Mod3 WirelessSystemsEngineering

1
EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation
Module 3
Wireless Systems Engineering
Basic antenna concepts; antennas for low, medium and high frequencies; terrestrial and satellite propagation links;
environmental effects on electromagnetic radiation. [3-0-0]
EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Spring 2011) Prof. David G. Michelson
• During these lectures, the instructor will bring up many points and details
not given on these slides. Accordingly, it is expected that the student
will annotate these notes during the lecture.
• The lecture only introduces the subject matter. Students must complete
the reading assignments and problems if they are to master the material.
3
Introduction
• There are considerable differences in the physical realization of antennas

for different purposes and frequencies.
• Those involved in the manufacture and deployment of antennas are

obviously very interested in the physical details.
• Those involved in systems design can take a more abstract view and
describe antennas in terms of system-level parameters.
• Such system-level parameters must be carefully designed to form a

minimal yet self-complete set that lends itself to both numerical
calculation and experimental measurement.
Objectives
Upon completion of this module, EECE 483 students will be able to:
• Explain the advantages of employing a systems approach to wireless
systems design.
• Describe the key features of the isotropic radiator concept.
• Define the common system-level properties of antennas.
• Given the radiation pattern of an antenna, estimate the relevant antenna
parameters.
• Use the reciprocity theorem and the concept of effective area to solve
problems involving receiving antennas.
• Given a description of a transmission or radar system, estimate the signal
and noise power at the receiver.
5
Outline
1. The Systems Approach
2. The Isotropic Radiator
3. The Fundamental Properties of Antennas
• Radiation Pattern
• Gain
• Input Impedance
• Bandwidth
• Polarization
4. The Reciprocity Theorem and Effective Area
5. Wireless Transmission Systems
6. Radar Systems
7. Noise in Wireless Systems
1. The Systems Approach

• It is useful to separate the functional properties of an antenna from the
implementation details.
– By focusing on functional requirements, we are less likely to force the
designer to take a predetermined (and possibly suboptimal) path.
– This separation also allows a small group of systems engineers to
effectively coordinate the efforts of many teams of implementers,
including antenna engineers, RF designers, software developers, etc.
• Because contractual obligations are often negotiated based upon system
level descriptions, it is necessary to carefully define a consistent set of
parameters that can be used to describe the performance of an antenna.
• Many of these parameters are defined in IEEE Standard Definitions of
Terms for Antennas, IEEE Std 145-1983.
7
2. Isotropic Radiator
• An isotropic radiator radiates uniform spherical waves into space, i.e.,
it has a uniform radiation pattern.
• If the transmitted power is Pt (W), we can show that the power density
S (W/m2) at a distance r is
Pt
S= .
4πr2
• Because electromagnetic fields are vector fields, it is not possible to

realize an isotropic radiator. (How can one prove this?)
• Although an isotropic radiator cannot be realized in practice, it is a
convenient (albeit hypothetical) reference against which to compare the
performance of antennas with more complicated radiation patterns.
Hairy Ball Theorem

• The hairy ball theorem of algebraic topology states that, in layman’s
terms, ”one cannot comb the hair on a ball smooth”.
• This fact is immediately convincing to most people, even though they
might not recognize the more formal statement of the theorem,
“There is no nonvanishing continuous tangent vector field on the
sphere.”
• Less briefly, if f is a continuous function that assigns a vector in R3 to
every point p on a sphere, and for all p the vector f (p) is a tangent
direction to the sphere at p, then there is at least one p such that
f (p) = 0.
• This implies that a device that radiates vector waves, i.e., waves with
transverse components, cannot radiate isotropically.
9
Plane and Solid Angles
• The measure of a plane angle, θ, is the radian.
• One radian (rad) is defined as the circular arc with length equal to its
radius.
• Because the circumference of a circle is 2πr, there are 2π rad in a circle.
• The measure of a solid angle, Ω, is the steradian.
• One steradian (sr) is defined as solid angle that subtends the spherical
cap with area equal to the square of its radius.
• Because the area of a sphere is 4πr2, there are 4π sr in a sphere.
10
The Steradian
• The solid angle Ω may be thought of as the area of the spherical cap A
normalized with respect to the square of its radius r, i.e., Ω = A/r2 .
11
3. The Fundamental Properties of Antennas
• Practical antennas radiate more intensely in some directions than others.

That is, they are directional.
• If the antenna is 100% efficient, integrating the power density observed
at a given distance over the entire sphere will yield the total radiated
power. That is, Z 2π Z π
Prad = S(θ, φ) r2 sin θ dθ dφ .
0 0
• This implies that directional antennas simply focus power in some

directions at the expense of other directions.
• As we shall see, almost all system-level antenna properties of interest are
consequences of the inverse square law and conservation of power.
12
Fundamental Performance Parameters
• From a systems perspective, five performance parameters are

fundamental:
– radiation pattern
– gain
– input impedance
– bandwidth
– polarization
• For a linear and passive antenna, all of these antenna properties are
identical for both transmission and reception (by virtue of the reciprocity
theorem).
13
Secondary Performance Parameters

• Other performance parameters may be derived from the above and are
considered to be secondary, e.g.,
– directivity
– efficiency
– beamwidth
– beam efficiency
– sidelobe level
• As we shall later see, these functional properties (taken together with our
understanding of how antennas function) form the basis for distinguishing
antennas which: (1) electrically small, (2) resonant, (3) broadband, or
(4) based upon a radiating aperture.
14
Other Systems-Level Performance Parameters
• Certain mechanical properties may also be considered to be systems-level

parameters, e.g.,
– weight
– size
– sail area (or wind area)
– power handling capabilities
– environmental limitations (temperature, vibration, weather)
• When designing an antenna, it is often difficult to enhance one
performance parameter without sacrificing another. Managing such
trade-offs lies at the heart of the antenna design problem.
15
3.1 Antenna Radiation Pattern
• The antenna pattern or radiation pattern describes the manner in which

the power density of the radiated field at a given distance varies with
elevation and azimuth angle.
• It can be expressed in the form of a three-dimensional surface in either

spherical or rectangular coordinates.
• It is more typically expressed in the form of two-dimensional cuts through

the principal planes (x-y, x-z, y-z).
• In the case of both directional antennas and omnidirectional antennas,

it is usually sufficient to specify the vertical and horizontal planes alone.
(Why?)
16
Plotting Radiation Patterns
• The antenna radiation pattern

is typically plotted in dB
relative to the maximum
observed value.
• A lobe is the portion of

a radiation pattern that is
bounded by nulls in the
pattern.
• The main lobe is the lobe with

the strongest peak.
• All other lobes are referred to

as minor lobes or sidelobes.
17
Derived Parameters
• The half-power beamwidth in a particular plane is defined as the angular
extent over which the pattern is within 3 dB of its maximum value.
• The beamwidth between (specified) nulls is defined as the angular extent
between nulls in the antenna pattern.
• The sidelobe level is expressed in decibels with respect to the maximum
of the main beam.
• Beam efficiency is defined as the fraction of the total radiated (or
received) power that is transmitted (or received) within a specified solid
angle, e.g., the solid angle that is subtended by the main lobe.
• Beam solid angle ΩA is the solid angle through which all the power
would be radiated if the radiation intensity equalled the maximum value
over the beam area.
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Alternative Conventions for Plotting Radiation Patterns
• If the entire pattern (or pattern cut) is of interest, the radiation pattern
is usually plotted in spherical (or polar) coordinates, e.g.,
– if the antenna has a broad beamwidth.
– if the utility of the antenna in rejecting interference is of interest.
• If only a portion of the pattern is of interest, the radiation pattern is

usually plotted in rectangular coordinates, e.g.,
– if the antenna is highly directional.
– if one wishes to compare sidelobe levels.
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Four Antenna Pattern Plot Types
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NSMA Standard Format for the Electronic Transfer of

Antenna Patterns
• Most antenna vendors can supply their products’ antenna patterns in

electronic, albeit, proprietary formats.
• Study Group 16 - Antenna Patterns of The National Spectrum
Manager’s Association (NSMA) has sought to establish a standard
format for the electronic transfer of antenna pattern data between
manufacturers, consultants, coordinators and users.
• The intent of the standard is to increase the accuracy and facilitate the
transfer of antenna pattern data.
• For details, see http://www.fcc.gov/oet/info/software/nsma/.
• Would an XML-based format make more sense? Why or why not?
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NSMA File Format Details

[Antenna Manufacturer] + CRLF
[Antenna Model number] + CRLF
[Comment] + CRLF
[FCC ID number] + CRLF
[reverse pattern ID number] + CRLF
[date of data] + CRLF
[Manufacturer ID Number (see filenaming convention)] + CRLF
[frequency range] + CRLF
[mid-band gain] + CRLF
[Half-power beam width] + CRLF
[polarization (char 7) + chr\$(32) + datacount (char 7) + chr\$(32) + CRLF]
[angle(1) (char 7) + chr\$(32) + relative gain in dB(char 7) + chr\$(32) + CRLF]
.
.
[angle(datacount) (char 7) + chr\$(32) + relative gain in dB (char 7) + chr\$(32) + CRLF]
.
.
[polarization (char 7) + chr\$(32) + datacount (char 7) + chr\$(32) + CRLF]
[angle(1) (char 7) + chr\$(32) + relative gain in dB(char 7) + chr\$(32) + CRLF]
.
.
[angle(datacount) (char 7) + chr\$(32) + relative gain in dB (char 7) + chr\$(32) + CRLF]
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• Software for plotting NSMA antenna patterns is available from FCC.
• A UNIX-based version would likely be most welcome!
23
3.2 Gain
• The directional characteristics of an antenna are frequently expressed in
terms of a gain function G(θ, φ).
• The gain function is the ratio of: (1) the power density observed in a
particular direction at a particular distance to (2) the power density that
would be produced at the same location by an isotropic radiator driven
by an identical transmitter.
• The power density S at a distance r in the direction (θ, φ) is
G(θ, φ)
S = Pt .
4πr2
• The maximum value of G(θ, φ) is conventionally referred to as G, the

gain of the antenna.
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Absolute and Relative Gain
• In all cases, gain is determined under free space conditions, i.e., no

reflections or multipath.
• Because the gain of an antenna is typically expressed with respect
to the power density produced by an isotropic antenna, it has units of
dBi. Because the reference is absolute, this is referred to as absolute gain.
• In some cases, the reference antenna is a half-wave dipole. In such cases,
gain is expressed in dBd.
• It is common to experimentally compare the gain of one antenna to
another, i.e., to determine the relative gain of an antenna.
• It is much more difficult to experimentally determine the absolute gain
of an antenna. Why?
25
Radiation Intensity
• Radiation intensity is a distance independent measure of the power
radiated from an antenna.
• It is defined as the power radiated in a given direction from an antenna
per unit solid angle and has units of Watts/steradian (W/sr).
• Radiation intensity is related to the time-averaged Poynting vector S as
follows:
1
U (θ, φ) = Re(E × H∗) · r2 r̂
2
= S(θ, φ) r2 .
• Radiation intensity can be expressed as
U (θ, φ) = Um |F (θ, φ)|2 ,
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where |F (θ, φ)| is the normalized power pattern, i.e., |F | = 1 in the

2
direction θmax, φmax .
• The total power radiated by an antenna is obtained by integrating the

radiation intensity over all angles,
ZZ
Prad = U (θ, φ) dΩ ,
where dΩ = sin θ dθ dφ .
• For a given antenna, the average radiation intensity is given by

Z Z
1 Prad
Uave = U (θ, φ) dΩ = .
4π 4π
27
Directivity
• Directivity, D, is the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity to the

average radiation intensity (averaged over all solid angles).
• In essence, we are comparing the antenna to itself rather than to another

antenna.
• We pay a price, though:

– When estimating gain, it is sufficient to characterize radiation intensity
in the direction of interest for both the antenna under test and the
reference antenna.
– When estimating directivity, we must characterize radiation intensity
over all solid angles.
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Directivity, Gain, and Efficiency
• For an antenna which has no conductor or dielectric losses (and which is

100% efficient), directivity and gain are equal.
• Otherwise,
G = ηD
where η is the efficiency of the antenna.
• Return loss, |Γ|2, is a related concept that refers to the fraction of power
lost due to impedance mismatch at the antenna terminals.
• Return loss is not included in the IEEE standard definition of gain because
it is usually included as a separate line item in the system link budget.
29
Calculating Radiated Power
• Recall that the power radiated by an antenna is:
ZZ
P = S(θ, φ) · dS
ZZ
1
= Re (E × H∗) · dS
2
ZZ
1
= Re (Eθ Hφ∗ − EφHθ∗) r2 sin θ dθ dφ
2
where Eθ Hφ∗ is the vertically polarized component and EφHθ∗ is the

horizontally polarized component.
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• We can simplify this by recalling that
Eθ Eφ
Hφ = and Hθ = −
η η
yielding Z Z
1
P = (|Eθ |2 + |Eφ|2) r2 dΩ .
2η
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3.3 Input Impedance
• The input impedance, Zin, of an antenna is the impedance presented by

the antenna at its terminals:
Zin = Rin + jXin .
• The input resistance, which accounts for power dissipated by the antenna,
has two components:
Rin = Rrad + Rohmic .
• The input reactance Xin represents energy stored in the near field of the
antenna.
• In most cases, Rohmic << Rrad.
• This is not necessarily true for electrically small antennas!
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Radiation Resistance and Ohmic Resistance
• Radiation resistance, Rrad, can be estimated by determining Prad using

the techniques outlined in previous sections, then solving the equation
1 2
Prad = |I| Rrad
2
where I is the peak value of the current applied to the antenna terminals.
• The ohmic resistance, RΩ, can be estimated by determining the power

dissipated PΩ using whatever techniques are appropriate for the antenna
geometry in question, then solving the equation
1 2
PΩ = |I| RΩ .
2
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• For the special case of a cylindrical wire, the ohmic resistance, RΩ,
can be estimated by: (1) determining the skin depth in terms of the RF
frequency and material properties of the metal, (2) using this information
to determine the effective cross-sectional area A of the wire (in square
metres), then (3) applying the formula
ρL
RΩ =
A
where ρ is the resistivity of the material in ohm-metres and L is the

length of the wire in metres.
34
Antenna Efficiency
• Antenna efficiency is the ratio of the power actually radiated by the
antenna to the power applied to the input terminals
η = Prad/Pin
• We define Prad, PΩ, and Pin as follows:

1 2
Prad = I Rrad
2
1 2
PΩ = I RΩ
2
Pin = Prad + PΩ .
35
• Therefore, we can also show that if
Prad
η =
Pin
then
Rrad
η =
Rin
Rrad
= .
Rrad + RΩ
36
3.4 Bandwidth
• The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as “the range of frequencies
within which the performance of the antenna, with respect to some
characteristic, conforms to a specified standard.”
• For narrowband antennas (e.g., dipoles), bandwidth is normally expressed
as a fractional bandwidth in percent, i.e.,
∆f
F BW = 100 %.
f0
• For broadband antennas (e.g., horn antennas), bandwidth is normally

expressed as the ratio of the upper to lower frequency, i.e.,
fu
n:1= .
f`
37
• Antennas that have multiple resonances and are usable in different

frequency bands are referred to, naturally, as multi-band antennas.
• Such antennas are in great demand as different services (cellular and

PCS, or ISM 2450 and U-NII band devices) are integrated into a single
device.
• Antennas with extremely large bandwidths are referred to as frequency-

independent antennas. Examples include log-periodic dipole antennas
and spiral antennas.
• Such antennas were originally developed for use in Electronic Warfare

and other applications that require frequency agility over a wide range.
• They are once again in demand as interest in UWB technology grows.
38
3.5 Polarization
• In general, an arbitrarily polarized wave can be decomposed into

components with electric field vectors that point in the vertical and
horizontal directions.
39
• Depending upon the relative amplitude and phase of the two components,
the amplitude and orientation of the electric vector will change over time.
40
Definition of Polarization
• The polarization of an electromagnetic wave refers to the behaviour of
the electric field over time as observed at a fixed point in space.
• In general, the electric field vector will trace an elliptical locus. Special
cases include linear and circular. The shape of the locus, and the
direction in which E is rotating, specify the polarization state of the
wave.
41
Why is Polarization Important?

• Antennas are designed to radiate or receive waves with a particular
polarization state in the direction of maximum radiation intensity.
• If the polarization state of the incident wave and the antenna are different,
a mismatch will occur that we must account for.
• Apart from physically rotating the antenna, reflection (and transmission)
of a wave from (or through) a boundary or complex scatterer can alter
the polarization state of the wave.
• For example, we know that reflection and transmission of electromagnetic
waves from the boundaries between dielectric media is dependent upon
the orientation of the electric field vector.
• The polarization states of the incident, reflected, and transmitted waves
are rarely the same. We need to characterize them in a systematic way.
42
Characterizing the Polarization State of a Wave

• Because the locus traced by the electric field vector is always an ellipse
of some shape and orientation, characterizing the polarization state of a
wave is not difficult.
• An ellipse can always be characterized by a pair of parameters, e.g.,
– its major axis a and minor axis b
– its axial ratio AR and tilt angle τ
– its ellipticity angle and tilt angle τ
– its polarization ratio E1/E2 and phase angle δ
– its polarization angle γ and phase angle δ
• We also need to account for the direction of rotation of the locus, either
right hand (clockwise when the wave is receding from the observer) or left
hand (counterclockwise when the wave is receding from the observer).
43
The Geometry of a Polarization Ellipse
44
The Ellipticity and Tilt Angles

• Visualizing the manner in which polarization state depends upon the
ellipticity and tilt angles is particularly straightforward. Here, the wave
is approaching the observer.
45
Definitions of , τ , γ, and δ
• The axial ratio AR is given by the ratio of the major and minor axes or
a/b where 1 ≤ |AR| ≤ ∞. It is positive for left-hand polarization and
negative for right-hand polarization.
• The ellipticity angle is given by cot−1 ∓AR where −45◦ ≤ ≤ +45◦.
• The tilt angle τ is the angle between the horizontal and the major axis
a where 0◦ ≤ τ ≤ 180◦.
• The polarization ratio is the ratio of the vertical and horizontally polarized
components, E2 and E1, where 0 ≤ E2/E1 ≤ ∞.
• The polarization angle γ is given by tan−1 E2/E1 where 0◦ ≤ γ ≤ 90◦.
• The phase angle δ is the phase difference between E2 and E1 where
−180◦ ≤ δ ≤ +180◦.
46
The Poincaré Sphere
• Both (, τ ) and (γ, δ) are ordered pairs of angles and can be mapped
onto the surface of a Poincaré sphere where 2 = the latitude, 2τ =
the longitude.
47
The Relationship Between , τ , γ, and δ

We can use spherical trigonometry, including the law of cosines, to deduce
the precise relationship between , τ , γ, and δ:
cos 2γ = cos 2 cos 2τ

tan 2
tan δ =
sin 2τ
tan 2τ = tan 2γ cos δ
sin 2 = sin 2γ sin δ
cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A
48
Polarization Mismatch
• In free space, an antenna which presents a particular polarization will

receive nothing if the transmitting antenna (and, as a consequence, the
incident wave) is orthogonally polarized.
• Vertical and horizontal, and left and right circular are special cases of
orthogonal polarizations.
• In the general case, any pair of polarization states which are 180◦ apart
on the Poincaré sphere will be orthogonal.
49
• If we know the polarization vector Ei that describes the relationship

between E2 and E1 for the incident wave and the corresponding vector
Ea for the antenna, the reduction in received power compared to when
the polarization states are identical is given by
Ei · Ea
ρ= .
|Ei| |Ea|
• Alternatively, if the great circle angle between the polarization states is

Ψ, the polarization mismatch factor ρ is given by
ρ = cos2(Ψ/2) .
• The polarization mismatch factor can be included as a line item in the

system link budget.
50
4. The Reciprocity Theorem and Effective Area
• So far, we have assumed in our analyses that that the antenna is

radiating. However, the performance of an antenna when it is used to
receive signals is equally important.
51
• The reciprocity theorem and the concept of effective area are the keys to
understanding the receiving properties of antennas.
• Let’s start by considering the reciprocity theorem for linear, passive,

bilateral two-port networks.
• The transfer impedance V /I will not change when the positions of the
generator and ammeter are interchanged.
• Proof: We generally assume that the generator and ammeter have zero
impedance, but the result also holds if the generator and ammeter have
equal impedances.
• If we make the impedances very large (Z → ∞), what form do the

generator and ammeter take?
• Here, we drive the antenna with a current I, but we measure a voltage

V across the terminals of the receiving antenna.
52
• From the above, if the transmitting and receiving antennas are passive,
and the intervening propagation medium is linear, passive, and isotropic,
the received signal strength is unchanged when the transmitter and
receiver are exchanged
• Thus, we conclude that the transmitting and receiving patterns of an

antenna are identical.
53
Effective Area
• It can be shown that the gain of a radiating aperture containing a uniform

electric field over an area A is
4πA
Ga = .
λ2
• We can use the result to define the effective area Ae of any antenna as
λ2
Ae = ·G.
4π
• What is the significance of Ae?
54
• If a plane electromagnetic wave with power density S (W/m2) is incident

upon a uniform aperture antenna with matching polarization and physical
area A, the power that it receives is
Pr = S · A .
• If we invoke the reciprocity theorem, we can show that an antenna with

gain G will receive G/Ga as much power.
• Thus,
P r = S · Ae .
• We can interpret Ae as the effective collecting area of the antenna during

reception.
55
Interesting Implications
• If the area of the antenna is constant (as in the case of a horn antenna
or reflector antenna) then the gain of the antenna, then the gain of the
antenna will increase with frequency
4πA 4πAf 2
G= = .
λ2 c2
• That is, the radiation pattern of an aperture antenna will become

narrower with increasing frequency.
• If the radiation pattern is fixed (as in the case of a wire antenna), then
the Ae of the antenna will decrease with frequency.
λ2 G c2G
Ae = = .
4π 4πf 2
56
• That is, a wire antenna of given size/length (in wavelengths) will become
less sensitive with increasing frequency.
57
5. Wireless Transmission Systems

• In wireless transmission systems, a transmitting antenna launches a
propagating wave which is intercepted by a receiving antenna some
distance away.
• As engineers, we are quite interested in predicting how much power will
appear at the output port of the receiving antenna relative to the amount
of power applied to the transmitting antenna.
• For the free space or line-of-sight (LOS) cases with no reflections, the
calculation is very straightforward.
• For cases where the path is obstructed (non-line-of-sight or NLOS), there
are multiple propagation paths, or time-varying factors such as weather
or moving objects (people, vehicles) affect transmission along the path,
the calculation is much more involved. (More on this in Module 9 -
Radiowave Propagation!)
58
Path Loss and the Friis Transmission Formula
• The results derived in the previous section allow us to derive an expression

for the power received by a receiving antenna from a transmitting antenna
with both oriented for maximum power transfer and in free space (no
obstructions or reflections).
• The power received over a wireless link under free space conditions is
given by
1
Pr = Pt G t · · Ae
4πr2
2
λ
= Pt · G t · G r · .
4πr
• If either antenna is not aligned for maximum power transfer, Gt or Gr

can be replaced by the gain function G(θ, φ) for the appropriate direction.
59
• We can account for polarization mismatch by resolving the fields into

co-polarized and cross-polarized components.
• The free space path gain is given by
2
λ
Gp = .
4πr
• The free space path loss is given by

2
4πr
Lp = .
λ
• A complete description also accounts for polarization mismatch ρ and

impedance mismatch 1 − |Γ|2.
60
Link Budget
• It is useful to summarize the factors that reduce the power applied at

the transmitter to the power levels observed at the receiver in the form
of a spreadsheet.
• This allows us to assess the effect of trading off different design
parameters on system performance.compare the received power Pr to
the receiver sensitivity Psens.
• Simple link budgets compare the received power Pr to the receiver
sensitivity Psens.
• More complicated link budgets will compare the received power Pr to
the noise power at the receiver input in order to estimate the input
signal-to-noise ratio.
61
A Simple Link Budget for a Wireless LAN
Pt - transmitted power 20 dBm

Lt - cable loss (-)3 dB
Gt - transmit antenna gain 5 dBi
Lp - path loss (-)95 dB
Gr - receive antenna gain 0 dBi
Lr - cable loss (-)3 dB
Pr - received power -76 dBm
Psens - receiver sensitivity -85 dBm
System Margin 9 dB
62
Notes on A Simple Link Budget
• Cable losses are typically between 1 and 10 dB.

• Typical antenna gains include:
0 dBi normal mode helix
2.2 dBi half-wave dipole
15 dBi directional antenna
24 dBi parabolic reflector
• Receiver sensitivity may range from -70 to -120 dBm.

• A reliable link generally requires a margin of at least 10 dB.
• EIRP = Effective Isotropic Radiated Power = Pt Gt.
63
Rayleigh or Far-Field Criterion
• The Friis transmission formula is based upon the assumption that the
wave incident upon the receiving antenna is a plane wave.
• In practice, the waves radiated by antennas are spherical.
• If r (both the separation between the antennas and the radius of

curvature of the spherical wavefront) is sufficiently large, the wave will
be effectively plane.
• How large is sufficient? It depends upon:

– The size of the receiving antenna.
– The variation in phase across the antenna aperture that we can
tolerate.
64
• Assuming that the angle θ is small

d d
θ≈ and δr ≈ θ.
2r 2
• Thus, the additional phase shift δφ encountered at the edge of the
aperture is
2π πd d
δφ ≈ δr = · .
λ λ 2r
65
• The Rayleigh criterion for the transition to an “effectively plane wave”

allows a phase variation across the aperture of the receiving antenna of
45◦ or ±22.5◦.
• This occurs when

r = 2d2/λ.
• In the worst case, if both antennas are of significant extent with

maximum aperture dimensions d1 and d2, respectively, the far-field
criterion becomes
r = 2(d21 + d22)/λ.
• Exercise: Prove this.
66
6. Radar Systems
• The possibility of detecting objects at a distance by measuring radio

waves reflected from them was appreciated soon after Hertz’s pioneering
experiments in the late 1880’s.
• By 1904, Christian Hülsmeyer, a German inventor, had used radio waves
in a (relatively) short-range collision avoidance device for ships.
• By the 1930’s, researchers at the US Naval Research Lab had
demonstrated detection of aircraft using radio waves.
• In 1940, the Chain Home radar system played a decisive role in helping
the British win the Battle of Britain.
• From 1940-1945, the Radiation Lab at MIT was the focus of Anglo-
American efforts to develop microwave radar technology in support of
the war effort.
67
• Together with the cryptology and cryptographic efforts centered at

Bletchley Park and Arlington Hall and development of nuclear weapons
by the Manhattan Project, the development of microwave radar at the
Radiation Lab represents one of the most significant, massive, secret, and
outstandingly successful technological efforts undertaken by the Anglo-
American alliance during the Second World War.
• The development of radar technology created the impetus for developing a
host of technologies, including microwave electronics, spectrum analyzers,
digital signal processing, and minicomputers.
• From the outset, both the military and civilian sectors made great use of
radar in both aeronautical and maritime applications.
• During the last twenty-five years, radar remote sensing (especially
synthetic aperture radar) has emerged as an important method for
mapping the earth’s surface (land, water, and ice), tracking changes in
surface features, and classifying terrain and ground cover.
68
Function and Operation of Radar

Microwave radars function by:
• emitting a train of modulated pulses with a given pulse duration τ , pulse

repetition time T , peak power P , and carrier frequency f0
• detecting the strength of the signal returned by the target and measuring
the time interval between transmission and reception.
69
A Typical Radar
70
Radar Equation
• If the transmitting and receiving antennas are co-located (or one and the
same), the radar is said to be monostatic.
• For a monostatic radar, the time interval ∆t between transmission and
reception of the radar pulse is the round-trip travel time.
• Accordingly, distance to the target d is given by
c ∆t
d=
2
where c = 3 × 108 m/s.

• Exercise: How does the choice of τ and T affect the minimum detection
range and maximum unambiguous range?
71
Radar Range Equation
• The maximum range of a radar is determined the strength of the radar

return compared to the noise floor. Determining the strength of the
radar return is a two-step process.
• The power density S i of the incident wave at the target is given by
Pt Gt
Si = .
4πr2
• Let the effective area or radar cross section of the target be given by σ.
The power incident upon the target Pi is given by
Pt G t σ
Pi = .
4πr2
72
• If we assume that the signal reflected by the target is radiated

isotropically, the power received by the radar is
Pi Aeff
Pr = .
4πr2
• Given that
λ2
Aeff = Gr
4π
and combining the previous expressions yields
λ2 G t G r σ
Pr = Pt .
(4π)3r4
73
Radar Cross Section

• The scattering cross section σ of a target is formally defined as the area
intercepting that amount of power which, when scattered isotropically,
would produce an echo equal to that actually returned by the target.
• Thus,
|Es|2
σ = lim 4πr2
r→∞ |Ei|2
where Ei is the incident electric field, Es is the scattered electric field,
and r is the range at which the scattered field is measured.
• Exercise: Show that this definition is consistent with the derivation on
the previous slides.
• Radar cross section or RCS refers to the portion of the scattering cross
section that is associated with given transmit and receive polarizations.
74
Radar Detection
• The chief problem of radar is to detect targets of interest and estimate

their position and physical characteristics in the presence of interference
from clutter returns and noise.
• For a point target in space, e.g., an aircraft or spacecraft, the maximum
detection range is generally set by the minimum detectable signal-to-
noise ration and can be determined using the radar range equation and
knowledge of the noise characteristics of the radar receiver (see §4.7.)
• For a point target in ground clutter, e.g., a man-made object on the
earth’s surface, the maximum detection range is limited by the target-to-
clutter ratio that is determined by: (1) the RCS of the target and (2) the
radar reflectivity of the terrain and the extent of the terrain illuminated
by the radar beam, i.e., the radar resolution cell.
75
Detection of a Point Target in Clutter
The area of the radar resolution cell may be determined by either: (1) the beamwidth of
the antenna, yielding the elliptical region above, or, if it is sufficiently short, the length of
the radar pulse, yielding the shaded portion of the ellipse.
76
Probabilities of Detection and False Alarm
The strength of the returns from clutters and targets are statistical in nature and are
best described by probability distributions. Once a decision threshold is set, there is a
finite probability that we will detect something that isn’t there (false alarm) or not detect
something that is.
77
Radar Cross Section Enhancement
• It is often necessary to enhance the radar cross section of a cooperative

target, either:
– to increase the maximum range at which the target can be reliably
detected, or,
– to provide a target with a known response which may be used to assist
in radar calibration and performance verification.
• A flat plate with area A has a large RCS
A2
σflat plate = 4π
λ2
at a wavelength λ but acts as a retroreflector only when the angle of

incidence is normal to the plane.
78
• If two flat plates are placed orthogonal to each other, the resulting
dihedral corner reflector will act as a retroreflector for any ray that
strikes the interior and whose angle of incidence falls in the plane that is
normal to both plates.
• If a third flat plate is placed orthogonal to the first two, the resulting
trihedral corner reflector will act as a retroreflector for any ray that
strikes the interior.
• In both cases, the RCS of the corner reflector will have a maximum for
only one angle of incidence.
• At 10 GHz, all of the corner reflectors on the following slide present the
same maximum radar cross section, σ = 4500 m2.
• Those that are physically small have a much smaller RCS beamwidth. A
sphere with the same RCS will have a diameter of over 75 metres.
79
Relative Size of Corner Reflectors with Identical σ
80
7. Noise in Wireless Systems
• Receiving systems must contend with both internally generated noise

and noise that the receiving antenna collects from the surrounding
environment.
• We need to predict the noise developed at the antenna output for two
reasons.
• First, in most communications and radar systems, we must take steps to
ensure that the desired signal is sufficiently above the noise floor.
• Second, in passive remote sensing systems (radiometers), the noise power
is the signal of interest.
• It is convenient to express the noise power at the output of the antenna
in terms of a fictitious antenna temperature.
81
Antenna Temperature
82
Antenna Temperature - 2
• If a resistor has a physical temperature T (K), the noise power developed

at the output over a bandwidth B (Hz) is
PN = k T B
where k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K.
• In the same manner, the antenna temperature TA is a fictitious quantity

that relates the radiation resistance of the antenna to the noise power
developed at the antenna output, i.e.,
PN A = k TA B
83
• The brightness temperature of an object or scene is given by
TB (θ, φ) = (θ, φ)Tphysical
where is the emissivity of the object.

• Neither the brightness temperature of the scene TB (θ, φ) nor the radiation
pattern of the antenna G(θ, φ) are uniform with direction.
• In particular, TB (θ, φ) has two main components: sky noise (TB = 5
K toward the zenith, 100-150 K toward the horizon) and ground noise
(TB ≈ 300 K).
• Accordingly,
Z Z
1 π 2π
TA = TB (θ, φ) G(θ, φ) dΩ
ΩA 0 0
84
where ZZ ZZ
1
ΩA = G(θ, φ) dΩ = |F ((θ, φ)|2 dΩ
Gmax
is the beam solid angle.
• If the temperature of the scene is uniform,
Z π Z 2π
T0 T0
TA = G(θ, φ) dΩ = ΩA = T0 .
ΩA 0 0 ΩA
• For a small discrete source with angular extent Ωs and temperature Ts,
G(θ, φ) ≈ 1 over the source, so
Ωs
TA = Ts .
ΩA
85
System Noise Temperature
• For the purposes of determining the signal-to-noise ratio at the

demodulator or detector, the system noise Psys can be expressed as
Psys = k(Tr + TA)B = k(Tsys)B
where the system noise temperature Tsys is given Tr + TA and the

receiver noise temperature is Tr .
86
• The receiver temperature Tr is related to the noise factor of the receiver,
SNRi
F =
SNRo
by the relation
Tr = 290(F − 1) .
• The noise figure of the receiver is related to the noise factor by 10 log F
(dB).
87
The Figure of Merit G/Tsys
• Consider an antenna used with a satellite earth station.

• If the antenna has high sidelobes in the direction of the earth (e.g.,
due to spillover from the primary feed), then it will pick up substantial
ground noise and have a relatively high TA.
• Conversely, if the antenna has low sidelobes in the direction of the earth,
then it will have a much lower TA.
• A figure of merit often used with satellite earth terminals is G/Tsys,
which is the antenna gain divided by the system noise temperature. It is
usually expressed in dB/K.
• High values of G/Tsys, indicating high antenna gain and low system
noise temperature, are desirable.
88
Summary
We have introduced (or, in some cases, reviewed):
• The advantages of the systems approach to design.
• The nature of isotropic radiators.
• The system-level properties of antennas, including fundamental properties

such as the radiation pattern, gain, input impedance, bandwidth, and
polarization; secondary properties such as directivity, and mechanical
properties.
• Use of the reciprocity theorem and the concept of effective area to reveal
the properties of receiving antennas.
• Use of the Friis transmission equation and link budgets to predict the
performance of wireless transmission systems.
89
• Use of the radar and radar range equations to predict the performance
of radar systems.
• Use of antenna and system noise temperature to characterize noise in
wireless systems
90
References
[1] F. Gross, Smart Antennas for Wireless Communications with

MATLAB. McGraw-Hill, 2005, chap. 2.
[2] C.A. Balanis, Antenna Theory - Analysis and Design, 3rd ed. Wiley,
2005, chap. 2.
[3] W.L. Stutzman and G.A. Thiele, Antenna Theory and Design, 2nd ed.
New York, Wiley, 1998, chaps. 1, 2, 9.
[4] “IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas,” IEEE Std 145-1983.

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1

EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation

• There are considerable differences in the physical realization of antennas

• Those involved in the manufacture and deployment of antennas are

• Such system-level parameters must be carefully designed to form a

1. The Systems Approach

• Because electromagnetic fields are vector fields, it is not possible to

Hairy Ball Theorem

Plane and Solid Angles

• The measure of a plane angle, θ, is the radian.

• Because the circumference of a circle is 2πr, there are 2π rad in a circle.

• The measure of a solid angle, Ω, is the steradian.

• Because the area of a sphere is 4πr2, there are 4π sr in a sphere.

3. The Fundamental Properties of Antennas

• Practical antennas radiate more intensely in some directions than others.

• This implies that directional antennas simply focus power in some

Fundamental Performance Parameters

• From a systems perspective, five performance parameters are

Secondary Performance Parameters

Other Systems-Level Performance Parameters

• Certain mechanical properties may also be considered to be systems-level

3.1 Antenna Radiation Pattern

• The antenna pattern or radiation pattern describes the manner in which

• It can be expressed in the form of a three-dimensional surface in either

• It is more typically expressed in the form of two-dimensional cuts through

• In the case of both directional antennas and omnidirectional antennas,

Plotting Radiation Patterns

• The antenna radiation pattern

• A lobe is the portion of

• The main lobe is the lobe with

• All other lobes are referred to

Alternative Conventions for Plotting Radiation Patterns

• If only a portion of the pattern is of interest, the radiation pattern is

Four Antenna Pattern Plot Types

NSMA Standard Format for the Electronic Transfer of

• Most antenna vendors can supply their products’ antenna patterns in

NSMA File Format Details

• Software for plotting NSMA antenna patterns is available from FCC.

• A UNIX-based version would likely be most welcome!

• The maximum value of G(θ, φ) is conventionally referred to as G, the

Absolute and Relative Gain

• In all cases, gain is determined under free space conditions, i.e., no

U (θ, φ) = Um |F (θ, φ)|2 ,

where |F (θ, φ)| is the normalized power pattern, i.e., |F | = 1 in the

direction θmax, φmax .

• The total power radiated by an antenna is obtained by integrating the

• For a given antenna, the average radiation intensity is given by

• Directivity, D, is the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity to the

• In essence, we are comparing the antenna to itself rather than to another

• We pay a price, though:

Directivity, Gain, and Efficiency

• For an antenna which has no conductor or dielectric losses (and which is

where η is the efficiency of the antenna.

Calculating Radiated Power

• Recall that the power radiated by an antenna is:

where Eθ Hφ∗ is the vertically polarized component and EφHθ∗ is the

• We can simplify this by recalling that

3.3 Input Impedance

• The input impedance, Zin, of an antenna is the impedance presented by

• In most cases, Rohmic << Rrad.

• This is not necessarily true for electrically small antennas!

Radiation Resistance and Ohmic Resistance

The Relationship Between , τ , γ, and δ

cos 2γ = cos 2 cos 2τ

sin 2 = sin 2γ sin δ