Rolf H.

Kuratle, André Signer

Kistler Instrumente AG Winterthur, Switzerland

The Basic of Piezoelectric Measurement Technology

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20.188e 7.99
The Basic of Piezoelectric
Measurement Technology
Rolf H. Kuratle, André Signer
Kistler Instrumente AG Winterthur, Switzerland
Piezoelectric sensors have
proven to be highly successful
for the measurement of fast
and cyclic processes. Force,
pressure or acceleration sen-
sors are used today for quality
assurance in the widest variety
of manufacturing processes,
particularly in production
plants for the automobile and
electronics industries. Appro-
priate process knowledge
combined with a suitable mea-
suring system allow zero
defect production.
The following paper discusses
a little known piezoelectric
measuring technique, and
shows recent innovations and
developments.
Piezoelectric sensors for measuring
force, pressure and vibration are used in
particular applications in industry, where
dynamic processes need to be reliably
measured over a long period of time.
Measurements are frequently used for
quality assurance and documentation.
The advantage of piezoelectric sensors
compared with other types of sensors are:
• Long life without aging
• High sensitivity
• Low threshold
• Large measuring range
• Practically displacement-free mea-
surement
• High natural frequency
• Wide temperature range
Some examples for the use of piezo-
electric sensors in industry are:
• Measurement of mold cavity pres-
sure for injection molding of plastics
• Cylinder pressure monitoring on
diesel and gas engines
• Press force monitoring and control
• Monitoring joining forces on auto-
matic assembly machines
Piezoelectricity
a) b)
Fig. 1: Piezoelectric effect – schematic diagram of various sensors
• Monitoring of vibrating machinery
• Process monitoring during machining
The piezoelectric sensor
Piezoelectric sensors consist of a piezo-
electric material packaged in a suitable
housing. The term «piezoelectric» signi-
fies that when loaded with a force, the
sensor produces an electric charge Q
strictly proportional to the force F with the
unit [pC] (1 Picocoulomb = 10-12 Coulomb).
It is therefore an active measuring
element. With quartz (silicon dioxide
SiO2) nature has provided an ideal
material. Nowadays, quartz is syntheti-
cally grown under large pressure and
high temperature. Other piezoelectric
materials are also used for special
applications.
Different effects are achieved depending
to the alignment of the quartz elements
in the sensor package (Fig 1). These can
be produced by different cutting angles.
disks
c)
a) Transversal effect
The charge output occurs at right angles
to the force contact surfaces. The charge
is dependent on the geometry of the
quartz or more precisely on its thinness.
Quartz elements therefore often have a
bar shape. The charge output in the case
of a transversal element for the dimen-
sions shown in Fig. 1 amounts to:
pC b
Qy = – 2,3 ⋅Fy ⋅
N a
Pressure sensors and highly sensitive
force sensors are typical sensors using
the transversal piezoelectric effect.
b) Longitudinal effect
The charge output occurs at the force
contact surfaces. In contrast to the
transverse quartz element, the charge
level is not dependent on the quartz
geometry but solely on the force applied
and amounts to
pC
Qx = – 2, 3 ⋅Fx
N
These quartz elements are frequently
disk-shaped. The only possibility of in-
creasing the charge yield is to connect
several quartz disks in series with
respect to the force. Electrically these
disks are wired in parallel. With n disks,
the charge then amounts to
pC
Qx = – n ⋅ 2, 3 ⋅Fx
N Fig. 2: Schematic diagram of a charge amplifier
Typical sensors applying the longitudinal
effect are force load washers.
c) Shear effect
With shear force, the charge output
occurs at the force contact surfaces. The
sensitivity amounts to
pC
Q = – 4, 6 ⋅F
N
As with the longitudinal effect, the geo-
metry of the quartz does not affect its
sensitivity. Typical sensors with shear
effect are 3-component force sensors,
moment sensors and accelerometers.
Amplifiers for piezoelectric The relationship (Fig. 2) between input
sensors Q and output Uout is:
Functional principle Uout = Q
 1  ·C + 1
1+  ⋅CBB + ⋅ ((C
CSS ++CCKK))
The very small electric charge Q must be  ν ν
converted to a voltage U (5 V or 10 V) or F Mechanical load on the sensor
a current Ι (4 … 20 mA) for evaluation, (e.g. force)
e.g. in a PC or a PLC. The charge Q Sensor output charge
amplifier is appropriate for this purpose. (e.g. 4 pC/N)
CS Sensor capacitance
The designation charge amplifier is in (e.g. 50 pF)
general use in measuring technology CK Cable capacitance
even though descriptively incorrect, (approx. 100 pF/m)
because the charge amplifier does not CB Capacitance of the range capa-
amplify a charge but rather converts it citor
into a proportionate voltage. Ri Insulation resistance of the input
circuit (sensor, cable, amplifier
input)
Charge amplifier
Reset
RG
CB
RTP
–vi
F
Q
CS CK Uin Ri Uout
F
In principle, the charge amplifier consists RG Resistance for time constant
of a high-gain voltage amplifier with a (lower cut-off frequency)
MOS or J-FET transistor at the input to RTP Resistance of the low-pass input
achieve the high insulation resistance. It filter
is connected in negative feedback via a vi Gain factor of the operational
high-insulation range capacitor and thus amplifier (approx. 100,000)
acts as an integrator for input currents Uin Voltage at the amplifier input
flowing through the charge input. These Uout Voltage at the amplifier output
are generated by changes in charge Reset Switch for short-circuiting the
(or mechanical load changes) at the range capacitor (zeroing the
sensor. The integral of the change in amplifier)
charge from the piezoelectric sensor and
thus a voltage signal proportional to the As a result of the large gain of the ope-
entire change in charge (or mechanical rational amplifier (ideally ν → ∞), the
load change) appears at the output. capacitances of the sensor and the cable
are practically negligible, and the output
voltage is purely proportional to the
quotient of charge and range capaci-
tance:
Q Normally a reset function will be carried
Uout ≈
CB
Charge amplifiers must be highly insu-
lating on the input side (Ri of the order of
magnitude of 1014 Ohm) – the same goes
for the sensor and the cable including
plug connections – since every finite re-
sistance will cause a current [pC/s = pA]
to flow allowing the output signal to drift.
Drift
As already mentioned, the high insula-
tion at the amplifier input is achieved with
a MOSFET. The best MOSFETs current-
ly available have an input leakage
current of the order of magnitude of
several fA. For good charge amplifiers,
this means a typical drift of ±0.03 pC/s.
The small leakage current of the input
stage is responsible for the fact that no
purely static measurements can be
made over a long period of time with
piezoelectric systems.
The percentage drift of the measuring
signal per minute is calculated from:
0, 03 pC ⋅ 60 sec ⋅100 %
Drift [% / Min] =
E ⋅F
Sensitivity of the sensor [E] = pC/N
Force to be measured in [F] = N
The limit for the quasistatic measure-
ment of piezoelectric signals is easily
determined by means of a practical
example with a quartz force sensor
(sensitivity 4 pC/N). With a measuring
range of 1000 N, there is a measuring
error of 0.045 % per minute or a
measuring time of 22 minutes without the
measuring error exceeding 1 %. This drift
is independent of the range capacitor
selected. Nevertheless, the higher the
sensitivity of the sensor and the greater
the force to be measured, the smaller
the error component due to drift.
Reset
The ‘Reset’ switch, which is also highly
insulated, enables the output signal to be
reset to zero by short-circuiting the range
capacitor. In many applications, this type
of taring is desirable so that, for example,
the intrinsic weight of machine parts is
not included in the force measurement.
out before every measuring cycle with
the sensor mechanically unloaded. The
reset time is short at approx. 5 ... 100 ms
and is thus suitable for short cyclic
measuring or monitoring applications.
Depending on the charge amplifier
design, the reset switch is operated
either manually or via an external digital
input signal. Semiconductor switches or
reed relays are used as high insulation
reset switches. They are normally closed
when no current is flowing to prevent
damage to the high insulation input from
static charges.
Measuring ranges
Most charge amplifiers have multiple
measuring ranges. The choice of mea-
suring range is made by switching the
relevant range capacitors CB. Subse-
quent amplifier stages provide a scaled
10 V output voltage signal, thus allowing
the use of a single charge amplifier for
sensors with the widest selection of
sensitivities and measuring ranges.
The accuracy of the charge amplifier is
mainly determined by the tolerance of
the range capacitors CB. The linearity of
±0.05 % FS is excellent. The charge
amplifier error is thus negligible in its
effect on the calibration of the entire
measuring chain or when tuning the
amplifier to the sensor involved.
Within specific limits, charge amplifiers
are overload-proof. The determining
overload parameters are the signal slew
rate and the magnitude of the charge.
J-FET amplifiers are more insensitive to
static discharge in the event of improper
connection of the sensor as a MOS-FET
amplifier, but have a considerably larger
drift and temperature dependence.
Low-pass input filter
Due to mass oscillation additional forces
are generated while measuring vibrating
machines. These forces are either of no
interest or do not represent disturbances
to the control or monitoring of the
machinery.
These disturbances can be excluded
through the use of a suitable low-pass
input filter. For most applications, filters
covering the range 10 ... 100 Hz have
proven most successful and take the
form of an RC network at the amplifier
input. If the cable and sensor capaci-
tance is used for C, then a low pass filter
is produced with an additional integral
resistor RTP in series with the cable.
1
fTiefpass =
TP ·(C
2 ⋅ π ⋅RTP ⋅ (C
SS + KC)K)
+C
Time constants (high pass filters)
A time constant acts like an AC coupling
device, similar to that familiar from os-
cilloscopes. The static signal component
is filtered out and only the dynamic signal
oscillates about zero according to the
waveform. Time constants are produced
with a resistor RG in parallel with the
range capacitor. The insulation resis-
tance is artificially reduced. This is of
course only appropriate for rapid mea-
suring processes.
In the AC mode, the charge amplifier
behaves like a high pass filter. The low-
er cut-off frequency is calculated from
the value of the range capacitor in the
circuit and the time constant resistance
as follows:
1 1
fu = =
2 ⋅ π ·R
⋅RGG ·C
⋅CBB 2 ⋅ π ⋅ τ
Lower cut-off frequency [fu] = Hz
Time constant [t] = s
Time constants are included in the
charge amplifier only when the dynamic
signal component is of interest in rapid
processes. A reset before each cycle is
in the many cases unnecessary for
measurements with time constants.
Industrial charge amplifier ver-
sus laboratory charge amplifier
The following overview sets out the most
important features of industrial and labo-
ratory charge amplifiers respectively.
 Industrial Laboratory External range switching
Construction • Rugged metal or impact- • Bench-mounted case or
resistant plastic case 19“rack-System according
One of the distinguishing features of
• Suitable for mounting on to DIN 41494
a machine piezoelectric sensors is their very wide
• Small dimensions measuring range. For this to be utilized,
• Shock and vibration proof
structure of the electronic system
charge amplifiers with switchable mea-
• IP protective class (min. IP64) suring ranges are required. These will
• Various input connections allow, for example, the force characteris-
Measuring channels • Single or multi-channel • Single or multi-channel tic in a machine to be measured both in
Measuring ranges • Internal adjustable • In-/External adjustable
the low range of a few N and in the range
• Sensor-specific calibration • Numeric display of set values
available of high kN with high resolution. The
Functions • Semiconductor reset • Adjustable low-pass filter amplifier types 5034 and 5039 allow
• Electrical isolation • Time constant (High pass filter)
• Differential input adjustable externally controlled switching of the
• Overload monitoring measuring ranges. The measuring range
• Zero monitoring is switched during measurement by
Output signal • ±5 V / ± 10 V • ±10 V means of switching signals.
• 0 … 20 mA / 4 … 20 mA
Supply • 10 … 36 V DC • 115/230 V AC
Connections • Various input connections • BNC Multi-channel charge amplifiers
Interfaces • none • serial RS-232C
• parallel IEEE-488
For measurements with a number of
Fig. 3: Characteristics of industrial and laboratory charge amplifiers
sensors, modular multi-channel ampli-
fiers with up to 3 channels are available.
Application specific different chassis potentials on the Piezoelectric sensors can also be
machinery together with electromagnetic connected electrically in parallel without
In previous years, Kistler developed fields, can interfere or distort an original- problem. A typical application is repre-
charge amplifiers tailored to specific ly excellent measuring signal. The caus- sented by so-called force plates, e.g. to
requirements. The main emphasis was es are certain to be found in the system determine forces in mechanical proces-
to develop specific amplifiers suitable for (machine/measuring chain/cables/envi- sing. The force plate is supported on four
industrial applications. ronment). However, charge amplifiers sensor feet. The charge signals of the
are available which are practically individual sensors can be merged, i.e.
Miniaturization immune to interference. added together and fed to a single
Basically, all Kistler charge amplifiers amplifier channel.
Hybrid technology has made it possible and the standard sensors and cables
to greatly miniaturize the actual charge are tested with respect to electromag-
amplifier. Charge amplifiers have also netic compatibility EN 50081-1/2 (interfe-
become more rugged. They can be rence emission) and EN 50082-1/2 (inter-
located significantly closer to the mea- ference immunity). Safety requirements
suring location, e.g. directly on moving according to EN 61010-1 are also met.
parts of machinery, thereby minimizing Furthermore, the new amplifier Type
distance between the sensor and the 5034, for example,
amplifier. Hybrid amplifiers have a fixed is being offered with
measuring range. Nevertheless, various complete electrical
measuring ranges can be configured by isolation. This means
means of integral voltage amplifiers. The that the chassis
currently smallest «In-Line» charge potentials of the
amplifier Type 5027 (Fig. 4) with an supply and measur-
enclosure of only 45 x 16 mm is available ing signal inputs
with 3 different measuring ranges. Preci- and outputs are
sion calibration is carried out in each separated by opto-
range using an integral potentiometer. couplers, so that no
interference (e.g.
Immunity to electrical interference «power line hum»)
caused by ground
In industrial production plants, the elec- loops can occur.
trical ambient conditions are often less
than ideal. Ground loops, resulting from Fig. 4: The smallest Kistler charge amplifier Type 5027
Fig. 5: Charge amplifier Rack mounting
in a rugged and sealed
enclosure The charge amplifier Type 5058 is
Type 5034/5038 designed in the Euro card format. It can
be mounted in racks or switchgear cabi-
nets. This allows customized measuring
systems to be designed (Fig. 6).

External actuation

The control inputs for Reset/Operate or

range switching can be directly connect-
ed to any machine control system. All
industrial amplifiers can be operated with
TTL signals or via optocouplers. In
several cases, non-electrically isolated
Fig. 6: Modular design actuation is also possible using a simple
with plug-in cards switch. The power supply for industrial
Type 5058 charge amplifiers is normally 24 V DC.
Current consumption is low at less than
100 mA.

Control monitors

Production processes nowadays must

be constantly monitored for quality
assurance purposes. For this reason,
the measuring signals can either be
evaluated by a PLC or condensed
directly on site to provide informative
parameters. Programmable Kistler con-
trol monitors are able to distinguish
Fig. 7: Latest Control conforming or nonconforming parts
Monitor «CoMo II-S» directly by means of the measuring
Type 5859 signal (Fig. 7). This relieves the PLC of
computer-intensive work. Charge ampli-
fiers are integrated in the control moni-
tors. Moreover, signals can also be
connected from sensors with other
measuring principles (e.g. displacement
sensors) and displayed as a function of
the first measurand.

Literature

[1] Dipl.-Ing. R. Kail und Dipl.-Ing.

W. Mahr; Piezoelectric Measu-
ring Instruments and their Appli-
cations; Kistler Reprint 20.116e
[2] R. Kuratle; Motorenmesstechnik;
Vogel Buchverlag; Würzburg
[3] J. Tichi, G. Gautschi; Piezoelek-
trische Messtechnik; Springer-
Verlag