RC1 4 Fisico

4 – Physical Layer
Our goals: Overview:

know what is the type of media used to transmit
physical layer in information
charge of
connection of hosts to medium
Know how the physical
layer achieves its how signal is transmitted
duties efficient use of media
specification of a connection
4-1
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Topologies
4.3 Physical Media
4.4 Transmission Techniques
4.5 Multiplexing
4.6 Making Connections
4-2
Introduction
 Physical layer
 Defines the mechanical, electric and functional
characteristics of the interconnection to the physical
media.
 Establishes the interface with the link layer.
 Specifies:
• Transmission media & topology

• Signal details and encoding & decoding
• Generation & extraction of preambles to
synchronize devices
• Transmission & reception of bits
• Connectors and plugs
• Multiplex and modulation
4-3
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Topologies
4.3 Physical Media
4.5 Multiplexing
4-4
Topologies
 Physical arrangement of
stations on medium
 Point to point → two
stations
• such as between two
routers / computers
 Multi point → multiple
stations
• traditionally
mainframe computer
and terminals
• now typically a local
area network (LAN)
4-5
Topologies
4-6
Topologies
 Bus
 All the hosts are connected to an only channel, the bus,
ended in both sides by its characteristic impedance.
 Any host can send info to bus → access algorithm
required to avoid collisions.
 Sent info is broadcasted in both directions to arrive to
all the hosts connected to the bus.
 Malfunction of a host does not affect the other hosts.
4-7
Topologies
 Tree
 Bus generalization
 Allthe main tree branches begin in the same point, the
Headend
 From the main branches, other branches can arise
4-8
Topologies
 Ring
 Hosts distributed along a closed loop
 Each hosts repeats info to the next host
 Info flows only in one direction
 Algorithm to insert info is required
 One of the hosts has to control (monitor) the network
 Malfunction of a host breaks the ring. It can be solved
with a double-ring
4-9
Topologies
 Star
 Each hosts is connected to a central switching node
with a point-to-point link
 Central node controls the network
 Malfunction of a host does not affect the other hosts
 Network throughput limited by central node congestion
 Currently is the most used in the shape of tree-of-
stars 4-10
Topologies
 Cellular
 Wireless communication → antennas required
 Hosts are distributed in a covering area.
 Each covering area depends on a central node (access
point, repeater...)
 Malfunction of a hosts does not affect the other hosts
 Network throughput is limited by congestion of central
node.
 Common in Wi-Fi networks and mobile telephony
4-11
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Topologies
4.3 Physical Media
4.5 Multiplexing
4-12
Physical Media
 Propagate bits between transmitter and receiver pairs
through the physical path between them.
 Physical media can be:
 Guided (wired)
• Simplicity point-to-point
• Energy confined in the medium
• High installation time
• Att ∝ 10kd, with k= f(f) and d≡distance
 Unguided (wireless)
• Limited directivity
• Interferences and multipath
• Shared medium → spectrum regulation
• Quick establishment
• Att ∝ dn, with d≡distance and n≥2 4-13
Physical Media
 Key factors for maximum range and throughput:
 BW
 Attenuation
 Distortion
 Cost
 Interferences
 Crosstalk
 Number of
receivers
4-14
Physical media: overview
4-15
Physical Media: twisted pair
 A pair is made up of two insulated
copper wires, isolated between them
and surrounded by a protective jacket.
 The two wires are twisted.
 They may be...
– Unshielded
– Shielded with a metallic coat to reduce

electromagnetic interferences → it needs more
spaces and is more expensive.
4-16
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
 It is made up of four pairs
of 100 Ω
 Categories are defined in norm EIA/TIA 568
 American norm about
wires is AWG (Ame-
rican Wire Gauge)
 The higher the
identifier number is
the less the diameter
of the wire is.
4-17
Foiled Twisted Pair (FTP or ScTP)
 It is made up of four wire pairs
surrounded by a metallic coat to get protected against
electromagnetic interferences
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

 It is made up of four wire pairs
surrounded by a metallic coat
to get protected against
electromagnetic interferences
 Each pair is also surrounded by a metallic coat
 It is the more robust against interferences
4-18
4-19
 Maximum attenuation (dB) per 100 m...
4-20
Physical Media: coaxial cable
 Made up of a cylindrical copper wire and a concentric
metallic coat separated by an isolating material and
covered by a protective jacket.
 It is bidirectional.
 Two types are commonly used:
– Base band coax of 50 Ω, typical BW 100 MHz
• Thick (RG-11) 5-10 mm Ø, yellow coat
• Thin (RG-58) 5 mm Ø, black coat
– Broad band coax of 75 Ω, typical BW 400
MHz; frequently used in CATV.
4-21
Physical Media: fiber optic cable
 Made up of a cylindrical guide of silica (core), covered
by another concentric layer of silica (coat) and
surrounded by a protective jacket.
 Refraction index of core (n1) is higher than that of
coat (n2) → n1>n2, so that fiber is a wave guide that
carries light pulses (each pulse a bit).
 High-speed operation: typical point-to-point tx 10-100 Gbps
 Low error rate: repeaters spaced far apart; immune to
electromagnetic noise.
4-22
 If n1 is constant in the whole core diameter → step
index fiber; otherwise → graded index fiber.
 Commonly, two types of fibers are used:
– Multimodal (65/125 μm)
– Monomodal (8/125 μm)
4-23
 Furthermore, different regions of the optical spectrum
can be used to minimize the attenuation:
– First window → 850 nm
– Second window → 1300 nm
– Third window → 1550 nm
4-24
Physical Media: comparison of cables
4-25
4-26
4-27
Physical Media: wireless
 Signal carried in electromagnetic
spectrum → no physical “wire”.
 It is bidirectional.
 Radio link types:
– Terrestrial microwave → e.g. up to 45
Mbps channels
– LAN (e.g., Wifi) → 11Mbps, 54 Mbps
– Wide-area (e.g., cellular, 3G) → ~ 1 Mbps
– Satellite → kbps to 45Mbps channel (or
multiple smaller channels), 270 ms end-end
delay, geosynchronous versus low altitude
4-28
Differences from wired link ….
 decreased signal strength: radio signal attenuates as
it propagates through matter (path loss)
 interference from other sources: standardized
wireless network frequencies (e.g., 2.4 GHz) shared
by other devices (e.g., phone, motors) that interfere
 multipath propagation: radio signal reflects off
objects ground, arriving ad destination at slightly
different times
 dispersion of signal: scattering
 mobility of users
…. make communication across

(even a point to point) wireless
link much more “difficult”
4-29
Frequency ranges used in wireless communication:
2 GHz to 40 GHz → Microwave, highly directional,

point to point, satellite
 30 MHz to 1 GHz → Omnidirectional, broadcast
radio
 3 x 1011 Hz to 2 x 1014 Hz → Infrared, local
 Antennas are requires to transmit and receive

information
• Bandwidth, radiation pattern, antenna's
gain, type of antenna
4-30
Terrestrial Microwaves
 Used for long haul telecommunications and short
point-to-point links
 Requires fewer repeaters but line of sight
 Use a parabolic dish to focus a narrow beam
onto a receiver antenna
 1-40 GHz frequencies
 Higher frequencies give higher data rates
 Main source of
loss is attenua-
tion given by
distance, rainfall
and also
interference
4-31
Satellite Microwaves
 Satellite is relay station
 Receives on one frequency, amplifies or repeats
signal and transmits on another frequency
• eg. uplink 5.925-6.425 GHz & downlink 3.7-4.2 GHz
 Typically requires geo-stationary orbit:
• height of 35,784 km, spaced at least 3-4° apart
 Typical uses:
• Television
• Long distance telephone
• Private business networks
• Global positioning
4-32
Broadcast radio
 Range is 3 kHz to 300 GHz
 Use broadcast radio, 30MHz - 1GHz, for:
 FM radio, UHF and VHF television
 Omnidirectional
 Stillneed line of sight
 Suffers from multipath interference
 Reflections from land, water, other objects
4-33
Mobile telephony
4-34
Broadband wireless systems
4-35
 SNR: signal-to-noise ratio 10-1
 larger SNR – easier to 10-2

extract signal from noise (a
“good thing”) 10-3
 SNR versus BER tradeoffs
BER
10-4
 given physical layer:

10-5
increase power -> increase
SNR->decrease BER 10-6
 given SNR: choose physical

10-7
layer that meets BER 10 20 30 40
SNR(dB)
requirement, giving highest
thruput QAM256 (8 Mbps)
• SNR may change with
QAM16 (4 Mbps)
mobility: dynamically adapt
physical layer (modulation BPSK (1 Mbps)
technique, rate)
4-36
4-37
Line-of-sight transmission
 Free space loss → loss of signal with distance
 Atmospheric Absorption from water vapour and
oxygen absorption
 Multipath → multiple interfering signals from
reflections
 Refraction → bending signal away from receiver
4-38
Multiple wireless senders and receivers create
additional problems (beyond multiple access):
A B C
C
A’s signal C’s signal

B strength strength
A
space
Hidden terminal problem
 B, A hear each other Signal attenuation:
 B, C hear each other  B, A hear each other
 A, C can not hear each other  B, C hear each other
 A, C can not hear each other
means A, C unaware of their
interference at B interfering at B
4-39
Physical
Media:
wireless
4-40
4-41
Physical Media: selection criteria
 Cost
– Different types of costs
• Initial cost – what does a particular type of
medium cost to purchase? To install?
• Maintenance / support cost
– ROI (return on investment) – if one medium is
cheaper to purchase and install but is not cost
effective, where are the savings?
 Expandability and distance

– Certain media lend themselves more easily to
expansion
– Don’t forget right-of-way issue
4-42
Physical Media: selection criteria
 Speed
– Two different forms of speed:
• Propagation – time to send first bit across medium
– This speed depends upon the medium
– Airwaves and fiber are speed of light
– Copper wire is two thirds the speed of light
• Data transfer – time to transmit rest of message
– This speed is measured in bits per second
 Environment
– Many types of environments are hazardous to certain
media
 Security
– If data must be secure during transmission, it is
important that the medium not be easy to tap
4-43
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Topologies
4.3 Physical Media
4.5 Multiplexing
4-44
Transmission techniques
 Line-coding and modulation: techniques used to adapt
data, analogical or digital, to the transmission channel
4-45
Transmission techniques: baseband
 Encoded signal is introduced directly to the
transmission medium.
 The whole bandwidth of the medium is used → only one
signal can be transmitted at a time.
 Adequate to short-distance transmissions.
 Interface devices and repeaters are very cheap.
 Non-adequate for environments with high noise level or
electromagnetic interferences.
 Line-codes are used to encode signals.
4-46
Transmission techniques: broadband
 The signal is modulated over an analogical carrier →
several carrier can be transmitted at a time.
 Transmission is unidirectional → two channels required,
one for sending and another for receiving purposes.
 Adequate for interconnection of devices with a high
performance index.
 Interface devices are expensive.
 Two configurations are used
– One cable (split) → two carriers, the low freq.
is the uplink and the high freq. is the downlink;
head-end must apply a frequency conversion.
– Two cables (dual) → two connections, one per
cable, using the same carrier frequency.
4-47
Transmission techniques: broadband
- Split cable - Dual cable
4-48
Transmission techniques:
encoding vs. modulation
4-49
Transmission techniques:
modulation and quatization
4-50
Transmission techniques: line-codes
 Digital data – Digital signals
Assessment:
 Max speed
 Min BER
 Limited spectrum
 No DC / HF
 Self-synchron.
 Immunity to
noise & interf

 Error-detection
 Low cost
 Low complex.
4-51
NRZI (Non Return to Zero Invertive)
 '1' inverts polarity and 0 maintains polarity
 Used in USB, but it inserts an additional '0' bit after 6
consecutive '1' bits
4-52
AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)
 '0' is encoded as 0 V as in unipolar encoding
 '1' is encoded alternately as +V and -V
 Long sequences of zero bits result in no transitions and
a loss of synchronization → pulse-stuffing
 Pseudoternary code is
dual version of AMI
 Improvements made with...
– B8ZS (USA-T1)
– B6ZS (USA-T2)
– B3ZS (USA-T3)
– HDB3 (E-carrier)
4-53
Scrambling
 Replace sequences that
produce constant voltage
 These filling sequences
must produce enough
transitions to sync, be
recognized by receiver &
replaced with original, be
same length as original
 Design goals: no DC compo-
nent, no long sequences of
null line signal, no reduc-
tion in data rate, give
error detection capability
4-54
Manchester
 '1' is represented by high level between 0-T/2 and by
low level between T/2-T
 '0' is represented by low level between 0-T/2 and by
high level between T/2-T
 Idle state is represented by a continuous high level
 In any tx there is always zero-mean level and mid
transitions help extracting synchronism of signal
 Used in IEEE-802.3 (ethernet) and RFID
4-55
Differential Manchester
 There is always a transition at t=T/2 for '1' and '0'
values
 There is also another transition at t=0 for '0' value
 There is not transition at t=0 for '1' value
 Used in IEEE-802.5 (token ring)
4-56
4B/5B
 Maps the 16 possible values of 4-bit groups (4B) to a
subset of 16 codes of 5-bit groups (5B) within the 32
possible codes
 Each group of 5 bits is chosen so that there will be at
least two transitions per group
 The unused characters can actually be used to detect
errors in the data stream or to send control sequences
 Used in 'Fiber distributed data interface' (FDDI) and
in IEEE-802.3u (100BASE-TX)
4-57
4B/5B
4-58
MLT-3 (Multi-Level Threshold-3)
 It alternates 3 voltage levels cyclically
 Each bit is codified with a presence
or absence of transition
– '1' changes voltage level to
the next level
– '0' maintains voltage level
4-59
8B/6T
 It is a ternary code (+V, 0, -V)
 Data to transmit is grouped in 8-bit blocks
 Each 8-bit block is mapped to a group of 6 ternary
symbols
 Each ternary group is transmitted round-robin over 3
different channels
 Used in Ethernet 100-Base-T4
4-60
Portion of
the 8B/6T
encoding
table
4-61
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Topologies
4.3 Physical Media
4.5 Multiplexing
4-62
Multiplexing
 Under simplest conditions, medium can carry only one
signal at any moment in time
 For multiple signals to share a medium, medium must
somehow be divided, giving each signal a portion of the
total bandwidth
 The multiplexor is attached to a high-speed comm. line
 A corresponding multiplexor, or demultiplexor, is on
the end of the high-speed line and separates the
multiplexed signals
 Current techniques include:
– Frequency/Wavelength division multiplexing
– Time division multiplexing
– Code division multiplexing
4-63
Multiplexing
FDM – Frequency Division Multiplexing
 Assignment of non-overlapping frequency ranges to
each “user” or signal on a medium
 Thus, all signals are transmitted at the same time,
each using different frequencies
 A multiplexor accepts inputs and assigns frequencies to
each device
4-64
Multiplexing
FDM – Frequency Division Multiplexing
 Analog signaling is used in older systems; discrete
analog signals in more recent systems
 Broadcast radio and television, cable television, and
cellular telephone systems use frequency division mux.
 This technique is the oldest multiplexing technique
 Since it involves a
certain level of analog
signaling, it may be
susceptible to noise
4-65
Multiplexing
WDM – Wavelength Division Multiplexing
 Wavelength division multiplexing multiplexes multiple
data streams onto a single fiber-optic line
 Different wavelength lasers (called lambdas) transmit
the multiple signals
 Each signal carried on the fiber can be transmitted at
a different rate from
the other signals
 Dense wavelength division
multiplexing combines
many (30, 40, 50 or
more) onto one fiber
4-66
Multiplexing
TDM – Time Division Multiplexing
 Sharing of the signal is accomplished by dividing
available transmission time on a medium among users
 Digital signaling is used exclusively
 Time division multiplexing comes in two basic forms:
– Synchronous time division multiplexing
– Statistical time division multiplexing
4-67
Multiplexing
SyTDM – Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
 The original time division multiplexing
 The multiplexor accepts input from attached devices in
a round-robin fashion and transmits the data in a never
-ending pattern
 T-1 and SONET telephone systems are common
examples of synchronous time division multiplexing
4-68
Multiplexing
SyTDM – Synchronous Time
Division Multiplexing
 If one device generates
data at faster rate than
other devices, then the
multiplexor must either sample the incoming data
stream from that device more often than to the
others, or buffer the faster incoming stream
 So that the receiver may stay synchronized with the
incoming data stream, the transmitting multiplexor can
insert alternating 1s and 0s into the data stream
4-69
Multiplexing
 If a device has nothing to transmit, the multiplexor
must still insert something into the multiplexed stream
4-70
Multiplexing
 The T-1 multiplexor stream is a continuous series of
frames
 Note how each frame contains the data (one byte) for
potentially 24 voice-grade telephone lines, plus one
sync bit
 It is possible to combine all 24 channels into one
channel for a total of 1.544 Mbps
4-71
Multiplexing
 Similar to T-1, SONET incorporates a continuous
series of frames
 SONET is used for high-speed data transmission
 Telephone companies have traditionally used a lot of
SONET but this may be giving way to other high-speed
transmission services
 SDH is the European equivalent to SONET
4-72
Multiplexing
StTDM – Statistical Time Division Multiplexing
 A statistical multiplexor transmits the data from
active workstations only
 If a workstation is not active, no space is wasted in the
multiplexed stream
 A statistical multi-
plexor accepts the
incoming data
streams and
creates a frame
containing the data
to be transmitted
4-73
Multiplexing
StTDM – Statistical Time Division Multiplexing
 To identify each piece of data, an address is included
 If the data is of variable size, a length is also included
 More precisely, the

transmitted frame
contains a collection of
data groups
4-74
Multiplexing
CDM – Code Division Multiplexing
 Also known as code division multiple access (CDMA)
 An advanced technique that allows multiple devices to
transmit on the same frequencies at the same time
 Each mobile device is assigned a unique 64-bit code
 To send a binary 1, a mobile device transmits the code
 To send a binary 0, a mobile device transmits the
inverse of the code
 To send nothing, a mobile device transmits zeros
 Receiver gets summed signal, multiplies it by receiver
code, adds up the resulting values
– Interprets as a binary 1 if sum is near +64
– Interprets as a binary 0 if sum is near -64
4-75
Multiplexing: comparison
4-76
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Topologies
4.3 Physical Media
4.5 Multiplexing
4-77
Making connections
 Classify data exchange as:
– Simplex (one-way)
• just one-way transmission available
– Half duplex (two-way alternate)
• only one station may transmit at a time
• requires one data path
– Full duplex (two-way simultaneous)
• simultaneous transmission and reception
between two stations
• requires two data paths
• separate media or frequencies used for
each direction or echo cancelling
4-78
Making connections
 Timing problems require a mechanism to synchronize
the transmitter and receiver:
– receiver samples stream at bit intervals
– if clocks not aligned and drifting will sample at
wrong time after sufficient bits are sent
 Three solutions to synchronizing clocks:
– asynchronous transmission
– synchronous transmission
– isochronous transmission
4-79
Making connections
Asynchronous Transmission
 A type of connection defined at the data link layer
 To transmit data from Tx to Rx, an asynchronous
connection creates a one-character package → a frame
 Added to the front of the frame is a start bit, while a
stop bit is added to the end of the frame
 Optional parity bit can be added to detect errors
 It is simple
and cheap
 Overhead of 2 or
3 bits per char
 Good for data with
large gaps
4-80
Making connections
Asynchronous
Transmission
 Asynchronous
connections
maintain
synchronization
by using small
frames with a
leading start
bit
4-81
Making connections
Synchronous Transmission
 A synchronous connection creates a large frame that
consists of header and trailer flags (to indicate start &
end of block), control information, optional address
information, error detection code, and data
 A synchr. connection is more elaborate but transfers
data in a more efficient manner (less overhead)
 Clocks must be synchronized
– can use separate clock line
– or embed clock signal in data
4-82
Making connections
Isochronous Transmission
 A third type of connection defined at the data link
layer used to support real-time applications
 Data must be delivered at just the right speed (real-
time) – not too fast and not too slow
 Typically an isochronous connection must allocate
resources on both ends to maintain real-time
 USB and Firewire can both support isochronous
4-83
Making connections
Hardware interface
 The process of providing all the proper interconnec-
tions between a computer and a peripheral or link is
called interfacing
 Connecting a device such as a modem (or DCE - data
circuit-terminating equipment or data communicating
equipment) to a computer (or DTE - data terminal
equipment).
 The connections between the DTE and DCE are the
interchange circuits.
4-84
Making connections
Hardware interface
 There are four possible components to an interface std:
– Electrical component: deals with voltages, line
capacitance, and other electrical characteristics
– Mechanical component: deals with items such as
the connector or plug description
– Functional component: describes the function of
each pin or circuit that is used in a particular
interface
– Procedural component: describes how the
particular circuits are used to perform an
operation
4-85
Making connections
Hardware interface: USB
 The USB (Universal Serial Bus) interface is a modern
standard for interconnecting a wide range of peripheral
devices to computers
 Supports plug & play and can daisy-chain multiple devices
 USB 1.0 → 12 Mbps; 2.0 → 480 Mbps; 3.0 → 4.8 Gbps
4-86
Making connections
Hardware interface: USB
 The USB interface defines all four components
– The electrical component defines two wires
VBUS and Ground to carry a 5-volt signal, while
the D+ and D- wires carry the data and signaling
information
– The mechanical component precisely defines the
size of four different connectors and uses only
four wires (the metal shell counts as one more
connector)
– The functional and procedural components are
fairly complex but are based on the polled bus
– The computer takes turns asking each peripheral
if it has anything to send 4-87

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4 – Physical Layer

Our goals: Overview:

• Transmission media & topology

– Shielded with a metallic coat to reduce

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

…. make communication across

2 GHz to 40 GHz → Microwave, highly directional,

 Antennas are requires to transmit and receive

 larger SNR – easier to 10-2

 SNR versus BER tradeoffs

 given physical layer:

 given SNR: choose physical

A’s signal C’s signal

 Expandability and distance

noise & interf

 If the data is of variable size, a length is also included

 More precisely, the

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