Functions

Introduction

The phrase "y is a function of x" means that the value of y depends upon the value of x, so y can
be written in terms of x (e.g. y = 3x ).
If f(x) = 3x, and y is a function of x (i.e. y = f(x) ), then the value of y when x is 4 is f(4), which is
found by replacing x"s by 4"s .

Example

If f(x) = 3x + 4, find f(5) and f(x + 1).

f(5) = 3(5) + 4 = 19
f(x + 1) = 3(x + 1) + 4 = 3x + 7

Domain and Range

The domain of a function is the set of values which you are allowed to put into the function (so
all of the values that x can take). The range of the function is the set of all values that the
function can take, in other words all of the possible values of y when y = f(x). So if y = x 2, we can
choose the domain to be all of the real numbers. The range is all of the real numbers greater
than (or equal to) zero, since if y = x2, y cannot be negative.

One-to-One

We say that a function is one-to-one if, for every point y in the range of the function, there is
only one value of x such that y = f(x). f(x) = x 2 is not one to one because, for example, there are
two values of x such that f(x) = 4 (namely –2 and 2). On a graph, a function is one to one if any
horizontal line cuts the graph only once.

Composing Functions

fg means carry out function g, then function f. Sometimes, fg is written as fog

Example

If f(x) = x2 and g(x) = x – 1 then

gf(x) = g(x2) = x2 – 1
fg(x) = f(x – 1) = (x – 1)2

As you can see, fg does not necessarily equal gf

The Inverse of a Function

The inverse of a function is the function which reverses the effect of the original function. For
example the inverse of y = 2x is y = ½ x .
To find the inverse of a function, swap the x"s and y"s and make y the subject of the formula.

Example

Find the inverse of f(x) = 2x + 1

Let y = f(x), therefore y = 2x + 1
swap the x"s and y"s:
x = 2y + 1
Make y the subject of the formula:
2y = x - 1, so y = ½(x - 1)
Therefore f -1(x) = ½(x - 1)

f-1(x) is the standard notation for the inverse of f(x). The inverse is said to exist if and only there
is a function f-1 with ff-1(x) = f-1f(x) = x

Note that the graph of f-1 will be the reflection of f in the line y = x.

Graphs

Functions can be graphed. A function is continuous if its graph has no breaks in it. An example of
a discontinuous graph is y = 1/x, since the graph cannot be drawn without taking your pencil off
the paper:

A function is periodic if its graph repeats itself at regular intervals, this interval being known as
the period.
A function is even if it is unchanged when x is replaced by -x . The graph of such a function will
be symmetrical in the y-axis. Even functions which are polynomials have even degrees (e.g. y =
x²).
A function is odd if the sign of the function is changed when x is replaced by -x . The graph of the
function will have rotational symmetry about the origin (e.g. y = x³).

The Modulus Function

The modulus of a number is the magnitude of that number. For example, the modulus of -1 ( |-
1| ) is 1. The modulus of x, |x|, is x for values of x which are positive and -x for values of x which
are negative. So the graph of y = |x| is y = x for all positive values of x and y = -x for all negative
values of x:

Transforming Graphs

If y = f(x), the graph of y = f(x) + c (where c is a constant) will be the graph of y = f(x) shifted c
units upwards (in the direction of the y-axis).
If y = f(x), the graph of y = f(x + c) will be the graph of y = f(x) shifted c units to the left.
If y = f(x), the graph of y = f(x – c) will be the graph of y = f(x) shifted c units to the right.
If y = f(x), the graph of y = af(x) is a stretch of the graph of y = f(x), scale factor (1/a), parallel to
the x-axis. [Scale factor 1/a means that the "stretch" actually causes the graph to be squashed if
a is a number greater than 1]

Example

The graph of y = |x - 1| would be the same as the above graph, but shifted one unit to the right
(so the point of the V will hit the x-axis at 1 rather than 0).

Curve Sketching

Given a particular equation, you need be able to draw a quick sketch of its curve showing the
main details (such as where the curve crosses the axes). You should be able to quickly sketch
straight-line graphs, from your knowledge that in the equation y = mx + c, m is the gradient and
c where the graph crosses the y-axis.
When asked to sketch a more complicated curve, there are a number of things that you should
work out before drawing your sketch:

 Asymptotes- these are lines for which the graph is undefined (this means that the curve
does not cross asymptotes). Remember that you cannot divide by zero. Therefore, in the
graph of 1/(1 + x), x = -1 is an asymptote because when x is -1, you end up dividing by
zero. A curve often gets very close to an asymptote, without actually crossing it.

 Work out where the graph crosses the axes. The graph will cross the x-axis when y = 0
and the y-axis when x = 0. Substitute in x = 0 and then y = 0 to determine the crossing
points, and mark these on your sketch.

 What happens as x becomes very large? Think about whether y will become very large,
very small, positive or negative. What happens as x becomes very small (large and
negative)?

 Is the graph symmetrical about the x or y-axes? Remember that the graph is
symmetrical about the y-axis if replacing x by -x in the equation of the graph doesn't
change the equation (for example y = x2 is symmetrical about the y-axis because if x is
replaced by -x, the value of y is not changed since (-x) 2 = x2). Functions which are
symmetrical in the y-axis are known as even functions.

 The graph is symmetrical about the x-axis if replacing y by -y does not change the
equation of the graph. For example y2 = x.

 The graph will have rotational symmetry if f(x) = -f(-x), in other words if replacing x by -x
in the equation only results in the sign of the equation being changed. Such functions
are known as odd functions.

 You may also think about where the maxima and minima occur (by differentiating).
These can then be marked onto your sketch.

Example

Sketch the graph of  y = 1 + x

                                    1 - x
1) Asymptotes: When x = 1, we end up dividing by zero so there will be an asymptote at x = 1.
Also think about what happens when y = -1.
-1 = 1 + x
   1-x
-1(1 - x) = 1 + x
-1 + x = 1 + x
-1 = 1.
This cannot happen, since -1 ¹ 1, so the graph cannot be defined for y = -1. This is therefore
another asymptote.

2) Where the axes are crossed: When x = 0, y = 1. Therefore the curve crosses the y-axis at (0,1).
When y = 0, 1 + x = 0 so x = -1. Therefore the curve crosses the x-axis at (-1, 0).

3) As x becomes large, 1 + x will become large and positive and 1 - x will become large and
negative. Therefore as x becomes large, y = large/-large = -1. As x becomes very large and
negative, 1 + x will become very large and negative and 1 - x will become very large and positive.
Therefore y = -large/large = -1.

4) By substituting in -x for x it can be seen that the graph is not symmetrical in the x axis.

The sketch of the graph would therefore look something like this:

Note that the curve does not cut the lines that we have found to be asymptotes, but it gets
extremely close to them.