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A. Pop
Cameco Corporation Rabbit Lake Mine Site, Collins Bay, Canada
ABSTRACT: Many factors simultaneously influence stability and dilution in open stopes. This makes it diffi-
cult to assess the effect of individual changes to the rock mass condition or mining activity. Hangingwall stability
is being studied at the Rabbit Lake Mine in Northern Saskatchewan. The influence of the rock mass condition,
overall stope geometry and mining factors such as cable support are considered in this paper. Detailed analysis of
3-D stope survey data is used to accurately reflect the degree of instability for a given opening geometry, stress
and rock mass condition. This stope survey data is coupled with detailed geology data to assess the influence
of changing rock mass conditions away from the opening surface. This paper outlines an approach for gaining
a better understanding of the factors influencing dilution based on detailed assessments of individual stopes,
rather than a statistical assessment of many factors from a large data base of case histories.
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clay or ‘argillization’, pyritization, hematization,
carbonate ± quartz veins, quartz veins, sericitization
and chloritization may be present in the ore zone in
various different combinations. The alteration is typi-
cally confined to within 5 metres in the hangingwall of
the ore zone, but can extend up to 20 metres into the
hangingwall of high-grade mineralization, localized
around multiple fault intersections.
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Figure 4. Cross section depicting the two angles that may
Figure 2. Typical cross section of a stope showing the drift potentially be used to calculate the gravity reduction factor, C.
outline, planned blast outline, cable bolts, results of the cavity
monitoring survey (CMS), and geological structures. 3.4 Modified Stability Number (N’) calculation
There are many separate factors which contribute to
the calculation of the Modified Stability Number. The
first term, Q , includes rock quality designation, num-
ber of joint sets, joint roughness, joint alteration, and
joint water condition. As previously mentioned, there
is limited access and limited time to gather geotechni-
cal information for a stope. Data from diamond drill
core provides several of the Q factors, while others,
such as large scale roughness and joint water condition
may be gathered or inferred from geological mapping
and observations.
The joint orientation factor, B, may change as the dip
of the hangingwall changes. The B value may be aver-
aged for the entire mining lens, or it may be assessed
for an individually stope.
The gravity reduction factor, C, is another diffi-
Figure 3. Three potential measurements to calculate the cult parameter to quantify. As shown in Figure 4, the
hydraulic radius of the stope. angle used to calculate C depends on whether the
stope design angle is used, or the overall stope angle
as measured from the top of the overcut to the bot-
The first option is to assume the cable bolting will tom of the undercut. For stopes that have a larger lift
not affect the interpretation of the opening geome- height, the difference in the angles is negligible. But for
try. The support installed is effectively ignored and stopes with shallow-dipping hangingwalls, or shorter
the drift openings and hangingwall are treated as one lift heights, the difference can be significant.
continuous surface.
The second option is to assume the support installed
provides some stability, but not as much as solid, 3.5 Other contributing factors
undisturbed rock. This method assumes a hangingwall There are other factors that influence the amount of
height measured from the middle of the overcut to the stope dilution. It has been shown that the amount of
middle of the undercut. time a stope is left open can significantly influence the
The third option is to assume the cable bolting pro- amount of dilution that is produced (Wang et al. 2003).
vides sufficient support to treat the drift as solid rock. The Cavity Monitoring Survey (CMS) has been
The hangingwall height is then assumed to be from used to quantify the amount of stope dilution (Mah
the bottom of the overcut to the top of the undercut. 1997). One drawback to relying on the CMS method
This approach is taken by Hoek et al. (1995) where it for measuring dilution is the presence of shadows,
is suggested that cable support from stope sub-levels which makes it difficult to accurately assess the
will create a stable ‘buttress’ at each drift. amount of hangingwall dilution.
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Table 1. Correlation between the R1/R3 and A1/A7 geology Table 2. Hangingwall condition.
system and Q’ classification systems (Sutton 1998).
Stope 200-045 data Stability graph data
Rock stregnth
HW stress Hangingwall is relaxed
Alteration R1 R2 R3 condition A = 1.0
A1 N/A N/A 22 Orientation of Major jointing makes an angle of
A3 N/A 3.8 11 structure about 10◦ to the hangingwall
A5 1.2 2.5 8.3 B = 0.2
A7 0.4 2 3.8 Hangingwall Hangingwall dips at an average of 47◦
orientation C = 8 − 6 cos θ = 3.9
Hangingwall Stope strike length = 32 m
There is no direct method to adjust the stability num- geometry
ber N’ to account for discrete features such as faults, Stope up-dip Top of overcut to bottom of
shears or weak zones with a strong degree of alter- length undercut
ation (Potvin & Milne 1992). Work has been done to Length = 21 m
account for the influence of discrete features such as Centre of overcut to centre of
faults by quantifying the influence of these features undercut
on the induced stresses around openings (Suorineni Length = 18 m
Designed hangingwall
et al. 1999). There has been limited work validating
Length = 13.5 m
this approach through case histories.
Hydraulic Top of overcut to bottom of
Radius undercut
3.6 Current rock mechanics approach (32 m)(21 m)
HR = = 6.3 m
2(32 m + 21 m)
Rock mechanics data has been gathered predominantly Centre of overcut to centre of
by the geology staff at the mine. The primary goal undercut
of mapping by the geology staff has, of course, been (32 m)(18 m)
HR = = 5.8 m
focused on following the ore for stope development. 2(32 m + 18 m)
In 1997 a study was conducted by Sutton (1998) Designed hangingwall
to link stope stability to the rock strength / alteration (32 m)(13.5 m)
HR = = 4.7 m
assessment developed by the geology staff. Avail- 2(32 m + 13.5 m)
able exposures were assessed into the alteration and
strength categories and were also mapped for rock
mechanics classification purposes.
The mine currently uses the classification system 1997). The stope properties for Stability Number N’
based on the alteration and strength of the rock. The and Hydraulic Radius calculation are summarized in
R series consists of three separate categories of rock Table 2 (Potvin 1988). As an initial assessment, the
strength, with R1 being very weak rock, and R3 being drift mapping data in Figure 5 indicates an A5/R2
relatively strong rock. The A series consists of four alteration/strength rating, which suggests a Q’ value of
separate categories for alteration, with A1 being fresh 2.5 which allows for the following Stability Number
rock, to A7 being strongly altered. Sutton’s corre- calculation:
lation between the Q’ rock mechanics classification
system and the geology assessment of R1 to R3 and
A1 to A7 rock types is applied to stope stability and is
As shown in Figure 6, the modified stability graph
summarized in Table 1.
predicted more dilution than was measured using the
The hangingwall hydraulic radius for supported
cavity monitoring survey. Although the influence of
overcuts and undercuts is currently being assessed by
shadows caused by bends in the hangingwall for the
taking the up-dip extent of the stopes to the centre of
rings closer to the slot may have shown less dilution
the supported sub levels. The dip of the stope hang-
than actually occurred, it is believed that the aver-
ingwall is being taken as angle at an average of 47◦ .
age dilution for the stope was still not more than 0.5
metres. This indicates that the method and parameters
that were used to predict the dilution were pessimistic
4 SAMPLE CASE STUDY
in this particular case.
Upon inclusion of detailed core logging data as
4.1 Dilution prediction
shown in Figure 7, it appears that the stope sloughed
The dilution graph has been used for an initial interpre- to a geological contact that was not apparent in the
tation of the hangingwall dilution (Clark & Pakalnis geological drift mapping. The cross section shows
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Figure 5. Plan view showing stope 200-045 layout and geological mapping of the overcut and undercut drifts.
the geological back mapping as well as one of the As discussed, there are many individual factors that
exploration drillholes. The lithology, rock quality des- can influence the hangingwall stability. The complex
ignation, and degree of alteration are shown on the sec- interaction of these factors makes it difficult to predict
tion. During the core logging process, the alteration is the hangingwall behavior. In addition to the factors that
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Figure 7. Stope cross-section showing where the hangingwall sloughed to a geological contact.
have been previously identified, there is the issue of Nickson, S. 1992. Cable support guidelines for underground
complex geology to be considered. hard rock mine operations. M.A.Sc. thesis, University of
More research and analysis are required to better British Columbia, 223 pp.
quantify all of these factors. Further study is currently Piteau, D.R. 1973. Characterising and extrapolating rock joint
properties in engineering practice. Rock Mechanics 2:
being conducted to investigate the effects of complex 5–31.
geology and develop a method of dilution prediction Potvin,Y. 1988. Empirical open stope design in Canada. Ph.D.
from exploration core data. thesis, University of British Columbia, 350 pp.
Potvin,Y., Hudyma, M. & Miller, H. 1988. Design guidelines
for open stope support. CIM Bulletin, June.
REFERENCES Potvin, Y. & Milne D. 1992. Empirical cable bolt sup-
port design. In Proceedings Rock Support in Mining
Capes, G., Milne, D. & Grant, D. 2005. Stope hanging- and Underground Construction. Rotterdam: Balkema, pp.
wall design approaches at the Xstrata Zinc, George 269–275.
Fisher Mine, North Queensland, Australia. In U.S. Rock Suorineni, F., Tannant, D. & Kaiser, P. 1999. Fault factor for
Mechanics Symposium, Fairbanks. the stability graph method of open stope design. Trans.
Clark, L. & Pakalnis, R. 1997. An empirical design approach Instn Min. Metall. (Sect A: Min. Industry) 108.
for estimating unplanned dilution from open stope hang- Sutton, D.A. 1998. Use of the Modified Stability Graph
ingwalls and footwalls. In CIM AGM, Calgary. to predict stope instability and dilution at Rabbit Lake
Dishaw, G.R. 2005. Rabbit Lake Operation: Canada’s longest Mine, Saskatchewan. University of Saskatchewan Design
operating uranium mine – 30 years and still glowing. Project, Canada.
CIM-AGM, Toronto. Wang, J., Milne, D., Yao, M., Allen, G. & Capes, G. 2003.
Hoek, E., Kaiser, P. & Bawden, W. 1995. Support of Under- Open stope exposure time and stope dilution. In CIM
ground Excavations in Hard Rock. Rotterdam: Balkema, AGM, Montreal.
pp. 215.
Mah, S. 1997. Quantification and Prediction of Wall Slough
in Open Stope Mining Methods. MASc Thesis, University
of British Columbia, 290 pp.
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