Prepared By: A.

Bader Al Jasem

20/4/20
CHEMISTRY COURSE WORK
11
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1- Explain the fundamental reasons why ceramics are

brittle and metal are tough.

Ceramics are consider as brittle due to the property of materials

called malleability and ductility. Ductility is a mechanical property
used to describe the extent to which materials can be deformed
(plastic nature) without fracture. Malleabssility refers to a
material's ability to deform under compressive stress; example- the
material's ability to form a thin sheet by hammering or rolling.

Ceramics can be defined as heat-resistant, nonmetallic, inorganic

solids that are (generally) made up of compounds formed from
metallic and nonmetallic elements. Although different types of
ceramics can have very different properties, in general ceramics are
corrosion-resistant and hard, but brittle. Most ceramics are also
good insulators and can withstand high temperatures. These
properties have led to their use in virtually every aspect of modern
life.

Metals, in general, are tough because they are recognized as atoms

forced tightly together by electrons. The electrons are the atoms
valence electrons mobile all around the substance and never sticks
with a single atom. The negative mobile electrons keep the now
positive ions in place and close together, making it harder to break.
[1][2].
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2- Explain why glass generally has low tensile strength and

briefly describe two methods by which it can be
strengthened.

Glass is what is known as an amorphous solid. What this means is

that there is no internal structure for the molecules in the glass.
They are arranged in no particular order and do not hold to one
another very strongly. Essentially, glass is like an extremely slow
moving liquid. That's why very old pieces of glass (like windows
in old houses) are thicker at the bottom than at the top. The
molecules have been pulled down by gravity over the years.
In order to have a higher tensile strength, the molecules would
need to hold on to one another in order to preserve some sort of
internal order.
Glass is sometimes considered a type of ceramic. However, glasses
and ceramics differ in that ceramics have a crystalline structure
while glasses contain impurities that prevent crystallization . The
structure of glasses is amorphous, like that of liquids. Ceramics
tend to have high, well-defined melting points, while glasses tend
to soften over a range of temperatures before becoming liquids. In
addition, most ceramics are opaque to visible light, and glasses
tend to be translucent. Glass ceramics have a structure that consists
of many tiny crystalline regions within a non crystalline matrix.
This structure gives them some properties of ceramics and some of
glasses. In general, glass ceramics expand less when heated than
most glasses, making them useful in windows, for wood stoves, or
as radiant glass-ceramic cook top surfaces.
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In order to provide greater resistance to thermal and mechanical

stresses and achieve specific break patterns for safety glazing
applications, annealed float glass products may be subjected to a
heat-treating process. The most commonly used process for heat-
treating architectural products calls for glass to be cut to the desired
size, transported through a furnace and uniformly heated to
approximately 1150° F (621° C).

There are two basic methods for producing air-quenched heat-

treated glass. The most commonly used heat-treating furnace, a
horizontal roller hearth, transports glass on horizontal rollers
through the heating and quench processes. A limited amount of
heat-treated glass is produced in vertical furnaces, which call for
the glass to be held in a vertical position by tongs as it is
transported through the heating and quench processes.

Each method produces some degree of bow and warp, which is an

inherent characteristic of all heat-treated glass. Tong-held glass, the
vertical process, may exhibit a long arc or “S” curve plus some
minor distortion at the tong points. Horizontally heat-treated glass
will have characteristic waves or corrugations caused by the
transport rollers. Industry fabrication requirements, product
tolerances and testing procedures for heat-treated glass are defined
in the ASTM International (ASTM) document C 1048 Standard
Specification for Heat-Treated Flat Glass - Kind HS, Kind FT
Coated and Uncoated Glass.[3][4]
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3- Explain in terms of griffith's equation why steel is a

safer engineering materials than glass.

If one used the force potentials between atoms presented in sli one
should also be able to predict the theoretical strength of the
material. When this has been done in the past, people usually come
to the estimate that the tensile strength of a material should be
approximately:

E ⇔ E
σ theortical ≅ ❑
20 5
In reality, the actual tensile strength of most materials is far
below these estimated values:
For example, consider a mild steel which has a Young’s modulus
of E=207 GPa (29 Mpsi). The corresponding theoretical strength of
steel should thus be roughly:

0.70 GPa ≤ σ steel

ult ≤ 2.1GPa (50 Ksi−150 Ksi)

The purpose of Griffith’s model is to explain how voids or crack-

like defects in materials make the material weaker. It uses a
number of simplifying approximations, but the end result is quite
helpful. Let’s begin by assuming that we have a sheet-like
specimen of material in a state of pure tension as shown.
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If the Young’s modulus of the material is E, and the state of axial

stress is σ, then the corresponding axial strain in the material will
be: ε=σ/E. The strain energy density in the material is:

1 σ2
u= σ ε=
2 2E
Note that the units of strain energy density are simply energy per
unit volume (FL/L3)=(F/L2) which are the same units as those of
stress. [5][6]

Let’s now assume that in this material, there is a very, very small
flaw that we can only see if we look very hard. If we magnify the
region around this flaw, it will look something like the following:

Fig (1): Griffith Effective.

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4- explain the differences between elastic deformation

uniform plastic deformation (necking)

When a sufficient load is applied to a metal or other structural

material, it will cause the material to change shape. This change in
shape is called deformation. A temporary shape change that is self-
reversing after the force is removed, so that the object returns to its
original shape, is called elastic deformation. In other words, elastic
deformation is a change in shape of a material at low stress that is
recoverable after the stress is removed. This type of deformation
involves stretching of the bonds, but the atoms do not slip past each
other.

(a) Elastic Deformation b) Plastic Necking

Fig (2): Elastic Deformation & Plastic Deformation

When the stress is sufficient to permanently deform the metal, it is

called plastic deformation. As discussed in the section on crystal
defects, plastic deformation involves the breaking of a limited
number of atomic bonds by the movement of dislocations. Recall
that the force needed to break the bonds of all the atoms in a crystal
plane all at once is very great. However, the movement of
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dislocations allows atoms in crystal planes to slip past one another

at a much lower stress levels. Since the energy required to move is
lowest along the densest planes of atoms, dislocations have a
preferred direction of travel within a grain of the material. This
results in slip that occurs along parallel planes within the grain.
These parallel slip planes group together to form slip bands, which
can be seen with an optical microscope. A slip band appears as a
single line under the microscope, but it is in fact made up of
closely spaced parallel slip planes as shown in the previous Fig(2).

Necking in a uniaxial cylindrical tensile specimen is isotropic.

However in a sheet specimen where the width of the specimen is
much higher than the thickness, there are two types of flow
instability.[7][8]
1) Diffuse necking
• Provide a large extent of necking on the tensile specimen
similar to necking from a cylindrical specimen.
• Diffuse necking might terminate in fracture but normally
followed by localized necking.

2) Localized necking
• Localized necking is a narrow band with its size ~ specimen
thickness, and inclined at an angle φ ~55o.
• Give no change in width through the localized neck _ plain
strain deformation.
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5- Describe the mechanism of rubber elasticity explaining

how it leads to low stiffness and high extensions

Rubber elasticity, a well-known example of hyper elasticity,

describes the mechanical behavior of many polymers, especially
those with cross linking. Invoking the theory of rubber elasticity,
one considers a polymer chain in a cross linked network as an
entropic spring. When the chain is stretched, the entropy is reduced
by a large margin because there are fewer conformations available.

Therefore, there is a restoring force, which causes the polymer

chain to return to its equilibrium or un stretched state, such as a
high entropy random coil configuration, once the external force is
removed. This is the reason why rubber bands return to their
original state. Two common models for rubber elasticity are the
freely-jointed chain model and the worm-like chain model.

A piece of rubber, such as a rubber ball or a rubber band, is made

up of many polymer molecules. As the molecules prefer to be
coiled to a certain degree, rather than stretched out, the polymer
molecules easily get tangled together. When chains become
entangled, their mobility decreases. Furthermore, the
entanglements mean that the chains cannot stretch as far as
otherwise they would be able to and so the stiffness of the rubber
increases - at least if it is measured over short timescales, which do
not permit the entanglements to slide.[9][10]
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As well as physical entanglements, the chains can join together in

another manner. If the chemistry of the chain is suitable, an atom
belonging to one chain can form a chemical bond with an atom
from another chain. This bond is called a cross-link. The nature of
the cross-linking bonds is covalent. The cross-links inhibit the
motion of the polymer chains and so increase the stiffness of the
rubber. These are now stable over long time scales, so the stiffness
is not time-dependent.

a) Unloaded coiled chains

b) Loaded in tension

Fig (3): High extensions and low stiffness.

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6- explain how the combination of thermosetting resin and

glass fibers both of which are brittle gives composite
materials which are tough

Composites are fiber-reinforced plastics used in a variety of

products, applications and industries. While the term "composite"
can apply to any combination of individual materials, Composites
One focuses on fibers, primarily glass, that have been impregnated
with a plastic resin matrix. Combining glass fibers with resin
matrix results in composites that are strong, lightweight, corrosion-
resistant and dimensionally stable. [11][12]

They also provide good design flexibility and high dielectric

strength, and usually require lower tooling costs. Because of these
advantages, composites are being used in a growing number of
industries, such as recreational boating applications. Their
tremendous strength-to-weight and design flexibility make them
ideal in structural components for the transportation industry.

High-strength lightweight premium composite materials such as

carbon fiber and epoxies are being used for aerospace applications
and in high performance sporting goods. Composites' superior
electrical insulating properties also make them ideal for appliances,
tools and machinery. Tanks and pipes constructed with corrosion-
resistant composites offer extended service life over those made
with metals.
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One of composites' main advantages is how their components -

glass fiber and resin matrix - complement each other. While thin
glass fibers are quite strong, they are also susceptible to damage.
Certain plastics are relatively weak, yet extremely versatile and
tough. Combining these two components together, however, results
in a material that is more useful than either is separately. With the
right fiber, resin and manufacturing process, designers today can
tailor composites to meet final product requirements that could not
be met by using other materials. The key factors to consider are
fiber, resin and fiber.[13][14]
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7- use the following data obtained from a metal tensile test

piece to determine

4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 Load /kn
Extension /
0.053 0.047 0.041 0.034 0.028 0.022 0.016 0.010 0.004
mm

Where:
Original length of test piece=50 mm
Original diameter of test piece =5.05mm
Load at yield point=5.9KN
Maximum load=7.9KN

A) Yongs modulus by graphical means

An elastic modulus, or modulus of elasticity, is the

mathematical description of an object or substance's tendency
to be deformed elastically (i.e., non-permanently) when a force
is applied to it. The elastic modulus of an object is defined as
the slope of its stress-strain curve in the elastic deformation
region[15]:

where lambda (λ) is the elastic modulus; stress is the restoring

force caused due to the deformation divided by the area to
which the force is applied; and strain is the ratio of the change
caused by the stress to the original state of the object.
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If stress is measured in Pascal, since strain is a dimensionless

quantity, then the units of λ are Pascals as well. Since the
denominator becomes unity if length is doubled, the elastic
modulus becomes the stress needed to cause a sample of the
material to double in length. While this endpoint is not realistic
because most materials will fail before reaching it, it is
practical, in that small fractions of the defining load will
operate in exactly the same ratio. Thus, for steel with a Young's
modulus of 30 million psi, a 30 thousand psi load will elongate
a 1 inch bar by one thousandth of an inch; similarly, for metric
units, where a thousandth of the modulus in gigapascals will
change a meter by a millimeter.

4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 Load /kn

0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 Extensio

0.047
3 1 4 8 2 6 0 4 n /mm

84.9 184.3 85.3 95.5 89.2 90.9 93.7

100 125 Λ
0 3 6 4 8 0 5

B) Yield strength
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In most cases, the strength of a given material used to make a

fastener has strength requirements or parameters described as
pounds per square inch (psi) or thousands of pounds per square
inch (ksi). This is helpful when analyzing what grade of
material should be used for a given application, but this doesn’t
tell us the actual strength of that diameter of material. In order
to calculate the actual strength values of a given diameter, you
would use the following formulas[16]:

Note: the formulas below do not depend on the finish of the

fastener.

Take the minimum yield in psi of the ASTM grade (see our
Strength Requirements by Grade Chart for this value),
multiplied by the stress area of the specific diameter (see our
Thread Pitch Chart). This formula will give you the ultimate
yield strength of that size and grade of bolt.

Example: What is the ultimate yield strength of a 3/4″ diameter

F1554 Grade 36 rod?

This is the minimum requirement for F1554 grade 36. In other

words, a 3/4″ diameter F1554 grade 36 anchor rod will be able
to withstand 12,024 pounds force (lbf) without yielding.
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C) tensile strength

Take the minimum tensile strength in psi of the ASTM grade,

multiplied by the stress area of the diameter. This formula will
give you the ultimate tensile strength of that size and grade of
bolt.

Example: What is the ultimate tensile strength of a 3/4″

diameter F1554 Grade 36 rod?

This is the minimum requirement for F1554 grade 36. In other

words, a 3/4″ diameter F1554 grade 36 anchor rod will be able
to withstand 19,372 pounds force (lbf) without breaking.

References

1. Greskovich, G., et al., Polycrystalline Ceramic Lasers, J. Appl.

Phys., Vol. 44, p. 4599 (1973).
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2. Yoldas, B.E. Monolithic Glass Formation by Chemical

Polymerization, J. Mater. Sci., Vol.10, p. 1856 (1975), Deposition
and Properties of Optical Oxide Coatings from Polymerized
Solutions, Applied Optics, Vol. 21, p. 2960 (1982), An Aqueous
Sol–Gel Route to Prepare Transparent Hybrid Materials, J. Mater.
Chem., Vol. 17, p. 4430 (2007).
3. http://abrisa.com/products/glass-products/
4. Hara, R., Kaitila, O., Kupari, K., Outinen, J., Perttola, H.
5. Seminar on Steel Structures: Design of Cold-Formed Steel
Structures, 2000.
6. Lu, W. Neural Network Model for Distortional Buckling Behavior
of Cold-Formed Steel Compression Members, 2000.
7. Anderson, T.L., Fracture Mechanics: Fundamentals and
Applications, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1991.
8. Barsom, J.M., ed., Fracture Mechanics Retrospective, American
Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1987.
9. Collins, J.A., Failure of Materials in Mechanical Design, Wiley,
1981.
10.Courtney, T.H., Mechanical Behavior of Materials, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1990.
11.Hayden, H.W., W.G. Moffatt and J. Wulff, The Structure and
Properties of Materials :Vol. III Mechanical Behavior, Wiley, New
York, 1965.
12.Khun W., Grün F., Kolloidzschr, 101, p. 248-271, 1942.
13.Markmann G., Veroon E. Gornet L., Chagnon G., Charrier P., Fort
P., J. Mech. Phys.
14.Solids, 50, p. 2011-2018, 2002 Carlsson L. A. and Aksoy A.
Interlaminar shear fracture of interleaved graphite/epoxy
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15.Composites. Composites Science and Technology, 43:645-658,

1992.
16.Ishai O. and Sela N. Interlaminar fracture toughness and
toughening of laminated composite materials: a review.
Composites, 20(5):423-435, September 1989.

DONE.