3.

Structures for Discrete-Time Systems

3.1. Signal Flow Graphs (6.2)

3.2. Basic Structures for IIR Systems (6.3)
3.3. Basic Structures for FIR Systems (6.5)
3.4. Transposition Theorem (6.4)
 The input-output relation of a linear time-invariant discrete-time
system can be characterized by an impulse response, a frequency
response, a system function or a linear constant-coefficient difference
equation. When the input-output relation is given, the system can be
implemented in different structures. These structures are different in
accuracy, speed, cost, and others. We discuss causal systems only.
3.1. Signal Flow Graphs
The structure of a linear time-invariant discrete-time system can be
represented by a signal flow graph. Basically, a signal flow graph is a
network of nodes and directed branches (figure 3.1).
A node carries out addition. Each output of a node equals the sum
of all its inputs. Usually the number of the inputs of a node is limited
to no more than 2.
A directed branch carries out multiplication or delay. Its output is
equal to its input multiplied by a constant (usually omitted if equal to
1) or delayed by 1.

X1(z) Y1(z)

X2(z) Y2(z)
(a) Y1(z)=Y2(z)=X1(z)+X2(z)

a
X(z) Y(z)
(b) Y(z)=aX(z)

z1
X(z) Y(z)
(c) Y(z)=z1X(z)

Figure 3.1. Elements of Signal Flow Graphs.

 Example. Determine the system function of the signal flow graph
given below.

1 W1(z)  W2(z)

X(z) Y(z)

W3(z) z1 W4(z)

Figure 3.2. A Signal Flow Graph.

3.2. Basic Structures for IIR Systems

The basic structures for IIR systems include the direct form I, the
direct form II, the cascade form and the parallel form. These
structures, as well as other structures for IIR systems, have feedback
loops.
 Consider an IIR system with system function
M

 k
b z k

H(z)  k 0
N
, (3.1)
1   a k z k
k 1

where ak and bk are assumed to be real numbers. Let us use different

structures to implement this system.
3.2.1. Direct Form I
From (3.1), we obtain
N M
Y(z)   a k z  k Y(z)   b k z  k X(z), (3.2)
k 1 k 0

where X(z) and Y(z) are the z-transforms of the input and the output,
respectively. (3.2) can be used to construct the direct form I structure
of the system (figure 3.3).
b0
X(z) Y(z)
z1 z1
b1 a1

z1 z1
b2 a2
… …
bM1 aN1

z1 z1
bM aN

Figure 3.3. Direct Form I.

3.2.2. Direct Form II

From (3.1), we obtain
 W(z) b0
X(z) Y(z)
z1 b
a1 1

z1
a2 b2
… …
aM1 bM1
z1
aM bM
…
aN1
z1
aN

Figure 3.4. Direct Form II.

 M

 k
b z k

Y(z)  k 0
N
X(z). (3.3)
1   a k z k
k 1

(3.3) is also written as

 M k 
Y(z)    b k z  W (z), (3.4)
 k 0 
1
W( z)  N
X(z). (3.5)
1   a k z k
k 1

From (3.4) and (3.5), we obtain

M
Y ( z)   b k z  k W ( z), (3.6)
k 0
 N
W (z)   a k z  k W (z)  X(z). (3.7)
k 1

(3.6)-(3.7) can be used to construct the direct form II structure of the

system (figure 3.4).
The direct form II structure can also be derived from the direct
form I structure by changing the order of the forward network and
the feedback network and combining the same nodes and directed
branches.
The direct form II structure may need less delay elements than the
direct form I structure. The direct form I structure needs M+N delay
elements, but the direct form II structure only needs max(M,N) delay
elements.
3.2.3. Cascade Form
(3.1) can be expressed as
 L
H ( z )   H k ( z ), (3.8)
k 1

where Hk(z) is a real-coefficient rational fraction of z1. (3.8) can be

used to construct a cascade form structure of the system (figure 3.5).
The system is a cascade of multiple subsystems, and each subsystem
is implemented in a direct form structure.
The numerator and the denominator of Hk(z) have an order lower
than or equal to 2 generally. In a lot of cases, we try to make Hk(z) a
ratio of two second-order polynomials.
It is easy to adjust a zero or pole in a cascade form structure.

X(z) H1(z) H2(z) … HL(z) Y(z)

Figure 3.5. Cascade Form.

3.2.4. Parallel Form
(3.1) can be expressed as
L
H (z)  H 0 (z)   H k (z), (3.9)
k 1

where H0(z) is a real-coefficient polynomial of z1, and Hk(z) is a

real-coefficient partial fraction of z1. (3.9) can be used to build a
parallel form structure of the system (figure 3.6). The system is a
parallel of multiple subsystems, and each subsystem is implemented
in a direct form structure.
We can also pair single real poles so that the resulting Hk(z)’s are
ratios of 1st-order polynomials to 2nd-order polynomials.
It is easy to adjust a pole in a parallel form structure. Besides, in a
parallel form structure, an error cannot propagate from one section to
another.
 X(z) H0(z) Y(z)

H1(z)

H2(z)
…

HL(z)

Figure 3.6. Parallel Form.

Example. Consider a system with system function

1  2z 1  z 2
H(z)  1 2
. (3.10)
1  0.75z  0.125z
Implement this system in the following structures:
(1) The direct form I.
(2) The direct form II.
(3) The cascade form.
(4) The parallel form.
3.3. Basic Structures for FIR Systems
The basic structures for FIR systems include the direct form and
the cascade form. These structures have no feedback loops. Most of
other structures for FIR systems have no feedback loops either.
Let h(n), 0nN1, be the impulse response of an FIR system.
Then, the system function of this system is expressed as
N 1
H(z)   h (n )z  n . (3.11)
n 0

Assume that h(n) is a real sequence. Let us use different structures to

implement this system.
3.3.1. Direct Form
From (3.11), we obtain
N 1
Y(z)   h (n )z  n X(z). (3.12)
n 0

The direct form structure of the system can be constructed according

to (3.12) (figure 3.7).

X(z) z1 z1

h(0) h(1) h(2) … h(N1)

Y(z)
Figure 3.7. Direct Form.
The number of multiplications can be halved if the system belongs
to the four types of FIR generalized linear-phase systems.
z1 z1 z1
X(z)

z1 z1 … z1

h(0) h(1) h(2) h[(N3)/2] h[(N1)/2]

Y(z)
Figure 3.8. Direct Form for a Type-I
FIR Generalized Linear-Phase System.
For a type-I FIR generalized linear-phase system, (3.12) becomes
Y(z)  h[( N  1) / 2]z  ( N 1) / 2 X(z) 

 
( N 3) / 2

 h (
n 0
n ) z n
X ( z )  z  ( N 1 n )
X(z) . (3.13)
The corresponding structure is shown in figure 3.8.
For a type-II FIR generalized linear-phase system, (3.12) becomes

 
N / 2 1
Y(z)   h
n 0
( n ) z n
X ( z )  z  ( N 1 n )
X(z) . (3.14)

X(z) z1 z1

z1
z1 z1 …

h(0) h(1) h(2) h(N/21)

Y(z)
Figure 3.9. Direct Form for a Type-II
FIR Generalized Linear-Phase System.
The corresponding structure is shown in figure 3.9.
For a type-III FIR generalized linear-phase system, (3.12)
becomes

 
( N 3) / 2
Y(z)   h (
n 0
n ) z n
X ( z )  z  ( N 1 n )
X(z) . (3.15)

z1 z1 z1

X(z)

   
z1 z1 … z1

h(0) h(1) h(2) h[(N3)/2]

Y(z)
Figure 3.10. Direct Form for a Type-III
FIR Generalized Linear-Phase System.
The corresponding structure is shown in figure 3.10.
For a type-IV FIR generalized linear-phase system, (3.12)
becomes

 
N / 2 1
Y(z)   h
n 0
( n ) z n
X ( z )  z  ( N 1 n )
X(z) . (3.16)

z1 z1
X(z)
z1
   
z1 z1 …

h(0) h(1) h(2) h(N/21)

Y(z)
Figure 3.11. Direct Form for a Type-IV
FIR Generalized Linear-Phase System.
The corresponding structure is shown in figure 3.11.
3.3.2. Cascade Form
(3.11) can be expressed as
L
H ( z )   H k ( z ). (3.17)
k 1

Here Hk(z) is a real-coefficient polynomial of z1. (3.17) can be used

to construct a cascade form structure of the system (figure 3.12). The
entire system is a cascade of multiple subsystems. Each subsystem is
implemented in the direct form structure.

X(z) H1(z) H2(z) … HL(z) Y(z)

Figure 3.12. Cascade Form.

 Hk(z) is a 1st- or 2nd-order polynomial generally. In many cases,
we try to make Hk(z) a 2nd-order polynomial.
It is easy to adjust a zero in a cascade form structure.
Let the system belong to the four types of FIR generalized linear-
phase systems. Usually, we make Hk(z) correspond to such a group
of zeros: a, a*, 1/a and 1/a*. Since it also belongs to the four types of
FIR generalized linear-phase systems, Hk(z) can be implemented in a
special direct form structure given above.
3.4. Transposition Theorem
Signal flow graphs can be used to derive new system structures.
According to certain rules, we can convert a signal flow graph into
another form with the same input-output relation and thus obtain a
new structure.
We study one of these rules, the transposition theorem. In a signal
flow graph, if the directions of all the directed branches are reversed
and the roles of the input and the output are interchanged, then the
resulting signal flow graph and the original signal flow graph express
the same input-output relation.
Example. Transpose the following signal flow graph and show that
the input-output relation keeps unchanged.
W(z) b0
X(z) Y(z)
z1
a1 b1

z1
a2 b2

Figure 3.13. A Signal Flow Graph.