i n the school situation, emphasis is given to tlie
lireventive ant1 dcvelopmcntal aspects because schools are meant to be institutions for
providing instruction and guidance to.students, majority o f whom arc ~iortnal.l:'licrcfore,
i n schools tlie ninin cotlcerns ol'group counscllirlg is to prevent problems froln becoming
tlisturhing or incapacitating and also to aid harmonious development.
I~ltrnductio~l
to Guida~lcenntl 2.9.2 The Assumptions of Group Counselling
Cou~~selling
Group counselling is based on certain assmnptions. The first assumptio~lis that individuals
possass the necessary talent capacity to trust and to be trusted by other group members.
They should exhibit a basic concern for others in the group. This encourages group
cohesion and provides an atmosphere of support and security for each members of the
group to experience and share iildividual problems. L

The second assumption is that each individual has the potential to take respo~isibilityfor
self change. On the other hand the individual feels that his life is controlled by others, he
will not be left with any alternat~vesbut take recourse to disruptive behaviour.

The third assumptiori is that group lllelnberh can learn and understand froin the objectives
and methodology of group process. The objective is to reform the members and not to
make them confonn.

2.9.3 Structuring of Groups

1. S~electionand induction of members: The most frequently used procedure for
selectio~iand i~iductionof meinhers for group counselling is a personal interview,
prior to assignments to group. The initial interview gives the counsellor an
opportunity Lo establish identification with the member so that feelings of respect,
acccptdnce and assurance is experienced from the beginning. To help the individual
decide whether lie wishes to join the counselling group the counsellor briefs him of
tlle nature of the work, how it can benefit him, what can be expected and the rules
cCtlcerning confidentiality, etc. This interview helps the counsellor to decide whether
an individual will be helped by group couiiselliiig and also whether a particular
gtoup will project or lose by one being a member.
2. Size of the group: For group cou~lsellingthe size of the group should berelatively
sqall. Altliougli it is difticult to recommend a specific nuinber,-as-a rulf of' thumb,
about hix to ten members could be there in a group. Big groups become
ull~ma~iagcable. But too small groups are also not desirahlc because thc group
resources will he too liinited and thc tension too gets great due to the pressure to
pgt'ticipatc. Moreover, in too small a group, where onc or more members ;Ire absent
by chance. 'l'he functioning becomes almost impossible.

3. Composition of the group: There is controversy regarding the composition of

groups for counselling. Opinions differ as to whether the group should be
homogeneous or heterogeneous with respect to problems, education, intelligence,
afle, sex and so on. Hinckeley and Herman recommend heterogeneous groups made
ulj of members with ‘various' complai~ltsand symptoms. IJershenson and Pewer
( l t ) 8 7 - ~ . ~ advocate
.~.) grouping clie~itswith similar concerns and similar purposes
ibr group counselli~igbecause, the similarity facilitates a working bond and a more
co/hesivegroup relationship in the session. Gazda (1976) argues that grouping In a
si~milauagc range permits thc group to focus on develop~nentalconcerns appropriate
for all members. Sometimes, a balance of males and females increases opportunities
fot women and met1 to share views ilhout each others behnviour ilnd attitudes.
Al~thoughopinions differ, almost all agrees that extreme differences are undesirable.
Sifnilarly it is not desirable to iuclude extremely hostile and aggressive iildividual
hecause he makes it very dil'ficult to crcatc the at~nosphcreif acceptance a11d freedom
from thrci~lthal ib essent~alf o r group counselling. 'The chronic, monopolist is also
usually cxcluded from group cou~iselli~lg until his problem call be worked through
suficie~itlythrough individuill counselling. Care should be Laken to have a balanced
group. The out going aggressive individuals should be inhibited passive despondent
members.
4. Frequency and duration of meetings: Various recom~ne~idations have been made
regarding the frequency of meetings. The population and the sittings in which group
coeilselli~lgoccurs determine the frequency and duration of meetings. Weekly and
twice weekly meetings me reco~nmendedmost often. hl a comlnunity agency, colIege
or jn private practice two hour weekly sessions arc optional. But in the school settings
sli~rter durations, twice a week may he more suitable because of thc shorter altention
span of younger students. Moreover, they will miss less class periods. hi scllools
grdups usually run from I1 co 15 weeks. 11is more convenient and at the samc time
it trlisures a reasonable amount of time I'or the group to attain its goals.
5. Physical setting: Physical setting is less important in comparison with emotional Understanding Counselling
atmosphere and the skill of the counsellor. A skillful coui~sellorand the group
obviously will function inore effectively on a poor physical setting than an inept
one and his group in an ideal setting. However, privacy and freedom from
interruptions are of course important. The room should be small rather than large.
Seating should be flexible and varied. A circular seating arrangement with each
member sitting where he pleases is to be preferred to a formal arrangeinents and
permanent seat assignments.
2.9.4 The Process of Group Counselling
The process of group counselling can be divided into different stages. The stages are:
Initial exploratory stage: In tlie beginning sessions group lnembers are often
strangers. They may be rcsistant to talk or only be able to bring up superficial topics
for discussion. They may be shy or fearful of sounding stupid. They tend to focus
on themselves and not on others. The counsellor has to explain his role and also the
roles of the group members. He has to set up facilitative conditions to help develop
trust. The counselIor can accomplish this by modelling genuineness, warmth, non-
judgemental attitudes to group members and by listening carefully. Members are
encouraged to share their ideas and feelings frankly and freely. The counsellor sets
up 'hcilitative and comlnunicative attitudes and skills ainong participants by
demonstrating and modelling these themselves. When the group members notice
the non-judgemental manner in which the counsellor reacts to positive as well as
negative feedbacks from the members, they also readily accept the feedback in a
healthy way.
*ansition stage: As the group moves from the initial exploratory stage to the next
stage, group members are confronted with tlie need to explore more deeply to self-
disclose (letting others know more about oneselt] Inore intensively and to interact
more actively with others if they are to progress. Although soine trust has been
established by this time, the feeling to still tentative and the group ineinbers are
anxious, ambivalent aiid defensive as they realize that they are expected to explore
more deeply the emotions and feelings that are painful. Some fear the group will
reject them if they reveal too much. Some are even suspicious that the other ~nelnbers
or the counsellor himself inay ridicule them. This stage is also charactesised by
conflict or rebellion resulting from a struggle for power, control or doini~ianceamong
the members and with the counsellor. The group members tend to criticise each
other frequently. They inay even express doubts about the leadership of tlie
counsellor.
All these behaviours represent the resistance to exploring painful feelings. Resista~ice
is a sign that members are getting closer to the care of their problems. Resistance
may manifest in various other forms also like missing sessions, not participating,
criticizing others or simply talking with no mention of feelings. When resistance
arise, counsellors should encourage group members to work through conilicts and
move toward more authentic self-explorations.
Working stage: In this stage, the members feel more close to each other and morc
aware of others problems. Since trust has increased, they are more willirig to take
risks in sharing feelings and Lhouglits and to give construclive feedback to each
other. They are more supportive and cooperative aiid hence have more confidence
in each other. But at this stage, there is a danger of this group intimacy leading to a
false cohesiveness in which members protect each other and suppressing negative
emotions.
Counsellors at this stage should confront the group members with their behaviours
and insist that they challenge each other to convert insights, they have gained in the
group into action. For exainple, a group can confront a member who says he
recognises the need to assert himself but rcinains passive in the group and his
interactiuns outside the group.
# Slowly the group becomes productive and committed to going deeply into significant
problems and to giving attention to interchanges in the group. There is less
dependence on the counsellor and the group begins to focus on working towards
specified individual goals and group goals. The group members feel free to confront
15
 h~trodrrctionto ~11idsnccand
Counselling
each other and arc more willing to acccpt coilfrontations as a constructive means to
change. As the group interactions bring about attitudial and behavioural changes in
the group, members accept challenges atnong them to reform their everyday life.
Counselling uses a variety of techniques in accordance with their theoretical
orientations. Role playing, psycho-drama, assertiveness training, etc. are frequently
u$ed techniques.
Consolidation and Termination: Termination is not simply the 'stopping'. In fact,
it is an integral stag6 of the process of "group counselling". It is usual in group
counselling to fix a tennination date in advance. It is always wise to start discussion
about the tennination, three or four sessions before the final one. It gives adequate
tikne for haildlii~gpsychological or emotional upsets associated with weaning, to
work toward transferring new experiences to outside world, to work through any
untiaished problems, to review tlle experiences of individual members and work
out how each can build on these changes, once the termination is over, suggestions
for future help can also he made when necessary. Specific suggestions of how to
build on new learning by joining a support group or other more advance groups by
reading or by attending workshops, etc. may also be provided.

2.9.5 Advantages and Limitations of Group Counselling

Advahtages

a) It is economical in maby ways. In group counselling a large number of individuals

are helped at the same time by a counsellor. This saves time and money.

b) It helps individuals to socialize their attitudes, habits and judgements.

c) It provides multiple stimuli for each inember to work through and approximates
real life situation. By frankly and honestly sl~aringtheir thoughts and feelings
members develop a feeling of group cohesiveness and singleness of purpose that
helps them to progress. Discussioi~sof matters of common concern help the members
to appraise the adequacy of their interpersonal relations. The group gives them a
practice tield in which to learn new more tlexible and more satisfying ways of relating
to others. Moreover the group helps the individual appraise his values and come to
an increased appreciation of the imporlance of good human relations in his value
system.
Some individuals who cannot be reached through individual counselling can be reached
through group counselling. In a group counselling situation feelings of depression,
isolation are reduced and talking made easy. Apart from these, group counselling gives
the counsellor an opportunity to study persons in an initial group setting.
Limitations

I Group counselling is not suitable for all individuals. Some individual finds the group
situation too threatening. Moreover some individuals have a very low level of tolerance
and \Nil1 not be able to adopt their behaviour to the demands of the group. Similarly very
persdnal and private problems cannot be discussed in the group siluation. Apart from
these the counsellor has less control over the situation in group counselling. As a result
the counsellor may sometimes tilid himself seriously impeded in establishing good
working relationship with members.
'rllercefore, the counsellor has to take into consideration all these factors and decide
whether group counselling is suitable for particular individuals and type of problem.
Individual versus Group Counselling

There are differences as well as similarities between illdividual counselling and group
coungelling.

I Similarities

a) The aims of hot11 are the sane viz helping the counselee achieve self-understanding
and become an integrated self-dependent, self-directed and responsible person.
 b) The technique used are also similar, like clarification of feelings, restatement of Understauding Counselling
contents, etc.

c) Confidentiality and privacy are maintained.

d) The most important thing is the climate diat is accepting, permissive and non-
threatening.

e) The i~idividualswho receive help in both are normal individuals who are trying to
cope with stresses, frustrations, anxieties or other developmental problems.
. Differences

a) Individual counselling is a one to one, face-to-face relationship where the counsellor

interacts with only one counselee. But in group counselling the cou~isellorinteracts
with number of individuals at the same time.

b) In individual counselli~igthe counselee only receives lielp whereas in group

counselling, the counselee also gives help to others.

c) In group counselling, the principles. of group dynamics find a lot of application.

But in individual counselling it is the relationship of the counselee with the caunsellor
that is important.

Ch,eck Your Progress

Notes : r ) Write your answers in the spack giver) below.

hj ('ompart: your answers with tliose given at the end ot the block.
I
15. State whetl~erthe following statements are true or Filse.
i) (: 'ounselling can be tfonc only in a one-to-one situation.
I
ii) group uou~i*elling;I group of professional pool Lhe~rerpcrtirc h~ liulp Lllc (
c:l~ent.
iii) liroup cou~isellingi \ appropriate tor alcoholics,

I iv) Irlg groups ;ire suitable t i s group coussull~~ig.

v) I-xtremely hostile and aggressive pcrsons are he\t liclped tl~rouglig,roup
I
counsell~ng.
vi) i'hysical s e t t i ~ ~isg more importa~itthan tlre skill oi the counsellor i n lrroup
c:ounselling.
16. Writcb short athwers of the g ~ v equestions.
~i
i) htenrion two advantages of group counselling.

iij %'hat are the limitations of group counselling.

...........................................................................................................................
iii) ate two dift'erences between i~idividualcoubselli~~p
and group csunsi:liing.

............................................................................................................................
ivj What are thc assumptions of group counselling.
Inirudeciion l o Guidance and
Counseiling
2.10 SPECIALISED AREAS IN COUNSELLING
So far we had been discussing counselling in general with regard to its various aspects
and related concepts. R u t some areas in counselling are such that they call for special
expertise and techniques on the part of the counsellor. These are recognised as special
areas in counselling.

2.10.1 Family Counselling

Family counselling involves an interaction between professional counsellor and a family,
in which family inembers are helped to improve their communication and relationships
so as to increase the individual growth of each family member while achieving balance
and healthy il~teractionsamong family members.
Family counselling passes through four specific stages. Initial stage coi~sistsof developing
a rellationship and assessing the problem, In the middle stage family members develop
an etnotional understanding of the reasons behind their problem. Ending shge is helping
the iamily learn alternative ways of behaving thus transforming the family system.
Terqination stage is the weaning period where the family is taught to function
productively without the help of the counsellor.
In the initial sessions counsellors try to establish rapport, contidence and trust. Each
member is treated as important and insist that members should speak for themselves.
Members are prompted to speak out what they think as their problem and also to discuss
their expectations of the family. Counsellors observe fainily dynamics, power structure
in tile family, coinmunication patterns, and positive resources of the family, etc. Members
are helped to perceive themselves as a social unit. Family history, interaction with
extehded family members are also explored if need be. Once the problem has been
refocussed, goals-are set and commitment of each family members claritied. Whether to
involve all meinbers in one session or to hold separate sessions will also be decided.

In the middle stage, members are helped to 'arrive at an emotional understanding of the
problem. Counsellor becomes more confrontative leading to emotionally charged
disclosures. Expression of unresolved grief like death of loved one, divorce, loss of
childhood, etc. is encouraged at this stage. Here members begin to realise that relationships
can be changed for the better. With this, roles become less rigid and communications
become direct and constructive.

In tHe ending stage, members are encouraged to generalise these changes to interactions
of home and in the tenninatioil stage the fainily is weaned and helped to function
productively without therapists help. Review of what happcned, discussion of potential
problems ahead and how they intend to handle the matter, etc. are helpful here.

2.10.2 Career Counselling

Career counselling refers to that professional relationship where the clients are helped
to select, prepare for enter and function effectively in an occupation.

According to E.G. Williainson (1939) client problems could be classified into four
categories viz. no choice, uncertain choice, unwise choice and discrepancy between
interests and aptitudes. Process of counselling in these contexts is very much similar to
that in general counselling because the development choice and establishment of a career
are closely related to social and environlne~ltalintluences and personality development.

Cli&ntproblems are identified and claritied through establishment of rapport and on the
basis of information so gathered, the cou~~sellor forms a tentative hypothesis. Client
problem resolution is then accolnplished wilh the help of the counsellor followed by
evaluation. 'The major difference beiug that i s career counselling additional information
is gathered in occupational areas. Occupational history is reviewed, resort occupational
testing if need be and exploration of occupation and training possibilities are made.
Finally decisions about career choice or development are vdken.

Ca*er counselling though primarily contined to education ir! Ldia, it has wide scope in
codmunity agencies and business for employee counselling and assistance programmes.
38 Alsu specialised counsellors do placement work and vocational rehabilitation counselling
I
to help disadvantaged or handicapped persons with respect to jobs. Considerable research
gone into this field shows that career counselling is generally beneficial.

2,10.3 Counselling Drug Addicts and Alcoholics

Drug addiction has reached epidemic proportions in our country. The ill effects of
substance abuse are so many. These substances are psychoactive in the sense that they
alter the mood, perceptions and behaviour. The so called stiinulants tamper appetite
leading to nutritional deficiencies and serious physical ailments. Drug abuse also leads
to serious interpersonal problems like domestic violence, child abuse, sexual dysfuunction's
etc. These substances induce physical and psychological dependency which makes it
nearly impossible for the victim to get rid of the habit. Street crimes involving drug
addicts are on the rise and reveals attempts made by them to get money to pay drug
dealers.

Drug abuse counsellors emphasize in patient residential treatment programines in highly

structured and protected environment. This is because it is important to protect them
initially from bad environmental influences. Moreover inedication is advisable in many
cases to help addicts to wilhdraw from dependency that they have developed.

The drug abuse counsellors after ruling out the need for hospitalization inducts the client
into the counselling programme. They insist that the client abstain from taking drugs, as
the first step. Because without that, proper rapport or communication is impossible.
l'amily members are also counselled and make aware of there faulty roles, dysfunctional
communication, etc. which have caused or perpetuated the problem. Rot11 the client and
family members receive help to develop feelings of self worth and responsibility for
their behaviours. They learn to express their needs more direct1y. Through exploration
of childhood experience they become aware of repressed negative emotions that are
affecting their present behaviour. They also lean] new ways of dealing with stress. Drug
addicts should receive group counselling because they often lack social skills.

Auxiliary services like recreational or occupational therapy helps them to cultivate new
interests. Nutritional guidance helps them to cultivate healthy eating habits. Counselling
ensures their successful return to the society thus alienating the problem once for all.

1-Yoflr
1
I Notes : ;r!
iBl~grtis~

Write yol~r;irlswers in the spiicc give^^ bclow.

-7 I
1 ~~~~~~~~~~c your aohwcrs with those given ill the end of thc !>lock.
17. S1;itc v~hclhcrthe Collowing statclneill are true or false:
I) 1 .!inily couasull~ngrcfers to the psychological help the c~ourracllorpicsvitics to
I l r , own fulillly ~nc.n~hclb
and rcl;llivcs.

ii) A.l:trriage counsrlling and family counsrlling lur one ;uitl the s;unc.
iii) Ir is ncwssary to counsel the kimily mcmhcrs of drug iiddicts.

18. What I.; !he dil'fercace between a sex Lhcrapisl and n marriagc i:ou~rsellor'!

EVALUATION OF COUNSELLING
The term evaluation refers to judging the effectiveness with which the objectives of a
programme are achieved in relation to specified standAards. It may be improved adjustmenl,
a sensible vocational choice, realistic self-concept or a belter grade in school. So, in the
context of counselling, evaluation means, determining whelller these goals were achieved
or not and if 'yes', to what extent. It is also the business here to see the effectiveiless of
I~~lroduction
to Guidance and various counselling approaches as well as the situations in which counselling can be
Counselling used at its best.
Probllems in Evaluation
1. Selection of criteria: As any other evaluation programme, evaluatioqof counselling
also presupposes a criterion, to be used as a yardstick to measure the counselling
olutcomes. A good criterion is one, that is relevant to the problem which is to be
. studied and at the same time is measurable also. It may be easy to find a criterion
relevant to a particular situation, but many a times, they are so vague and abstract
that it is difficult to quantify them. If we propose to choose a subjective criterion
viz. the clients own judgement about the effectivenessof the counsellors judgement,
chances are that at times, they become too subjective to be reliable. Objective
criterion, like the judgement given by a third pwty or a score in a psychological test
q e usually found to be predictable and the best means of evaluation. But they also
have their limitations like, if we take "feeling of inferiority" as the criterion they
dannot be observed by an outside agency. Psychological tests can be used here as an
alternative. But at present only a few psychological tests are established to he valid.
In fact, no test is valid for all situations and persons.
2. Complexity of the goal to Ile evaluated: The goals of counselling, many a times
are to secure self-direction and self-dependence. With such goals evaluation is not
going to be a simple process because they are unique, complex and dynamic. This
especially happens in case of personal counselling rather than academic counselling
where the goals are mainly concerned with obtaining a better score in school,
improving memory skills, study habits, etc.
3. t a c k of adequate data regarding the pre-counselling status for comparison with
best counselling status thus making meaningful evaluation impractical.
4. Evaluation in the context of co"nse1ling is a time consuming process.
5. Lack of trained personnel well versed with the techniques of evaluation.
a
Not withstanding the difficulties and practical problems, we cannot do away with
evalgalion of counselling programmes. Reasons are many. One reason is that the
appropriateness and usel'ulness of a particular programme cannot he judged without
evaluating it. Secondly it brings to light the limitatio~isof a programme thus ensuring
remedial measures and thereby improving the quality of the services rendered. Finally
for the clie~~ts
theinselves evaluation provides a feedback motivating them towards better
results.
Now that we have seen the need for evaluation and the problems faced hy researchers in
this tield. We will go to see the different ways in which evaluation is done.
1. Survey Approach
It is a very simple method. Here data are collected by surveys conducted 011the scunple
selected for the purpose and hence the name. This approach consists of identifying the
population, obtaining a representative sample from it, collecting information, emplqying
suitable evaluative schedule and finally interpreting the results in terms of pre-determined
critqria.
I-Iere the clients are asked questions directly or made to fill up questionnaires as how
they feel about the usefulness of counselling, whetller they have benefitted from i t eic.
They are also asked to highlight 21ny flaws observed irnd suggestitlns regarding possible
solultio~lsand ~neansof improvement are also solicited.
This method is a very useful approach since a large umber of data call be colles@d
within a reasonable time which makes the conclusions more valid. Some drawbilcks of
this approach are unreliability of the subjects answers since they tend to give socially
desirable answers, lack of experimental validation and possibility of sampling errors
leading to biased conclusions.
2. ' Case Study Approach
I

Thib approach focusses attention on individual cases handled by counsellors. Each case
is analysed in depth to assess the effectiveness of the counselling programme ilttended
 by the client. Evaluation again is made using a subjective criterion like the clients ~ l ~ d e r s i i l n d iCounselling
n~
judgements or clienls own judgement regarding his progress. Objective criteria as
described earlier may also be used, subject to their own limitations.
Advantage of this approach lies ip its emphasis given to individual cases. A big drawback
of this approach is that it is a time consuming process. Also, since each individual is
unique it is improper to make generalizations based on such data. To counteract this if
we miss data pertaining to different individuals it may miss the unique features of
individual approach.

3. Experimental Approach

1 The basic requirements of this approach are (a) determining the objectives or setting of
't agoal for the study undertaken (formulation of the hypothesis), (b) choosing appropriate
method or design of the experiment, (c) selecting two or more groups as the case may
i be, which are comparable to each other, (d) application of such counsellillg techniques
the outcome of which can be measured objectively and (e) Analysing the data and
interpreting the results.

The vital step in this approach is the selection of comparable groups. In scholastic fields
as in counselling for improving study skills, comprehension, memory, reading ability,
etc. progress can be assessed easily through this method. Where as in areas like vocational
choice and personnel counselling client satisfaction often is a complex phenomena which
is not easily amenable to objective assessment.
Usefulness of Counselling
Now, we will summarise the conclusions arrived at through evaluation studies of
cou~isellingprogrammes.
Follow up studies have indicated that counselled students are inore successful at school
and after having also, than those without any exposure to counselling even after controlling
the motivation dift'erence between the.two groups, significant differences in success rate
has been observed.
Counselling does not work equally well in all cases. Vocational counsellillg is found to
improve vocational adjustment.
Studies have proved that it is not thelheoretical orientation of the counsellor but hislher
expertise is that which matters.

II I
Check Your l'rogress
Motes : :I) Write your is~swcrsin thc space giscn below.
I
I II1) ('ompare your answcrs wit11 those given a1 the end of tl~chlock.
I
I 1Y. Siiitc wl~cthcrthe I'ollowing statel~lc~lts

i) i ' l i c ~ ~own
;Ire true or Ii~lse:
l s Judgement ;thout the el'fcctiveness of counselling is a11 objective
I
~:rilcrionli)r ev:~luation.

1 ii) 'J'lle scores 011 a psychologiwl test is ;I subjective crilcrion i\)r evi~laiilion.
I
I iii) i:valurtius of cou~~scllisg
helps the clients ;~lss.
I
I iv) qurvey method is ihe ciisiest way lo cv;iIuate counscllinp progr:untnc.

2.12 LET US SUM UP

-
Different authors have defined counselling with differing emphasis on various aspects.
However, most of them agree that counselling is a process and involves a relationship
between professionally trained counsellor and an individual in need to help.
Psychotherapy, Guidance, Instruction and Advice giving are some lields closely related
Introductio~~
LO G u i d a ~ ~ caud
e to cbunselling. Although these fields arc closely related to counselling and there are
Cou~~selli~~g s o m similarities in their functions, they are different from counselling.

Coulnselling as a scientific technique is based on a set of principles and assumptions.

Couinselling assumes that every individual is capable of taking histher own decisions
and d s o that helshe has a right to choose hislher path. The counsellor does not give him/
her ~ d v i c eor solves problems for himlher but only facilitates judicial thinking and
decision-making .

Lack of proper understanding as to what exactly are the goals of counselling win lead to
unraistic expectations and resultant disappointment. (1) achievement of positive mental
health, (2) problem resolution, (3) decision-making, (4) improving personal effectiveness,
(5) help change, and (6) behaviour modification are the major goals of counselling.
1
The$e are three main approaches : (1) Directive (2) Non-directive, and (3) Eclectic.
!
Irrespective of the approach used, couilselling generally pass through four stages viz.
initial stage, middle stage, final stage and termination.

The effectiveness of counselling to a great extent is dependent on the personality and

other characteristics of counselling.

The Foncept of group counselling is gaining increasing popularity and main reason for
this Is economic. -
Certain areas in counselling requires special expertise such areas are family counselling,
career counselling and counselling of drug addicts and alcoholics.
As ill the case of any other services, evaluation is essential for counselling services also.
Evalbalion helps in judging the effectiveness of the programme.
I

.3
I

2.13 UNIT-END EXERCISES i1

1. Identify a student requiring help through counselling in your school. Select an
hppropriate counselling approach. Describe the techniques you will use to help the
$tudent. State the reasons for selecting the particular approach and the techniques.
2. The meaning of counselling in the professional sense differ from the popular
Understanding of the term. Discuss.
3. Critically evaluate the advantages and limitations of group couilselling.