MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE
DEPARTMENT OF SOIL SCIENCE

FACTORS LEADING TO THE YIELD GAP IN RICE

PRODUCTION, A CASE STUDY OF AWOJA RICE IRRIGATION
SCHEME, GWERI SUB-COUNTY-SOROTI DISTRICT.

ARINY AMOS

REG. NO. 05/U/19788

BSC.LUM 111

A SPECIAL PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY

OF AGRICULTURE AS A REQUIREMENT FOR THE PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN
AGRICULTURAL LAND USE AND MANAGEMENT OF
MAKERERE UNIVERSITY.

JANUARY 2008
Declaration

I, Ariny Amos, declare that the work presented in this research paper has not been
submitted before in the Faculty of Agriculture, Makerere University for the a ward of a
degree.

Ariny Amos Date:

Signature

Mr. Olupot Date:

Supervisor

Signature
Dedication.

This book is dedicated to my parents

Acknowledgement

I am indebted to the Uganda Government Scholarship Initiative for funding this research.

I am also very grateful to my supervisor who tirelessly guided me and made this work a
success. Great thanks go to the personnel and farmers of Awoja Rice Irrigation Scheme.
Special thanks go to all my friends, who encouraged me to go on even when things
seemed so hard. Most of all I thank my dear parents who have supported me along the
way and made me the person I am today.
Finally yet importantly, I thank all those who in one way or another made this work a
success. God bless you all.

Acronyms

MAAIF Ministry of Agriculture Animal Industry and Fisheries

UPE Universal Primary Education
UBOS Uganda Bureau of Statistic
IRRI International Agricultural Research Institute
KARI Kawanda Agricultural Research Institute
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization.

Table of Contents

Declaration…………………………………………………………………………...I
Dedication…………………………………………………………………………....II
Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………………...III
Acronyms…………………………………………………………………………....IV
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………......V
Table of contents……………………………………………………………………..VI
List of tables…………………………………………………………………………VII
List of Figures……………………………………………………………………….VIII
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………….....IX

Chapter One…………………………………………………………………………....1
1.0Background……………………………………………………………………….....1
1.1 Importance of rice………………………………………………………………......1
1.2 Importance of rice in Uganda’s Agriculture………………………………………..2
1.3 Factors affecting rice production…………………………………………………...3
1.4 Problem statement………………………………………………………………….4
1.5 Objectives of this study…………………………………………………………….4
1.6Hypothesis…………………………………………………………………………..5
1.7Justification………………………………………………………………………….5

Chapter Two…………………………………………………………………………….6
Literature review………………………………………………………………………...6
2.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………….6
2.1 Origin and distribution of rice……………………………………………………….6
2.2 General background of the scheme…………………………………………………..7
2.3 Factors that favored the establishment of the scheme………………...……………...8
2.4 Site characteristics………………………………………………………………… 8
2.4 .1 Geology……………………………………………………………………………8
2.4.2 Vegetation…………………………………………………………………………..9
2.4.3 Soils…………………………………………………………………………………9
2.4.5 Climate…………………………………………………………………………… 9
2.4.7 The rice gardens…………………………………………………………...……….10
2.4.8 Irrigation of fields……………………………………………...…………………..10
2.4.9 Labour…………………………………………………………………………… 11
2.4.10 Agricultural Extension Services………………………………………………….11
2.4.11 Scheme Maintenance…………………………………………………………..…11
2.4.12 Cropping Program……………………………………………………………… 11
2.4.12 Crop Coverage……………………………………………………………… …...12
2.4.13 Production Potential in Perspective………………………………………………12
2.5 Rice yield in relation to Green revolution………………………………………… 12
2.6 Agronomic factors in rice production………………………………………………. 13
2.7.1 Soils…………………………………………………………………………… .…13
2.7.2 Continuous Cultivation……………………………………………………………14
2.7.3 Fertilizers and manure……………………………………………………………..14
2.7.4 Rice Varieties………………………………………………………………………15

Chapter Three……………………………………………………………………………17
Materials and methods…………………………………………………………………...17
3.0 Location of research area…………………………………………………………….17
3.1 General organization of the scheme………………………………………………….17
3.2 Materials used………………………………………………………………………..18
3.3 Methods used………………………………………………………………………...19
3.3.1 Research design……………………………………………………………………19
3.3.2 Sample design……………………………………………………………………...19
3.3.3 Sample size………………………………………………………………………...20
3.3.4 Data analysis………………………………………………………………………20
3.4 Limitation……………………………………………………………………………22

Chapter Four……………………………………………………………………………22
Results and Discussion………………………………………………………………….22
4.1 Socio-Economic Background of rice Farmers in Awoja Scheme, Soroti…………...22
4.2 The influence of water management on rice yields at Awoja rice irrigation scheme..26
4.3 Establishment of rice varieties grown at the scheme and their current yields……….34
4.4 The agronomic practices in the rice yields and their influence on rice yields……….37

Chapter Five……………………………………………………………………………..41
5.1 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….......41
5.2 Recommendation…………………………………………………………………….42

Chapter Six……………………………………………………………………………….44
6.0 References……………………………………………………………………………44

Chapter Seven……………………………………………………………………………47
Appendices………………………………………………………………………………47
Appendix 1: Research questions for Awoja Rice irrigation scheme…………………….47
Section A: personal information…………………………………………………………47
Section B: water management……………………………………………………….......47
Section C: Labour………………………………………………………………………..49
Section E The rice crop………………………………………………………………….52
Section F: Yields……………………………………………………………………… 53
Appendix 2: Maps……………………………………………………………………….55

Abstract.

The purpose of this research was to establish the factors that are leading to the yield gap
in rice production at Awoja Rice Irrigation Scheme. This was upon the realization that
the yields of Rice produced by he smallholders farmers (1975.3kgs ha) does not measure
up to the potential yield of the area (3703.7 kgs ha) resulting in a cross sectional yield gap
of 1728.4kgha) there was a major focus on the management of irrigation water. In all, the
whole process of irrigation was found to be lacking. The water timetable was found to be
ineffective many irrigation structures in a bad state and salutation and clogging almost
suffocating many irrigation canals. The yields of rice varieties grown were found to be
dependent on management practices. Therefore rice varieties as stand alone could not
better explain the decline in yield. Fertilizers use in the scheme was found to be
increasing with little improvement in yields produced per hectare. The study was also
focused on coming up with some ideas and suggestions that could improve rice
production at the scheme and restore Awoja’s acclaim as one of Uganda’s Rice
production core regions. There is an urgent need for water management, which should
focus on policies, which discourage waste or over use of irrigation water. The use of
fertilizers in the scheme should be accompanied with good management, information
about field capacity, nutrient level, organic matter etc. is essential for long term planning
in agricultural production and sustainability.

Chapter One
Introduction

1.0 Background

1.1 Importance of rice

Flooded rice, also known as lowland rice, is grown in paddies, which are fields that
contain water enclosed by low walls of earth called bunds,. Paddy rice fed rainfall a lone
accounts for about 50% of all rice grown World wide, while paddies flooded by a
combination of rainfall and irrigation provide about 35% of rice produced. The major
rice-producing countries, including Aisa, China, India and Vietnam, Primarily cultivate
paddy rice.
Rice is used for a wide range of purpose; 95% of the World’s rice is used for human
consumption; rice is a very important nutritive food staff. It provides energy and the rice
grain is composed of carbohydrates 80%, protein, 7.5% minerals 0.5% an water 12% (
Crist, 1968). The brad can be used as stock feed, rice hulls are used as fuel and for
production of cellulose. The rice straw is used as bedding for livestock, thatching of roofs
and manufacture of paper, mats, baskets, bags, ropes and others.

In Uganda, rice is an important food and is common in most family diets. However
production levels are low as compared to the increasing demand.

1.2 Importance of rice in Uganda’s agriculture.

The cereal sub-sector plays an important role in providing food and cash crop to rice
farmers. In 2003, the sub-sector was projected to occupy 1,497,000 hectares or 35.2% of
cultivated area (UBOS, 2003). Rice is an important cash crop to many Ugandans. In
1997, it ranked number one item of returns per Labour Day among major crops grown in
the Country (Ministry of Planning and Economic Development Agricultural Policy
Secretariat, 19997), the crop ranks fourth among the cereals crops and occupied 73
thousand hectares of land with an estimated output of 114,000 tons in 2001 (UBOS,
2003). It is becoming a major food crop Country wide, especially in urban areas (world,
Bank, 1993). Available figures show that Uganda consumed an average of 7,877 tons per
annum over the four-year period, 1994-1997, and imported rice worthy 184.5 million
Uganda Shillings for the same period. In 2003, the Country’s rice import requirements
were estimated at 50,000 tons. (Food and Agriculture Organization FAO, 2003). Uganda
is therefore a net importer of the crop and will continue to do so in the near future unless
there is an improvement in domestic production. This is feasible as the Country has
70,000 hectares of land with ideal agronomic conditions for rice production. The crop
ranks low in terms of research among the cereals crops within the National Agricultural
Research Systems, an organization charged with agricultural research in the Country. The
current policy on agriculture in Uganda is to modernize the sector. This implies
investments in research, human capital, and infrastructure to increase productivity. It is
hoped that through the transformation of the sector, the prevailing poverty will be abated
for the 89 percent of the population depending on it for their livelihood and at the same
time increase revenue for the government. To achieve this goal, for those who depend on
rice, as food and cash crop would require that the current trend be reversed as the yields
have stagnated at 1.4 tons per hectares for the last 5 years (1997-2001) Ministry of
Agriculture Animal Industry and Fisheries, MAAIF (2001).

1.3 Factors affecting rice production.

Rice, usually grown under lowland conditions, is the staple food crop of South East and
East Asia. In South East Asia, controlled irrigation facilities are poorly developed, yields
are often low, and double cropping (two crops planted and are poorly develop, yields are
often low, and double cropping ( two crops planted harvested in one calendar year) is
seldom practiced. Although high-yield varieties of lowland rice have been introduced
since the 1960s, this has not increased production as hoped.

In India, irrigation schemes have helped stabilize annual yields and increase overall
production, but the average rice yield per hectare in the mid-1990s was only about half
that of Japan, never the less, Asian Countries produce about 90 percent of the Worlds
rice. China and India alone account for nearly 60 percent of the World total.

In Uganda, although rice production from 1992 to 1997 has been increasing at a rate of
4.34% per year by 1997 the total area of land under rice cultivation was only 60,000
hectare, with total production of 80,000 tons (KARI, 1998).
The major Districts growing rice in Uganda are Totroro, Gulu, Lira Bundibuyo and
Kitgum. The average yield taken from the four Districts of Gulu, Lira, Arua and Kitgum
was 1.3 tons per hectare (KARI, 1998).

In Awoja rice irrigation scheme, the decline in production has been attributed to a
number of constraints. Inadequate soil and crop management of permit expression of the
yield potential in high yielding genotypes has been identified as the major problem, pests
especially birds and diseases in a few areas, water availability and management,
especially when the dam embankments and the sluice gates became non functional. These
and other factors could be the probable causes of yields decline, which is still faced by
the farmer’s to date.

1.4 Problem statement.

Awoja rice irrigation scheme has high yield potential about 3703.7 kg ha due to favorable
climatic factors and a abundant water and natural resources suitable for irrigated rice
production (Awoja management). However the average yield across the six blocks
Analyzed is only 1975.3kg ha resulting in a crossectional yield gap of 1728.4kg ha .
The decline in production has been attributed to a number of constraints but inadequate
soil and crop management to permit expression of the yield potential in high yielding
genotypes has been identified as the major problem. Soil management affects the ability
of rice to grow and yield highly in a given potential environment (auderbert,1999)
There is therefore an urgent need to practice good agronomic techniques in the potential
varieties. These are however influenced by water availability and management, which
directly affects the environment on which paddy rice grows.

1.5 objectives of the study

i) the major objectives

To establish the factors leading to the yield gap in rice production at Awoja Rice
Irrigation scheme.
 ii) specific objectives
1. To determine the influence of water management on rice yield at Awoja.
2. To establish rice varieties grown at the scheme and their current yield..
3. To establish the agronomic practices at the rice fields

1.6 Hypothesis

1. Water management in Awoja Rice Scheme influences rice yields per acre at
Awoja.
2. The falling rice yields (yield gap) at Awoja is related to soil exhaustion

1.7 Justification

This research study gathers basic data and information on the major factors in the play
with regard to rice production in Awoja. The report is important for all stakeholders in
rice production on the scheme and in the country at large. These include ,policy makers,
Implementers, and most importantly farmers, who can be able to implement the
recommendations and hence, increase rice production per hectare. The study further
contributes to the body of knowledge from which insights and models that enable man
understand, manipulate and manage resources available more sustainably for increased
rice product
CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

Although the literature about Awoja and rice growing in Uganda at large is very limited,
there is a large body of knowledge and information on global rice cultivation. This
information can be put in the context of rice production at Awoja-visa-vis cultivation in
other parts of the world.

As such, this study viewed the current method and techniques of rice growing at Awoja.
Rice scheme from the wider perspective of documented studies and phenomenon
elsewhere. That present introduction of new varieties of high yielding grains
accompanied with the development of modern farming systems with emphasis on
irrigation, mechanization, agronomic practices including the use of industrial fertilizers.

Origin and distribution of rice

Rice is a member of family Ory zaceae and the genus Oryza. About 22 species are found
in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of Asia, Africa, Australia and south America.
Africa has the largest number of species, nine, and the continent is therefore considered
the center of origin of the genus (purseglove, 1986) .
Demystification of rice (Oryza sativa L) into agricultural systems is dated between 4300
and 9000 years before present (BP), but firm evidence is lacking (Evan, 1993). African
rice (Oryza glaberrima) is believed to have been domesticated earlier in West Africa
under simple flood cultivation, near the inland Delta of Niger where the complex Crue
and decrue techniques of cultivation have long been practiced (Harland et at, 1976,
Evans, 1993).

One of the most original featured of rice is the fact that it can be grown under very
diverse environmental conditions, particularly from the point of its water supply. It can
be grown either as an upland crop supplied solely by rainwater, or as a flooding crop,
grown in a sheet of water, which may be several meters deep. Because rice culture
evolved in response to the amount and reliability of water supply, distinct ecosystems for
rice have emerged characterized as upland rice, rain fed lowland rice, irrigated and
swamp rice (IRRI, 1989).

2.2. General Background of the Scheme

The Awoja Rice Scheme was opened in 1976 as tenant farmers” scheme with technical
and financial assistance from the peoples” Republic of China. The scheme was started
with the aim of acting as a model or demonstration project as well as research and
production center where small and medium scale farmers could emulate the methods and
techniques of irrigation, acquire high yielding seeds, and develop out growers farms
(Scheme Management, 2005).

At the beginning the Awoja Rice Scheme seemed to be heading in the right direction with
more and more farmers being attracted to participate in the scheme and acreage
increasing tremendously every successive year. The farmers’ outcomes on the fields wee
also quite impressive with average annual production per hectare standing between
2962.96kg ha to 3703.70 kg ha. This turned the area into renowned rice producer
attracting business people from as far as Kampala and ensuring a steady income for the
farmers accompanies with improvements in the living standards for individual
households. There were also other social benefits of the scheme to the people of Awoja
and the surrounding areas. Three primary schools were established and a system of
feeder roads in the scheme opened up in the previously near remote areas around Awoja
like opuyo and dokolo (Awoja Rice Scheme Management, 2005). However, all the
benefits attributed to the scheme and which made the scheme a real success story seemed
to be taunted with falling yields.

2.3 Factors that Favoured the Establishment of the Scheme

The climate that is hot and humid, suitable for rice cultivation;
The type of soil, alluvial soils formed by the alluvial action of lake bisina.This
type of soil is favorable for the cultivation of rice;
The swamp at bisina is flat and hence was easy to claim;
The inclination, i.e. East-West flow of the water enabled the irrigation system to
be organized with ease;
Lake bisina estuary Provided a reliable source of water throughout the year;
The farmers were already growing rice and had the experience;
Accessibility in terms of transport was easy because of good roads, making it easy
for marketing of the rice (SSEA Excursions Report, 2003)

2.4 Site Characteristics

2.4.1 Geology

The landscape of Awoja is part of an ancient upland of eastern Uganda is however

relatively low land today after many years of denudation. The land is gently undulating
with the swamp occupying the lowest ground. The higher ground is characterized by
ruminant rock out-crops and low hills, which sporadically occur in a few places.

2.4.2 Soils

Soroti County as a whole is generally composed of sandy and loamy soils but the swamps
contain large deposits of sediments of alluvium and black soils. The Awoja swamp on
which the scheme was developed therefore has a typical clay loamy soil type.

2.4.4. Drainage
The study area is served mainly by lake bisina, which has its source in the high rainfall
region of river mpologoma from which it runs eastwards. In Awoja the river meanders
much like in the old river course stage through the lowland, which is flooded extensively
when the main rains arrive. Two streams: opuyo and awoja drain the outlying areas.

2.4.5 Climate
Like mot of the areas in the Lake Kyoga, bisina basin, an extensive basin, its influences
stretch into kuni district. This zone experiences a type of tropical Savanna climate. It
receives maximum rainfall with totals averaging between 1000 – 1200 per year. There
are long and tense rains usually from March – June and the short runs in October –
November. There are dry spells of variable intensity in between the rainfall season.

2.4.6 Plot Ownership

The scheme is organized on the basis of tenant-peasant rice production. The local
management committee comprising of a team of agriculture department officers, farmers’
representatives and local leaders allocate peasants paddy rice plots. Owners of these
plots are required to farm their fields or rent them out to active farmers to avod
redundancy of farmland. If this is not met, then a farmer stands a risk of losing a plot to
other farmers who can cut the land to active use under rice production.

2.4.7 The Rice Gardens

The rice gardens are fairly level fields lying besides a canal and divided into a number of
plots, several of which may belong to an individual farmer. A low bank of earth, which
serves to hold irrigation water, needed for plant growth, surrounds each plot. One such
plot is only one of the many of its like that go t make an extensive rice belt at Awoja.

2.4.8 Irrigation of Fields

There is a provisional timetable in place, which is supposed to ensure orderly and
equitable distribution of irrigation water. Irrigation is by surface irrigation made possible
by the gently sloping land that permits gravity to do all the work of distributing the water
to drain away when less is needed especially towards the time of ripening and eventual
harvesting.

2.4.9 Labour
Farmers in Awoja Rice Scheme rely largely on family labor though in some cases hired
labor is employed to perform such duties as transplanting away from the fields. All these
people form a substantial workforce of men, women and children, sometimes as young as
five years old, to meet the labor intensive needs of rice cultivation.

2.4.10 Agricultural Extension Services

It was established that there was a very small team of agricultural extension workers who
themselves own a plot or two of rice. These are charged with the duty of advising
farmers about employing recommended agricultural practices and ensuring that farmers
abide by the set regulations and by-laws of the scheme of the scheme.

2.4.11 Scheme Maintenance

There is an engineering team to operate and oversee the functioning of structures at the
head works while a mechanical team is supposed to maintain the scheme roads using
graders. The channels are cleared through communal work and they are decilitered
mechanically using a caterpillar deciliter.

2.4.12 Cropping Program

At the moment the scheme is using the double crop strategy in which there is a bi-annual
production achieved in two seasons. One planting season starts in February and
harvesting is done in late June or early July. The second season usually commences in
august and harvesting is done in December.

2.4.13 Crop Coverage

All the areas that are accessible to water are under rice crop, season after season. Thus, it
is monoculture being practiced at the scheme. It is only very few isolated antihills in the
scheme that are under gardens of maize, beans or potatoes but many of these anthills are
sites for bird scares on which they construct temporary shelters referred to as ebitirato to
protect them from the scotching noon sun.

2.4.15 Production Potential in Perspective

It was obtained that by the early 1990’s over 567 hectares were being cultivated
producing an average of between 2962.96 – 3703.70 kg of paddy rice per hectare. At
around the same time 1200 farmers were participating in the scheme most of who owned
acreage or more of irrigated land. There were also 30 registered out-growers cultivating
fields near the scheme. However, by the close of the decade all the 1012.5 hectares
projected for irrigation were under cultivation with about 400 farmers participating in the
scheme and some 350 out-growers. Average total yield is currently 1728.39kgha

2.5 Rice Yield in Relation to Green Revolution

Redcliff. (1984) notes: “The goal of the green revolution was to produce more food with
which to feed more people rural and urban. Between 1966 and 1970 the new high
yielding varieties were introduced to farmers in the less developed countries.

The outcome of the green revolution was observed by the 1970’s. The revolution
brought about higher yields per crop on the same area of land, permitted shorter cropping
cycles and even made it possible to grow two crops of rice per year on the same piece of
land Griffin (1974)

In spite of these remarkable developments, the green revolution has been associated with
a number o set backs especially with lowland rice cultivation. For example, Conway G R
and Barbier (1990) note that “….wile producers have widely adopted the new high
yielding varieties irrespective of farm size, factors such as soil quality, access to
irrigation water and other biophysical agro-climatic conditions have formidable barriers
to adoptions”.

The would-be impressive results attributed to the green revolution are thus tainted with
instability in production and sustainability questions. The experience in Africa may thus
suggest that there are real limits to replicating the success of green revolution
technologies and package in more marginal agricultural areas especially in low developed
countries. There are of course some few exceptions to the above discouraging picture.

2.6 Agronomic Factors in Rice Production

Most of the world’s rice is grown on paddled soils. Padding is wet cultivation of land
that mixes soil and water to produce a soft, slowly permeable layer. (Sharma and De
Datta, 1986).
2.7.1 Soils
A paddy soil before flooding usually carries either a crop of weeds or a green manure
crop, and this is incorporated into the soil, either before or after flooding, so that very
active micro bio decomposition is usually taking place in soil during the first weeks of
flooding. It is common practice therefore not to transplant or sow rice for 2 to 3 weeks
after flooding to a low the first flush o decomposition to pass, so that the rice roots will
be in a relatively favorable environment for growth at the beginning, Baba et al (1965).
Baba further notes: “Rice growing on degraded soil can suffer from a number of
physiological diseases.

Although paddy rice is grown in flooded soils, there is considerable experimental

evidence that a certain downward movement of water through the soil is desirable, IRRI
(1995). This may be particularly important early in the season if there is a considerable
amount of organic matter decomposing.

The function of the water in which paddy rice is grown is to maintain adequate reducing
conditions in the soil, to help control weeds and to prevent water stress.

2.7.2 Continuous Cultivation

De Data et at (1981) in a continuous rice experiment after 31 successive crops (three per
year) on a field receiving no fertilizers found out that the fields stabilized at 1000-4000kg
ha per season. Also in East Asia where rice is continuously grown on the same price of
land, there has been no serous decline in productivity despite the fact that manure or
fertilizer application to land is not maximized (Senor, 1979).

While exactly why this should be so, is not readily explainable in general terms. Senior
suggested some explanations basing on experience and practices in south East Asia,
which help, maintain soil fertility and good yields.

The level embarked fields provide very good protection against soil erosion. There is an
inflow of soil nutrients with irrigation water. Crop remains and weeds are ploughed in
these provide regular addition of organic matter to the soil.

2.7.3 Fertilizers and Manure

An un-manure rice obtains its nitrogen from five sources, from the ammonium produced
in the reduction zone decomposition of organic matter, from nitrate produced by
decomposition or organic matter in the surface oxidizing layer o the soil, from nitrogen
fixed by blue-green algae and other photosynthetic micro organisms, Kobayashi at al,
1967) and from nitrogen fixed by heterotrophic nitrogen fixing organisms in the soil or
the water film, and in the rhizosphere. (Yoshida, 1971)

In good paddy soils, these sources of nitrogen are adequate to maintain rice yields at a
modes level almost indefinitely, in contrast to dry soils in which crop fall to very low
levels under continuous cropping.

Leguminous gross manures ploughed in at the beginning of the season have limited value
because if too much readily decomposable green manure is incorporated in the soil,
reducing conditions develop which are too severe for the young rice roots (De Data,
1961). He adds on that additional nitrogen must be used if high yields of rice are wanted.
However, the use of nitrogen fertilizers requires care due to the rapid transitions that can
occur between aerobic conditions, when ammonium irons are converted to nitrate, and
reducing conditions, when the nitrate is almost wholly denitrified. (Filler et al, 1984.)

Experiments on fertilizer trials by the JICA Project at Awoja showed that the highest
yields are obtained when fertilizers are used (amounting to 7500kg ha-1). However, this
was found to be higher than what farmers have been getting (JICA project, 2005
unpublished).

2.7.4 Rice Varieties

From the 1950s, in an effort to combat world hunger, plant breeders at the International
Rice Research Institute (IRRI, 1993) in the Philippines developed new rice varieties that
were, when fertilized, higher yielding than traditional varieties. The new varieties were
shorter and less likely to fall over, which made them easier to harvest mechanically. They
also ripened sooner, reducing the risk of poor weather affecting yield, and enabling
farmers to harvest and replant several times during the growing season
While successful in many areas, the new varieties required more money for fertilizer and
chemical pesticides and in some case, machines for sowing and harvesting tools often too
costly for peasant farmers. In some areas a single new rice variety replaced diverse,
centuries-old varieties adapted to thrive in a particular climate and soil type and with
some resistance to local insects and diseases. The new variety was not able to thrive in
these areas, and crop yields were not always greater, IRRI (1989). In Awoya, several
varieties were introduced from Kibimba Rice Scheme (K) and therefore the various code
names of rice varieties such as K5, K23, K85, K98. It is these varieties that are referred
to as “china” and/or “kaiso” on the Ugandan market. They are relatively resistant to
disease (Doho scheme management,2005)still being grown to date, these include: K95,
K85, K23, K5.
These new varieties first grown in demonstration plots and later adopted by farmers
replaced the tall low yielding varieties such as, “Jagalii” and “Sena” However, Garinyo
(1991) points out that in the early phase of Awoja Rice Scheme, most people were
reluctant to cultivate rice given the touch swamp conditions – mud labor intensity,
mosquitoes, leeches and snake dangers.

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.0 Location of research area

Awoja rice scheme is located Gweri sub- county in Soroti district in the Eastern part of
Uganda. The scheme farmland is mainly concentrated in Awoja parish and part of it
stretches to kumi district border
It is geographically located at 05 6N and 34 1 E and lies 16 km away from Mbale town
along the Mbale-Kumi road. It is 12km from soroti town via awoja in west of kumi
district.

General organization of the scheme

The overall acreage of the scheme is 2500acres (1000ha),which are divided into six large
farming blocks namely

1. BLOCK I (OPUYO)
2. BLOCK II (AMUNASA)
3. BLOCK III (OCHULA)
4. BLOCK IV (BAGALA)
5. BLOCK V (GWERI)
6. BLOCK VI (MANATE)

Each of this blocks varies in size and is sub-divided into small plots often about ¼ acre
which the farmers till. The main channel delivering irrigation water from the head works
at the Gweri where water is diverted from River mpologoma accesses each of the blocks.

3.2 Materials used

Primary and Secondary data sources were used or consulted. The researcher made a great
effort to use the observation method whenever and wherever possible well aware that
successful and rewarding field research comes from precise and intuitive series of
observations about the area or phenomena under study. The number of field surveys were
conducted with such interests as observing crop vigor on individual rice fields.
The researcher directly witnessed some field actities like transplanting, weeding, bird
scaring harvesting and transportation.

To obtain a quick general overview of the operations at the scheme and the challenges
met, face-to-face discussions were held with some management personal at doho.
Especially prepared questionnaire for the management team was used to solicit more
factual information and data on a wide array of information.(See appendix 1)

Through informal interviews with the farmer it was possible to achieve a good level of
interaction with all the respondents. This made it possible to the interview to levels
benefiting individual respondents especially with respect to gender, level of education
and medium of communication.
In the Sampled fields, farmers are interviewed for short durations lasting about 25
minutes on average. They were asked questions relating to their rice output, input
investments and general problems they face in rice cultivation at Awoja rice scheme.
The secondary sources consulted were mainly books, research papers, and maps from
Makerere University Libraries. Useful information about rice production both locally and
globally was obtained (See literature review).

3.3 Methods used

3.3.1 Research design

This research study was based on a crossectional design. Therefore information was
obtained from various categories of respondents. Those include the scheme
administrators, agricultural extension workers and farmers. All these categories were
consulted owing to their individual diverse and unique experience and knowledge on rice
cultivation at awoja.

Much as the topic under study requires views from a large population in an extensive
study area, a sample study was much preferred given the limitations o time and financial
resources.
The crossectional approach was of all the actors or factors of interest that help to explain
the level of rice out put at Awoja rice scheme. From the sample studies, generalization
was drawn upon which recommendations have been based.

3.3.2 Sample design

The research study was carried out basing on combination of purposive sampling and
simple random sampling. Purposive sampling was used to choose three farming blocks
for inquiring in greater details. Thus block III, block II and block VI were chosen.
Accessibility to irrigation water in each of these blocks was a major interest as well as
rice production over time on particular blocks vis avis out put was highlighted. For this
purpose block II and III were chosen to present the fields, which have been longest under
rice cultivation since the opening of the scheme, while block VI those fields, which were
more rently, opened to cultivation.
Basing on simple random technique with lottery methods, a sampling frame of
respondents was selected from a list of farmers’ names in the chosen blocks provided by
the scheme management. The names were then written down on small pieces of paper,
folded, churned in a box and picked by blindfolded person one by one without replacing
in order to ensure a air selection of respondents.

3.3.3 Sample size.

The three out of six blocks sampled for this study were deemed appropriate to reflect the
general characteristics and various parameters of the fields under cultivation.

This number was more convenient and manageable for a fair study in reasonable depth in
order to arrive at a good assessment of the yields gap in rice production at Awoja.
From each farming block, 10 respondents were selected from the administration to
provide a comparative picture in terms of out put and management over the past years.
Therefore total sample size was 40 respondents.

3.3.4 Data analysis.

SPSS package was used to analyze the data, using regression analysis and ANOVA,
relationship between and among variables was possible. These are clearly prevented in
table and figures in the results.

3.4 Limitation.

During the research study, some limitations were over bearing. For instance in the sample
field the bio chemicals parameters such as organic matter content, mineral constituents
and soil PH were not fully established because scientific analysis of soil sampled was not
possible at the time of the research study. However, general fertility of the soil and
therefore its productivity was estimated basing on crop vigor and reported out put levels
when un affected by such depressing factors as hailstones, birdraveges pests and diseases.
The researcher also found the research to be enormous and even when a few research
assistants were enlisted in the data collection process the workload only reduced slightly.
It was for this reason that the research samples especially of the respondents were not
maximized.

Some respondents found it difficult to accept an interview and others were actually
hesitant to give all the required information. Those who declined to accept the interview
complained that visiting schools or college study tour groups have interviewed them
before and yet the results or fruits of such studies are never forth coming. So it seems to
them research is simply a bother with no end.
CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.0 Introduction

The present chapter highlights the major findings of the study and discusses them in line
with the specific objectives. A background of the farmers interviewed is given first.

4.1 Socio-Economic background of rice farmers in Awoja scheme, Soroti.

Shown in table 1 below are the socio-economic characteristics of farmers interviewed at

Awoja rice irrigation scheme. Results from the study indicate that the dominant age
group involved in rice production is 31-41 years at 46.7%. The least involved age group
is 53-63 years with 6.7. Since rice cultivation involves a lot of work and is also labour
intensive, the probable reason could be that more energetic farmers are the ones involved
in the production of rice. Transplanting of rice for example involves up rooting young
plants and arranging them on the branches of 3 – 5 to be planted into mud and in rows
.this involves a lot of time ,movement and is laborious which many old hands operating
at the scheme find difficult to bear .This then explains why young men and women , boys
and girls are sometimes pulled out of the school perform the bulk of these tusks.

These findings tally with research done by Asowa (1996) which reveals that , the elderly
people interviewed art Awoja rice scheme were convinced that, children do better job
than them, as they have tender hands and flexible muscles, which enable them to band for
hour without feeling as much back ache as the elders involved in similar operations.

The result also show that there are more males involved in rice production than females,
83.3% as compared to 6.7% females. The possible reason for these percentages could be
based on the criteria of plot allocation.
In the process of plot allocation preference is given to male applicants on the grounds of
three being heads of households. Generally very few women get access to plots at the
scheme, and those who succeed get little acreage. The principle assumption guiding the
allocation is that men as heads of house holds are responsible for the socio-economic
requirements of their wives, children and relatives. Hence any plot allocated to a male
applicant presumably serves the interest of the community.

This principle does not tally with Asowa (1991). Asowa found that there were some male
headed hose holds, whose sustenance lies on the shoulders of women, who engage in
crop production, but also do petty commodity trade, while their men spend time playing
“akogo”, conversing and drinking local brew with peers at Awoja and Gweri trading
centres.

Results in table 1 indicate that 43.3%of the respondents did not attend school. Some of
those who attempted to go to school, ended at primary level, this comprised 36.7% of the
respondents. Secondary and tertiary levels registered the least percentages, 16.7% and
3.3% respectively. The probable implication of these results could be that most of the
farmers could not afford to go to school. Alternatively, they could have dropped out of
school to cultivate rice. This is reflected in the relatively high percentage of those who
attempted only primary school. The universal primary education program (UPE)
introduced in 1997 by the government of Uganda could be the reason for the increased
percentage of this category. However, the program does not cater for higher school
hence, few people can afford to go further than primary level.

Results from the study indicate that, the common average household size of the
respondents is 6-9 persons per household. This is higher than the overall average average
household size in Uganda, which is 5 persons per household UBOS (2002).
This means that the area is densely populated and therefore has a great implication on the
level of production.

On average, the farmers in Awoja rice irrigation scheme cultivate 0.301-0.6 ha of land
per farmer. These results show that there is a decrease in the amount of land allocated per
farmer when compared to the past years. These findings are in line with (Garinyo (1991)
Who observed that, in the early phase of Awoja rice irrigation scheme, most people were
reluctant to cultivate rice given the taught swamp conditions- mud, labour intensive and
risk from mosquitoes, leaches and snake dangers.
Therefore in the first phase,, reclaimed and irrigated land was allocated to only willing
tenant farmers. This however changed in subsequent years when rice became gradually
one of the leading sources of food and domestic cash income. The demand of land
intensified as more people from surrounding areas and beyond got involved in rice
production. Currently all the potential mapped farmland is under cultivation.

Table 1: Characteristics of farmers in Awoja Rice Irrigation Scheme.

Variable Category Frequency Percent

Age group of house 20-30 8 26.7
hold head (yrs) 31-41 14 46.7
42-52 6 20.0
53-63 2 6.7
Gender of Female 5 16.7
household head Male 25 83.3
Education level of Not attended school 13 43.3
 household head Primary 11 36.7
Secondary 5 16.7
Tertiary 1 3.3
Household size 2.5 8 26.7
6.9 13 43.3
10 plus 9 30.0
Land under rice 0-0.3ha 11 36.7
cultivation (ha) 0.301-0.6ha 9 30.0
0.601 plus 10 33.3
Yield in last season 150-300 10 33.3
(kg/ha) 301-450 9 30.0
451 plus 11 36.7

4.2 The influence of water management on rice yield at Awoja Rice Irrigation
Scheme.

Introduction.

Water is a very important resource especially in the cultivation of paddy rice discussed
below are water management factors that are likely to influence rice yields per hectare in
Awoja.

Table 2: water management factors related to rice yield in Awoja scheme, Soroti
District.

B Std. Error P value

(Constant) -0.627 0.849 0.469
Number of years in education of household head 0.096 0.096 0.046
Family labour used in person days per season 0.060 0.021 0.161
Whether experienced siltation (1=yes) -0.177 0.121 0.161
Supply of water (1=adequate) 0.055 0.026 0.050
Irrigation infrastructure (1 = good) 0.016 0.024 0.050
Whether management addresses water problems (1= yes) 0.007 0.003 0.051
Distance to source of water -0.017 0.005 0.002
Adjusted R squared 68.8%
F value 9.10
P value 0.000

Results from the study indicate that there was a significant relationship between rice
yields and education level, P< 0.10. A positive coefficient shows that education is
directly linked to rice yields. This means that more educated farmers are likely to produce
more yields than non –educated and/or less educated farmers.
The probable reason could be better water management skills possessed by educated
farmers.

The probable reason could be better water management skills possessed by educated
farmers. Also higher incomes are associated with more educated farmers. With this,
they can be able to hire labor to facilitate activities such as, cleaning up water canals,
slashing vegetation around the canals and also managing their own fields to regulate the
amount of water throughout the season.

The regression analysis showed that there was no significant relationship between
siltation of channels and rice yields produced per hectare, p > 0.10. However, statistics
from the interview and observation showed some relationship 93.3% of the respondents
agreed that siltation is linked to rice yields produced per hectare. (See Table 3 below)

Table 3: Responses of Farmers to Siltation Problem

Response Frequency Percentage
Yes 28 93.3
No 2 6.7
Total 30 100

Floodwaters from the slopes of Mount Elgon into the mpologoma River seasonally bring
down materials in suspension. Particles of clay and silt brought down in suspension
where in the past deposited on reaching areas of low gradient. This permitted an annual
renewal of nutrients and thus cultivation proceeded on a more or less permanent basis.
However, with the current selective flooding of rice fields in the scheme, floodwater in
the channels at lower velocity than at the main stream encourages silt and other materials
to settle at the bottom of the channels rather than being deposited on the fields.

The concentration and accumulation of silt in the channels currently presents a problem
of siltation and eventual blocking of channels. The channels have to be desilted
occasionally if they are to remain in use. Unfortunately the scheme does not have the
adequate capacity to effectively handle the problem of siltation.

There was a significant association between rice yields and adequate water supply, p <
0.10. A positive coefficient showed that adequate water supply was directly linked to
rice yields. This means that when there is increased water supply, there is an increased in
t he rice yield produced per ha. In principle, it w as found out that there is sufficient
water for irrigation during the conventional growing seasons. However, all this water
available in a year is not efficiently utilized dur to management issues concerning this
resource and the absence of large reservoirs to tap excess water. This could cater for the
drier months when the water regime in the river significantly falls. This explains why
yields are normally lower in the second season when rains are scarce (See able 4 and
below)
Table 4: Yield in First Season
Rice Yield Per Hectare Frequency Percentage
324 1 3.3
405 2 6.7
486 6 20.0
567 7 23.3
648 8 26.7
664.2 2 6.7
729 2 6.7
972 2 6.7
Total 30 100

Table 5: Yields in Second Season

Rice Yields Frequency Percentage
243 1 3.3
324 4 13.3
405 4 13.3
486 6 20.0
502.2 1 3.3
518.4 1 3.3
567 3 10.0
648 5 16.7
664.2 1 3.3
729 1 3.3
972 2 6.7
988.2 1 3.3
Total 30 100

The regression analysis showed that there was no significant relationship between rice
yields and the state of irrigation infrastructure, p> 0.10. However, statistics show that
80% of the farmers interviewed agreed that yield loss is related to the state of irrigation
infrastructure (See Table below)

Table 6: Farmers Responses to Irrigation Infrastructure Problems

Response Frequency Percentage
Yes 24 80
No. 6 20
Total 30 100

4.2.1 Irrigation Infrastructure

i) The Channels
It was generally observed that most of the channels are clogged with grass and shrubs.
This seemingly pointed to the fact that the Awoja Rice Scheme management is
increasingly becoming unable to keep the water channels clear of the obstacles, which
block the free flow of water.

This has resulted into the impediment of the flow of irrigation water by the force of
gravity. This impediment of water flow implies that some farmers cannot receive enough
water in good time when needed especially the period after transplanting seedlings from
the nursery beds into prepared fields. When this is so, it was reported that the eventual
harvests are also affected since the young plants experience a poor start. Yet according to
the scheme management, this reality cannot be readily redressed. Mechanically clearing
of weeds is very expensive in respect to the acquisition of the necessary machinery and
its operation. The reliance on manual labor provided by the participating peasants on
communal basis under the supervision of the scheme personnel has proved inefficient.
The work was said to be tedious and generally does not enlist the cooperation of many
farmers.

It was observed that the rice fields along clogged water channels had either retarded rice
plants or ones which showed less vigor than those in well watered fields along some clear
water channels.

ii) The Sluice Gates

The sluice gates in place are meant to regulate the inflow of irrigation water along a
particular water channel. They also determine the desired flow-direction of irrigation
water. But surprisingly, many of these structures were found to be either rusting or with
missing steering wheels which are used to operate the gates.

Table 2 further indicates that there was a significant relationship between rice yields and
the management of water problems by the scheme personnel P< 0.10. A positive
coefficient shows that rectification of water problems by management personnel is
directly linked to rice yields produced.

4.2.2. Water Management Personnel

From an interview with respondents of Block II, the following was established about the
scheme personnel with respect to the management and administration of water
distribution.

Table 7: Management of Water by Scheme Personnel

Remarks Respondents Percentage

Satisfactory 2 20
Average 2 20
Poor 5 50
Negligent 1 10
Total 10 100

From Table 7 above, it can be established that the management and administration of
irrigation water was believed to be poor. Poor management of water blamed on the
personnel revolved around inadequate amount of water being released to particular block
and its timing, which often does not favor many farmers.

It was reported that the current staff lacks the enthusiasm noted among the departed
Chinese experts. The Chinese were said to be close monitors and supervisors of the
irrigation process. The present staff cited under staffing as a major constraint. In these
circumstances, farmers do not enjoy the maxim benefits of advice on issues like amount
of water and its duration of stay in the field.

4.2.2 Water Time Table

Although it was reported that there is a provisional time table for the distribution of
irrigation water to respective blocks, it was established that this timetable is neither
neither strictly followed by the scheme personnel nor observed by the farmers.

In practice it was reported that irrigation water occasionally arrives earlier or later than
scheduled. The farmers do not carry out their farming activities – laying nursery beds,
transplanting, and bird scaring and harvesting in uniformity. As such there was an
obvious mismatch of water needs by the farmers even in t he same block which makes
the application of a general timetable cumbersome and ineffective. It was reported that
many farmers are negligent in tapping water at appropriate times since there are many
cases of late planting.
This chaos noted in the application of the water timetable was thought to be one of the
reasons for the observed differences in crop vigor and yields on fields served by a
common water channel.

Results from the study showed that there was a significant relationship between the
distance of rice blocks from the water source and rice yields produced per hectare, P<
0.10. A negative coefficient indicates that distance office fields from water source is not
directly linked to rice yields produced per hectare. Meaning the blocks hearer the water
source are more productive that those far from the water source.

This situation was attributed to the deposition of silt in the field nearest to the source of
irrigation water. Silt deposition on the fields due to siltation in the channels became less
pronounced with increasing distance from the source of irrigation water. This was
thought to be the probable explanation for the observed differences I ngeneral rice
production according to blocks. Table 8 shoes the differences in yields of blocks in
relation to distance from water source.

Table 8: Influence of Distance from Water Source of Rice Yields

Block Distance from Silt Period Under Current

No. Water Source Deposition Cultivation Average yield
per Ha
VI Nearest Fair Under 20 years 648
III Midway Mild Over 20 years 647
II Furthest Limited Approx 20 years 486

Results show that Block VI had the highest average yield of 640kg per hectare. This is
attributed to water availability and silt deposition. Block III which is in the intermediate
position shows a lightly better performance of 647 kg per hectare although it was been
the longest under cultivation, yet it would be logical to think that the fields, which have
been longest under cultivation would give the lowest returns. Therefore, continuous
cultivation alone may not be appropriate in explaining the decline in yield. This is so
because soil exhaustion from continuous cultivation was not uniformity distributed in the
scheme.
Block II which has been under cultivation for about 20 years but furthest from the source
of irrigation water has an average of 486 kg per hectare. The water in the channel leading
to this block was found to be much clearer than in the others. This was evidence
pointing to the fact that Block II receives minimal silt compared with Block VI where
water was found to be brownish from the load of silt carried down from the slopes of
Mount Elgon.

4.3 Establishment of Rice Varieties Grown at the Scheme and their Current Yield

Introduction
The productivity of a crop solely depends on a number of factors including the genetic
potential of the crop. For instance, it could be high yielding, resistant to diseases etc.
Discussed below are the different rice varieties grow n in Awoja comparing them in
terms of current yield potential.

Table 9: the mean yields of different varieties of rice in Awoja irrigation scheme.

Varieties Mean N
K98 506a 14
K85 165.9b 3
K5 380 13
Total 30

Legend: N number of farmers.

Different subscripts (a,b,c) denote significant difference in yield.

Table 10: Multiple comparisons in yield between varieties.

Dependent variable: yields in current season.

Rice variety (A) Rice variety (B) Standard error Significance
1.K98 2.K85 39.3970 0.000
3.K5 23.8511 0.000
2.K85 1.K98 39.3970 0.000
3.K5 39.6635 0.004
3.K5 1.K98 23.8511 0.000
2.K5 39.6635 0.004

Show in table 9 are mean yields of different varieties of rice grown in Awoja rice
irrigation scheme. The table shows that variety K98 had the highest yield at 506. 9kg per
hectare; this was followed by K5 at 292.76kg per heater then K85 at 156kg per hectare.
Results from the showed that there was a significant difference in the mean yield between
the varieties as indicated by a small p-value of less than 0.10.

Table 10 shows that these was a significant difference between variety K98 and K85,
p=0.000 the table further shows that there was a gross variation in yield between variety
K98 and K 85, p= 0.000 in this case, K98 is believed to be high yielding at 506.9kg per
hectare. The probable reason could in the advantages that K98 has over K5 and K85.
According to the respondents, K98 is said to be resistant to draught and also natures very
fast this explains why the yields of K98 remain relatively high even in the second season
when rains are not adequate.

Table 10 also shows that there was significant different between variety K85 and K98,
p=0.000 the table further shows that there was a significant difference between variety
K85 and K5, p=0.000.
K85 was believed to be the productive at 165.9kg per hectare compared to K98 and K85
as reflected in table 3 above.. the reason given by the respondents is that K85 takes a
longer time to mature and is also liked by birds. Generally birds account for a great
percentage of yields loss in the field,. Research by Asowe (1991) indicates that, these
birds not only eat the seeds, but also cause shattering by perching on the plants as they
feed. They are destructive to both the young and ripening paddy, as they cut the rice plant
leaves to use in the construction of their nests.
The results in Table 10 continue to show that there was a significant difference in yield
between variety K5 and K98,p=0.000 and also between K5 and K85, p=0004. According
to the findings, K5 is intermediate between variety K98 and K85. K5 is second to K98 at
292.76 Kg per hectare. The probable reason as given by the respondents was that K5
generally weighs heavy and is resistant to wind. The farmers, because of the taste, also
like K5. This explains the reason as to why farmers continue to grow it although it is less
productive compared to K98. The frequencies and percentages of respondents and the
corresponding type of variety they grow is clearly shown in Table 11 below:

Table 11 – Rice Variety Grown by the Respondents

Variety Frequency Percentage
K98 14 46.7
K85 3 10.0
K5 13 43.3
Total 30 100

Below (Table 7), are some of the advantages and disadvantages of the varieties as given
by the respondents.

Table 12 – Advantages and Disadvantages of Rice in Awoja Scheme

Variety Advantages Disadvantages
K98 Matures Fast Needs good management and
Resistant to drought use of inputs like fertilizer
K5 Resistant to wind Not drought resistant
Has the best taste
K85 Resistant to both little Liked by birds
and much water Not liked on market

4.3 The Agronomic Practices in the Rice Fields and their Influence on Rice Yield

Introduction
Discussed below are some of the agronomic practices carried out in the scheme. The
research relates them to time and labor required and shows how these together influence
rice yields per hectare.

Figure 1: Shows the Agronomic Practices at the Rice Fields

Shown in Figure 1 is a graph presenting some of the agronomic practices in Doho rice
Scheme. The percentages represent those respondents who agreed that such an activity is
given more time and labor during rice production. The results show how these activities
as practices in the scheme influence the yields of rice.

The figure shows that at a scale of 100%, transplanting was believed to be the most labor
and time consuming activity at 96.7%, followed by weeding at 83.3, bird scaring
at70.0%, harvesting at 60.0%, land preparation at 50% and cultivation of other crops
apart from rice at 43.3%.

Transplanting and weeding take place under muddy, wet and how conditions. It,
therefore, entails bending for at least four to six hours in a day in the knee-deep muddy
soil under the hot sun, which includes backache, and headache. Both transplanting and
weeding are labor intensive.

Transplanting involves uprooting young plants and arranging them in bunches of 3 – 5 to

be planted in rows. This involves over taxing and a lot of movement, which many hands
operating at the scheme find difficult to bear. This then explains why young boys and
girls who ar at times pulled out of school perform the bulk of this task.

According to some of the youth found at the scheme, the most demanding task is weeding
which takes place on month after transplanting and is done twice before the paddy is
mature for harvesting.

Bird scaring is one other demanding and laborious process for the peasant rice cultivator
at Awoja Rice Scheme. It takes place at two crucial stages in the process of cultivation.
First at the nurseries and when the young paddy plants have been transplanted onto
prepared plots. Secondly, at the ripening period when the paddy gets ready for
harvesting. During the first stage (nursery and transplanting), birds trample on the young
plants causing extensive damage, at times to the entire plot. Bird scaring at Awoja is
done by family household and hired labor depending on the income of the plot and the
availability of family household labor. The task starts at 5.60 am and ends at 7.30 pm.
Given the number of birds and their destructive eating habit, bird-scarers usually find
themselves preoccupied the whole day with no time to rest. The work involves moving
up and down the plots to scare the bids from perching and settling to eat grains

Harvesting is considered at 60% labour demanding process, with the harvesters

sometimes working in muc and soil, which at times is flooded. This more often than not
inconveniences. The harvested paddy is arranged in small heaps ready for transportation
by head pottage to threshing sites.

The last in the chain of activities allocated to time and labor is cultivation of other crops
apart from rice. Other crops for example cotton, maize, bean, etc which are grown on
fields outside the scheme received at least attention by rice growers.

The reason for this could be that, most of the time is spent carrying out the various labor
demanding activities in the rice fields. Also since rice contributes more to the domestic
income, farmers prefer to dedicate their time and efforts in rice production.

4.4 Fertilizer use in Awoja Rice Irrigation Scheme

Table 13 – Shows Responses of Farmers to use of Fertilizers

Response Frequency Percentage
Yes 21 70
No 9 30
Total 30 100

Shown in Table 13 are the responses of the farmers as regards fertilizer use in Awoja.
Results show that, there is increased use of inorganic fertilizer in the scheme, at 70%. It
would be logical to think that at this rate, yields per hectare were constant or declining
with a few exceptions.
The probable reason for these results could be the type of fertilizer used and the method
of application. Most of the farmers, 71.4% used urea (See Table 14) and Broadcasting
was the common method used in application (See Table 15 below)

Urea being volatile, most of the fertilizer could have been lost by evaporation.

Table 14 – Chemical type of Fertilizer used

Type Frequency Prcentage
NPK 6 28.6
UREA 15 71.4
Total 21 100

Table 15 – Method used in Fertilizer Application

Method Frequency Percentage
Broadcasted 15 71.4
Incorporated 6 28.6
Total 21 100

However, research carried out by the JICA project on fertilizers showed positive results.
About 3000 to 4000 kg ha-1 were produced as compared to 2000 kg ha-1 obtained in the
control (no fertilizer). It was also observed that the control produced yields higher than
what farmers normally produce. (JICA project, 2005 unpublished). This would therefore
indicate the importance of good agronomic practices in order to permit the effect of
fertilizer to be expressed.
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

The findings of this research generally point to he fact that, successful Agricultural
productivity is by large controlled by good agricultural land management. Land
management usually undercuts the natural resource capacity to produce positive results
as the findings of the study may suggest.

There was a major focus on the management of irrigation water. In all, the whole process
of irrigation was found to be lacking. The water timetable was found to be ineffective.
The irrigation structures in bad state and siltation and clogging almost suffocating many
irrigation canals.
Yet world over, the effective and regular application of water to crops through irrigation
in areas, which experience seasonal or inadequate rainfall is one of the most reliable ways
to increase yields. Irrigation not only boosts yields by making water available when most
needed but also ensures that investment in other inputs such as fertilizers, and high
yielding seed varieties is less risky.

The problems cited in the management of water helped to explain the associated deline in
production. The general observation was that many farmers do not make full use of
water that could be available for irrigation.

Siltation of the channels presents a double-edged problem. While it fills up the

waterways and thus impedes water flow, the accumulation of silt in the channels also
means the loss of nutrients, which should have been deposited on the rice fields.

Therefore, in a situation where fertilizer use is extremely low, the decline of yields per
hectare on t he scheme can be fairly understood.

The sum total of the observations and findings made point to the fact that, much as there
are many factors that depress yields on the scheme such as declining soil fertility, pests
and diseases, climatic hazards like hailstorms and destruction by birds, far and by large,
the deterioration in irrigation facilities and their management could better explain the
stabilized yield gap in rice production.

5.2 Recommendation
The most fruitful strategy to increase yields in any given area depends first on identifying
which factors are most limiting and then searching ways to push the limit outward until it
is mitigated.

There is an urgent need for water management, which should necessarily focus on
policies, which discourage waste or over use of irrigation water. Proper drainage should
be emphasized keeping the channels clear of weeds and silt. Appeals to government
could result in acquisition of the necessary equipment to accomplish this.
The scheme management could focus on research into improved fallor techniques taking
shorter periods to hasten regeneration of soil fertility. This method is being tried in
western Kenya and Zambia.

There should be an increased use of inorganic fertilizers where yields per hectare seem
quite impressive. However, the point of caution here is that there is need for more
experimental work to be done in order to ascertain the response made to artificial by the
crop under different physical conditions. Also type of fertilizer and method of
application are major areas of focus.

The use of pesticides and herbicides if adopted to control diseases and weeds should be
done with a lot of caution. This is because while some positive results could be achieved,
water pollution from heavy application of these chemicals could likely occur. When
irrigation water mixed with these chemicals, water quality could be compromised and yet
these water returns to the main river where it is used for domestic purposes and for
livestock.

Finally, there is need to increase the ability of the scheme management to collect and
analyze information concerning physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the
soil. Information about field capacity, nutrient level, organic matter etc is essential for
long term planning in agricultural production and sustainability.
 CHAPTER SIX

5.0 REFERENCES

Auderbert A, Becker M, and Johnson D., 1999. Diferential responses of rice to

Hydrological conditions and agronomic management. African Crop Science
Conference proceedings, 4, 107 – 111.

Baba (1965) In Mineral Nutrition of Rice Plant. IRR. 1965

C. Asowa – Okwer, 1996 Irrigation Rice Technology and its Impact on Eastern Uganda
CBR No. 49

Conway R. Gorgon and Barbier, B Edward 1990, after the green revolution, Sustainable
Agricultural Development London, Britain

De Data. S.k. and Buresh, R. J. 1989 Integrated Nitrogen Management in Irrigated Rice
adv. Soil Sci; 10: 143 -169

Evans L. T. (1993) Crop Evolution, Adaptation and Yields. Press Syndicate of

University of Cambridge, New York.

FAO (1994) – Upland Rice Cultivation in Africa 75 pp

Garinyo Zie 1991 – Appropriate Technology, Productivity and Employment in
Agriculture in Uganda. The case study of Kibimba and Awoja Rice Schemes
Working Paper No. 13, CBR Publications, Kampala, Uganda

Griffin K (1974), the Political Economy of Agrarian Change, London, MiCmillan

Grist D. H. (1965) 4th Edition Longman

Gupta P.C. and O’Toole J. C. (1986) –Upland Rice in Global Perspective. 366 pp

Harland J. D. De Wet, J. M. J. and Stemler A (1976). Plant domestication and indigenous

African Agriculture. In: Origin of African Plant Domestication (eg J. R. Harland,
J.M.J. De wet and A.B.L. Stemler), Pp. 3-19. Mouton, The Hague.

JICA (2005) Japan International Cooperation Agency Rice Project and Awoja Irrigation
Scheme unpublished

KARI (1998) Rice Production Statistics for Uganda (1992 – 1997)

IRRI (1992-93. Rice in Crucial Environment. Crucial Issues in Rice Research – Pp 10-15
IRR (International Rice Research Institute) 1995. Research Highlights. International
Rice Research Institute, Los Banos Philippines

MAAIF 2001, Ministry of Agriculture Animal Industry and Fisheries, 2001 Statistics
(unpublished) Entebbe, Uganda

Ministry of Planning and Economic Development Agricultural Policy Secretariat, 1997

Purseglove J.W. (1986) Tropical Crops Monocotyledons. English Language Book

Society/Longman 161-97

Redcliff Micheal (1984), Development and Environment Crisis, Red or Green

Senior Micheal 1979, Tropical Lands a Human Geography Longman, Hongkong

Soil Science Society of East Africa, Excursion 4 tth December 2002

World Bank (1993) – A Review on Soil Degradation and Research on Soil Management
Presented at Agriculture Washington D.C.

Yoshida T. and Ancajs R.R. (1971) – Soil Soc. AM. Proc, 35,156
 CHAPTER SEVEN

APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Research Questions for Awoja Rice Irrigation Scheme

SECTION A: Personal Information

1. Name of Respondent …………………………………………………………

2. Sex
(a) Male
(b) Female

3. Age…………………………………
4. When did you join the scheme…………………………………………………….

Section B: water management.

1. Do you face any water management problem?

a) Yes B) No

2. If yes what level.

a) Too much water

b) Too little water

3. If too much, what causes it

a) Poor mechanical control

b) Heavy rains

c) Poor management of paddy fields

4. If too little what is the cause

a) Poor water management

b) Adverse weather condition

c) Water time table

4. At what stage has your crop faced stress most?

c) Seedling

d) Transitional

e) Panicle initiation.

5. Is the scheme management doing something to solve the problem?

a) Yes b) No

6. If yes specify how

……………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………
Section C: Labour.

1. What is your source of labour

Labour source Children hrs/day Adults hrs/day
Family
Hired

2. What is the most labour demanding activity on your field?

a) Land preparation b) Transplanting c) Weed

Control

d) Bird scaring e) Harvesting

3. What implements do you use fro land preparation.

a) Hand hoe b) Tractor c) Ox-plough

Section D: agronomic practices

1. Do you fallow the land

a) Yes b) No

2. If yes for how long

a) < 1yr b) 2-4 c) > 5

4. If no why…………………………………………………………………..

Do you grow any other crops from rice?

a) Yes b)

6. If yes where?
a) Intercropped b) same fields different seasons

c) Fields outside scheme

7. What is done to the rice stalks/stoves after harvest?

a) Intercropped b) same field different seasons

c) Fields outside scheme

7. What is done to the rice stalks/stores after harvest?

a) Dug in and left to rot Left to dry and burnt

c) Specify any other…………………………………………………………

8. Does the scheme experience soil erosion?

a) Yes b) No

9. If yes what do you think is the cause?

……………………………………………………………………………………

10. If no what has prevented it

……………………………………………………………………………………..
11. Do you use any nutrient enhancement?

a) Yes b) No

12. If yes what category

a) Organic b) Inorganic/chemical
13. If chemicals are used which one is commonly used

a) UREA b) NPK
14. How do you obtain it?

a) Distributed by the scheme b) Individual purchase

b) Through farmers cooperatives d) others specify

………………………………………………………………………………….

15. In what particular circumstance will fertilizers be used?

a) Nurseries b) Gardens c) Both

16. How do you rate the use of fertilizer on your block?

a) Large scale b) Small scale c) Moderate

d) Insignificant

17. How do you apply the fertilizer?

a) Broad cast b) Incorporated c) With irrigation water

Section E: the rice crop.

1. Are there several rice varieties under production?

a) Yes b) No

2. If yes what are the varieties their advantages and disadvantages

Variety Advantage Disadvantage

3. Of the above, which one do you commonly grow?

……………………………………………………………………………………..

4. Which one do you grow least?

……………………………………………………………………………………….

Section F : Yields

1. What is your current yields per hectare………………………………………….kg?

2. How has the yield been over the years?

a) Raising b) Declining c) Fluctuating

d) Constant

4. What is the major cause of yield loss?

a) Pests and disease b) Weeds c) Water Problem

d) Other specify………………………………………………………………

5. In your own opinion what would increase rice yields

………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………...

6. Does the scheme provide any extension services to farmers?

a) Yes b) No

7. If yes name them.

………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………..

8. If no how do you go about the management of rice.

………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………..

9. What major problems do you face in he scheme.

…………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………

10. What has been done to address them……………………………………………….