motivation in theory - introduction

What is Motivation?
Buchanan defines motivation as follows:
"Motivation is a decision-making process, through
which the individual chooses the desired outcomes
and sets in motion the behaviour appropriate to
them".
How does motivation differ from "motives"
Buchanan defines motives as:
"learned influences on human behaviour that lead
us to pursue particular goals because they are
valued".
Motivation can therefore be thought of as the degree
to which an individual wants AND chooses to engage
in certain behaviours.
For example: are you motivated to study? The
answer lies in whether you
(1) Want to study - what are the reasons, if so?
(2) Choose to study? - Why are you reading these
revision notes? What factors mean that you have
taken the decision to study? How much effort do you
put in?
Individual behaviour is at the heart of human
motivation
Why is individual behaviour so important in trying to
understand and then influence motivation?
- Every individual has a set of needs and a different
set of goals
- Individuals behave in a way as to satisfy their needs
and fulfil their goals
- Therefore, individuals behave differently!
- Businesses, as organisations, are in a position to
offer some of the satisfactions that individuals seek:
E.g. - Relationships; sense of belonging; intellectual
stimulation; mental & physical challenge; self-
development
Why is motivation important for businesses?
It is often said that the best businesses have the best
motivated workers. Why might this be important?
Because well-motivated employees are usually
characterised by:
- Higher productivity (i.e. they produce more for a
given level of resources than poorly-motivated
workers)
- Better quality work with less wastage
- A greater sense of urgency (things happen quicker -
when they need to)
- More employee feedback and suggestions made for
improvements (motivated workers take more
"ownership" of their work")
- More feedback demanded from superiors and
management
- Working at 80-95% of their ability
motivation in theory - herzberg two
factor theory
Introduction
Herzberg's Two Factor Theory is a "content theory" of
motivation" (the other main one is Maslow's
Hierarchy of Needs).
Herzberg analysed the job attitudes of 200
accountants and engineers who were asked to recall
when they had felt positive or negative at work and
the reasons why.
From this research, Herzberg suggested a two-step
approach to understanding employee motivation and
satisfaction:
Hygiene Factors
Hygiene factors are based on the need to for a
business to avoid unpleasantness at work. If these
factors are considered inadequate by employees,
then they can cause dissatisfaction with work.
Hygiene factors include:
- Company policy and administration
- Wages, salaries and other financial remuneration
- Quality of supervision
- Quality of inter-personal relations
- Working conditions
- Feelings of job security
Motivator Factors
Motivator factors are based on an individual's need
for personal growth. When they exist, motivator
factors actively create job satisfaction. If they are
effective, then they can motivate an individual to
achieve above-average performance and effort.
Motivator factors include:
- Status
- Opportunity for advancement
- Gaining recognition
- Responsibility
- Challenging / stimulating work
- Sense of personal achievement & personal growth
in a job
There is some similarity between Herzberg's and
Maslow's models. They both suggest that needs have
to be satisfied for the employee to be motivated.
However, Herzberg argues that only the higher levels
of the Maslow Hierarchy (e.g. self-actualisation,
esteem needs) act as a motivator. The remaining
needs can only cause dissatisfaction if not
addressed.
Applying Hertzberg's model to de-motivated
workers
What might the evidence of de-motivated employees
be in a business?
- Low productivity
- Poor production or service quality
- Strikes / industrial disputes / breakdowns in
employee communication and relationships
- Complaints about pay and working conditions
According to Herzberg, management should focus on
rearranging work so that motivator factors can take
effect. He suggested three ways in which this could
be done:
- Job enlargement
- Job rotation
- Job enrichment
motivation in theory - maslow's
h i e ra r c h y o f n e e d s
Introduction
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a "content theory" of
motivation" (the other main one is Herzberg's Two
Factor Theory).
Maslow's theory consisted of two parts:
(1) The classification of human needs, and
(2) Consideration of how the classes are related to
each other
The classes of needs were summarised by Maslow as
follows:

How does the Hierarchy Work?

- A person starts at the bottom of the hierarchy
(pyramid) and will initially seek to satisfy basic
needs (e.g. food, shelter)
- Once these physiological needs have been satisfied,
they are no longer a motivator. the individual moves
up to the next level
- Safety needs at work could include physical safety
(e.g. protective clothing) as well as protection
against unemployment, loss of income through
sickness etc)
- Social needs recognise that most people want to
belong to a group. These would include the need for
love and belonging (e.g. working with colleague who
support you at work, teamwork, communication)
- Esteem needs are about being given recognition for
a job well done. They reflect the fact that many
people seek the esteem and respect of others. A
promotion at work might achieve this
- Self-actualisation is about how people think about
themselves - this is often measured by the extent of
success and/or challenge at work
Maslow's model has great potential appeal in the
business world. The message is clear - if
management can find out which level each employee
has reached, then they can decide on suitable
rewards.
Problems with the Maslow Model
There are several problems with the Maslow model
when real-life working practice is considered:
- Individual behaviour seems to respond to several
needs - not just one
- The same need (e.g. the need to interact socially
at work) may cause quite different behaviour in
different individuals
- There is a problem in deciding when a level has
actually been "satisfied"
- The model ignores the often-observed behaviour of
individuals who tolerate low-pay for the promise of
future benefits
- There is little empirical evidence to support the
model. Some critics suggest that Maslow's model is
only really relevant to understanding the behaviour
of middle-class workers in the UK and the USA
(where Maslow undertook his research).
motivation in theory - taylor -scientific
management
Introduction
Taylor developed his theory of "scientific
management" as he worked his way up from a
labourer to a works manager in a US steelworks.
From his observations, Taylor made three key
assumptions about human behaviour at work:
(1) Man is a rational economic animal concerned
with maximising his economic gain;
(2) People respond as individuals, not as groups
(3) People can be treated in a standardised fashion,
like machines
Taylor had a simple view about what motivated
people at work - money. He felt that workers should
get a fair day's pay for a fair day's work, and that
pay should be linked to the amount produced (e.g.
piece-rates). Workers who did not deliver a fair day's
work would be paid less (or nothing). Workers who
did more than a fair day's work (e.g. exceeded the
target) would be paid more.
The implications of Taylor's theory for managing
behaviour at work were:
- The main form of motivation is high wages, linked
to output
- A manager's job is to tell employees what to do
- A worker's job is to do what they are told and get
paid accordingly
Weaknesses in Taylor's Approach
The most obvious weakness in Taylor's approach is
that it ignores the many differences between
people. There is no guarantee that a "best way" will
suit everyone.
Secondly, whilst money is an important motivation
at work for many people, it isn't for everyone. Taylor
overlooked the fact that people work for reasons
other than financial reward.
motivation in theory - mcgregor - theory
x and theory y
Introduction
McGregor developed two theories of human
behaviour at work: Theory and X and Theory Y.
He did not imply that workers would be one type or
the other. Rather, he saw the two theories as two
extremes - with a whole spectrum of possible
behaviours in between.
Theory X workers could be described as follows:
- Individuals who dislike work and avoid it where
possible
- Individuals who lack ambition, dislike responsibility
and prefer to be led
- Individuals who desire security
The management implications for Theory X workers
were that, to achieve organisational objectives, a
business would need to impose a management
system of coercion, control and punishment.
Theory Y workers were characterised by McGregor
as:
- Consider effort at work as just like rest or play
- Ordinary people who do not dislike work.
Depending on the working conditions, work could be
considered a source of satisfaction or punishment
- Individuals who seek responsibility (if they are
motivated0
The management implications for Theory X workers
are that, to achieve organisational objectives,
rewards of varying kinds are likely to be the most
popular motivator. The challenge for management
with Theory Y workers is to create a working
environment (or culture) where workers can show
and develop their creativity.